Disavowed: The stories of two novice teachers

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Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1317–1332

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Disavowed: The stories of two novice teachers$

Lisa Scherff�,1

College of Education, University of Alabama, Box 870232, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0232, USA

Received 20 July 2006; received in revised form 25 May 2007; accepted 4 June 2007

Abstract

This case study used narrative inquiry to explore two novice English teachers’ experiences in the classroom and factors

that caused them to leave the profession. Participants were one male and one female located in two southeastern (US)

states. Data include transcripts of e-mails, spanning a 17-month period, between the participants and researcher and

individual audio-taped interviews conducted by the researcher in May 2005. The teachers’ narratives of disavowal reinforce

the need for strengthening induction and mentoring programs, as well as the fostering of caring, healthy work

environments.

Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Teacher identity; Teacher induction; Teacher reflection; Teacher alienation

Disavowed: the stories of two novice teachers

Should I stay or should I go now?

Should I stay or should I go now?

If I go there will be trouble

An’ if I stay it will be double

So come on and let me know

This indecision’s bugging me

If you don’t want me, set me free

Exactly who’m I’m supposed to be

Don’t you know which clothes even fit me?

ee front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd.

te.2007.06.002

f this paper was presented at the annual meeting

n Educational Research Association, San Fran-

06. The research was partially funded by the

ennessee.

5 348 5872; fax: +1 205 348 9863.

ess: [email protected]

wishes to thank Luke Paiva for letting her use his

is contributions during the revision process.

Come on and let me know

Should I cool it or should I blow?

The lyrics above, taken from the British rockgroup The Clash’s song ‘‘Should I Stay or Should IGo?’’ came to mind after reading a troubling e-mailfrom one of my former students, Lizzie. Afteraccepting a teaching position a few weeks into theschool year at a high school serving high-povertystudents, she soon realized why the three teachersbefore her quit so quickly: students were out ofcontrol, teachers were isolated and antagonistic,and the administration blamed teachers for stu-dents’ academic and social shortcomings. Lizzie,miserable in a situation where she lacked supportand felt unsuccessful as a teacher, began to questionher worthiness as a person. She had always wantedto be a teacher, investing thousands of dollars tocomplete her graduate-level teacher educationprogram. Quitting would be like turning her back

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dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.06.002

mailto:[email protected]

ARTICLE IN PRESSL. Scherff / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1317–13321318

on her students and herself. While she has not leftthe profession, Lizzie (as of April 2006) is consider-ing other career options. Out of a group of 12master’s-level English education teacher candidatesthat I began studying shortly after their graduationin 2004 (Scherff & Kaplan, 2006; Scherff, Ollis, &Rosencrans, 2006), three left teaching vowing neverto return and several others are seriously consider-ing other career paths.2

A ‘‘perfect storm’’ is brewing, one with potentialto undermine the quality of our country’s schoolsand negatively affect the future of its students:massive retirements by veteran teachers, the require-ments of No Child Left Behind, the loss of potentialteachers to other careers, and high attrition rates ofnew teachers (Johnson & Donaldson, 2004, p. 14).This last factor—the exodus of new teachers—is ofparticular interest to those responsible for theirpreparation and induction. If the time and moneythat pre-service teachers invest in their education is,essentially, thrown out after 1 or 2 years in theclassroom, then those are wasted resources indeed.Teacher educators, to address this crisis, mightbegin to examine the conditions their graduates facein the first year(s) of teaching. Solutions arenecessary to better prepare them to negotiate thepolitical environment of schools and feel competentas teachers in order to, ultimately, help them remainin the classroom. This point is addressed in thepresent paper. Specifically, in order to gain insightsinto the conflict between their imagined and livedexperiences as classroom teachers, this articlereports on a study of two novice teachers, Lukeand Toni,3 who left the profession early in theircareers. Their stories are not new, nor are theyisolated; however, these two aspects are preciselywhy their tales are worth sharing. Despite what thefield knows about induction, teaching conditions fornovice teachers do not seem to be improving and theattrition rate is not being lowered.

The purpose of this case study was to chroniclethe stories of two specific teacher educationgraduates who entered and left the teaching profes-

2As of August 2006, three teachers (Lizzie, Luke, and Toni) left

teaching for good; one more took maternity leave; one did not

have her contract renewed; another quit and returned after a year

away from the profession; two of the teachers changed schools

once; of the remaining four, three are still teaching in the same

school as where they began (two are returning to graduate school

in order to get out of the classroom).3Luke requested that his real name be used; Toni is a

pseudonym.

sion shortly after beginning their careers—examin-ing their lived experiences (Van Maanen, 1990). Theprimary objective of this case study was a betterunderstanding of novice teachers’ initial years ofteaching in order to discern the reasons behind theirdiscontent and self-doubt. As the ultimate objectiveis to inform teacher educators, school administra-tors, and new teachers, the following researchquestions were of interest: (1) How did theprofessional, social, and emotional factors of theirschools influence Luke and Toni’s decision to leavethe profession? And (2) What support mechanisms(mentors, professional development, etc.) couldtheir schools have provided for them in order tomake them stay?

1. Theoretical framework

This section begins with a review of the relation-ship between school culture and organization withthe novice teachers’ level of satisfaction and self-efficacy. Next, data on teacher attrition and asynopsis of the research on induction and mentoringare presented. A summary of the importance ofincorporating narratives in teacher education re-search concludes the discussion.

1.1. School culture and socialization

Research has examined the social organization ofschools, school structure, prevailing ideology, andthe cumulative effect on teachers in general, but ithas yet to focus on the problems of first-yearteachers as symbolic of what is organically wrong inthe field of teaching (see, for example, Fullan, 1992;Goodlad, 1984; Lortie, 1975; Weiss, 1999). In fact,many difficulties that novice teachers encounterstem mainly from their need—or inability—toadjust to the organizational norms of the schooland to its stakeholders (parents, students, commu-nity, etc.) (Shulman, 1987). All schools are posi-tioned with their own histories that exist beforeteachers come to them (Craig, 1999) and newteachers must immediately engage in discourse andmediate behavior(s) in both the macro- and micro-contexts already established (Rex & Nelson, 2004).Some schools, for instance, have negative cultureswith toxic customs and values that hamper teachingand learning. Such unhealthy schools lack a clearsense of purpose, have routines that reinforceapathy, discourage collaboration, and even havefaculty and staff that are outwardly hostile toward

ARTICLE IN PRESSL. Scherff / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1317–1332 1319

each other (Peterson, 2002). Conversely, Hoy,Tarter, and Woolfolk Hoy (2006) explain that a‘‘strong sense of collective efficacy’’—the belief byteachers that an entire faculty can coordinate andcarry out the actions necessary to have positiveeffects on students (Goddard, Hoy, & WoolfolkHoy, 2004)—‘‘in a school creates a powerful set ofnorms and behavioral expectations that reinforcethe self-efficacy of teachers’’ (p. 430). In essence,teacher culture can protect teachers from thedifficulties of the job (Pollard, 1982).

Two factors, the effect of a school’s milieu andthe individual occurrences during pre-service educa-tion, are critical variables to discuss when assessingearly teaching experiences (Flores & Day, 2006).One challenge frequently involves students reconcil-ing the pedagogy they learnt in their universitycoursework with the realities of teaching. Beginningeducators also enter the profession from teachereducation programs where there is often freedom tomake decisions, climates that are open to dialogueand collaboration, and working conditions tonurture personal relationships. Once in schools,new teachers often encounter a set of norms andbehaviors that clash with their experiences (Feiman-Nemser & Buchman, 1987; Flores & Day, 2006;Sabar, 2004). Novice teachers, as a result, engage ina struggle trying to create their own social realitiesby ‘‘attempting to make their work match theirpersonal vision of how it should be, whilst at thesame time being subjected to the powerful socializ-ing forces of the school culture’’ (Day, 1999, p. 59).

In her analysis of a nationwide sample ofbeginning teachers, Weiss (1999) found that theirviews of the social organization of their schools(including leadership and culture) were the variablesmost closely associated with morale, career choicecommitment, and planned retention. As an exam-ple, teachers who have completed 1-year internshipsin schools that are structurally responsive to theirneeds are more predisposed to feel the harmfulimpact of non-collaborative cultures or unsuppor-tive school leadership (Weiss, 1999). ‘‘Without somebasic understanding of the organizational life ofschools y beginning teachers may be ill-equippedto deal with the problems and difficulties theyencounter or develop the political tactics andteaching strategies needed to resist’’ (Kuzmic,1994, p. 24). Despite what is known, there aremany unanswered questions regarding the effects oforganizational learning (teacher perceptions of thedegree of support toward teaching and learning) on

teacher self-efficacy (Tobin, Muller, & Turner,2006). If new teachers cannot learn to work in theschool environment or with their colleagues, teach-ing students or their subject matter may not beenough to keep them satisfied and they will eitherbecome disengaged from their work, changeschools, or leave the profession entirely.

1.2. Teacher attrition

Novice teachers repeatedly cite the first years inthe classroom as unsupportive and lonely, withfeelings of isolation and being overwhelmed con-tributing to the high percentage leaving the profes-sion. Twenty-five percent of beginning teachers donot stay in the classroom more than 2 years (Gold,1996) and nearly 50 percent will quit within thefirst 5 years (Ingersoll, 2003). Most new teachersabandon the job unhappy with low salaries, studentdiscipline problems, lack of parental and adminis-trative support, unhealthy working conditions,inadequate preparation for the work, and fewopportunities to participate in decision-making(Andrews & Martin, 2003; Cochran-Smith, 2004;Darling-Hammond, 2003; Hirsch, 2006; Ingersoll,2003, 2004; Kent, 2000; Liu & Meyer, 2005). Theinitial years in the classroom, in particular, can be acritical part of a teacher’s career, having long-termimplications for job satisfaction and career length(Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Hebert & Worthy, 2001;Lortie, 1975; McDonald, 1980).

Others leave prematurely because they neverintended to remain in teaching long term. Becausetoday’s work environment is much different andimproved from what it was 30 years ago, offering aplethora of career possibilities—jobs with highstatus and pay, productive work environments,and chances for promotion to high levels—manypotential teachers many not necessarily chooseteaching. In addition, ‘‘serial careers are the norm,and short-term employment is common’’ (Johnson& Birkeland, 2003, p. 585). As a consequence,nearly half of novice K-12 teachers do not remain intheir schools long enough to make the transforma-tion from beginning to proficient levels (Berliner,1998; Gay, 2000; Howey, 2000). This trend hasexpensive outcomes, both visibly and intangibly.Teacher turnover costs some states hundreds ofmillions of dollars per year (Alliance for ExcellentEducation, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2003; Futernick,2007) and many children do not receive instructionfrom experienced teachers.


Research identifies another cause for teacherexodus in the US: the accountability associatedwith No Child Left Behind (NCLB). In a recentstudy, over 55% of public school teachers surveyedindicated an overemphasis on student testing as areason influencing their decision to leave theprofession (Hirsch, 2006). Similarly, Sunderman,Tracey, Kim, and Orfield (2004) found that ‘‘manyof the teachers in schools that were identified asneeding improvement do not plan to be teaching inthem five years in the future y [and] also believedthat the NCLB sanctions would cause teachers totransfer out of schools not making adequateprogress’’ (2004, p. 3). The ever-increasing emphasison raising test scores only further depletes resourcesfrom other foci, such as time for planned andsustained induction and mentoring activities.

1.3. Induction and mentoring

Researchers (e.g., Darling-Hammond, 2003;Feiman-Nemser, 1983, 1996; Gold, 1996; Johnson,2004; Rippon & Martin, 2006) note that one way toreduce the attrition rate is through supportiveinduction and mentoring programs. Teacher induc-tion programs are not necessarily extra training, butare planned agendas for teachers who have alreadycompleted basic preparation. Such programs areconsidered a bridge, enabling the ‘‘student ofteaching’’ to become a ‘‘teacher of students’’ (Smith& Ingersoll, 2004, p. 683). However, their depth andbreadth differ widely. Induction can range from asingle orientation held before the start of the schoolyear to a series of scheduled activities and sessionslasting several years. Some programs are schoolbased, while others are state adopted. Additionally,while some programs have few requirements, othersinsist on novices completing workshops (technol-ogy, discipline, etc.), creating portfolios, taking partin online discussions, and attending district-basedmeetings at the same time they are attempting tonavigate the first year in the classroom.

Mentoring, personal support for novices fromexperts, one aspect of induction, has become theleading form of teacher induction (Ingersoll &Smith, 2004). Although the overarching goal is toprovide beginning teachers with an experiencedguide, as with induction programs, mentoring canlook decidedly different from school to school.Mentoring programs differ according to their timeand intensity (a single meeting or prolongedconversations); the number of new teachers they

serve (all teachers new to a school or just those intheir first year of teaching); their purpose (develop-mental or assessment); and their treatment ofmentors (matched by subject area, trained or not,compensated for their service, etc.) (Ingersoll &Smith, 2004). Still, there are recommendations foreffective mentoring: structured programs, mentortraining, release time for mentors, common plan-ning time with novices, etc. (Darling-Hammond,2003; Feiman-Nemser, 1996; Holloway, 2001).Effective mentoring combines the professional—observing, evaluating, and advising—and the per-sonal—befriending and counseling (Rippon &Martin, 2006). These conditions are essential forprograms to have the desired positive impact. AsHargreaves and Fullan (2000) note, ‘‘mentoring ofnew teachers will never reach its potential unless it isguided by a deeper conceptualization that treats itas central to the task of transforming the teachingprofession itself’’ (2000, p. 50).

1.4. Teacher stories

One way to transform practice is through teacherstories. The use of narratives/stories in teacherresearch has increasingly become more widespreadand accepted (see, for example, Alsup, 2006; Ayers,2001; Connelly & Clandinin, 1999; Craig, 2003;Danielewicz, 2001). Lyons and LaBoskey (2002)define narrative practices as ‘‘intentional, reflectivehuman actions, socially and contextually situated,in which teachers with their students, other collea-gues, or researchers, interrogate their teachingpractices to construct the meaning and interpreta-tion of some compelling or puzzling aspect ofteaching and learning through the production ofnarratives that lead to understanding, changedpractices, and new hypotheses’’ (p. 21).

Teacher stories, like traditional tales we arefamiliar with, contain characters and a plot thatdevelops over time (Brockmeier & Harre, 1997).With story creation using mechanisms such asonline communication (e-mails, blogs, etc.), thenarratives can be solely or jointly constructed andreconstructed. Likewise, the stories—when savedand stored—can be revisited by teachers, providingmultiple opportunities for reflection and informa-tion gathering. Teacher narratives provide a com-pelling means for engaging others to share and tobetter understand their own experiences (Gomez &Tabachnick, 1992). Narratives created online pro-vide both a frame of reference for others (an


experiencing of the same or similar event) and aglimpse into a unique world (each person is workingin and experiencing a distinctive culture and world),transforming a support network into a knowledgecommunity. According to Craig (2000), knowledgecommunities are ‘‘safe, story-telling places wherepeople narrate the rawness of their experiences,negotiate meaning for such experiences, and author-ize their own and others’ narrative interpretations ofsituations as legitimate tellings y teachers validateand consolidate their experiences both as indivi-duals and as members of a professional commu-nity’’ (p. 15).

Teacher narratives, and narrative inquiry, offerpre-service and in-service teachers a means to reflecton and learn from their beliefs, values, instructionalpractices, and professional environment (Connelly& Clandinin, 1990; Rushton, 2004). Tensions areexposed and insights are presented that enablesituations to be re-examined, re-evaluated, andnarrated again; teachers study the positive andnegative sides of experiences, making their practicesvisible and their knowledge public. In these perso-nal, yet public exchanges, insights can be found(Craig & Olson, 2002; Olson & Craig, 2001).Brockmeier and Harre (1997) postulate ‘‘it is aboveall through narrative that we make sense of thewider, more differentiated, and more complex textsand contexts of our experience’’ (p. 264). As such,teachers’ stories are significant teaching and learn-ing tools for teacher education programs, teachereducators, administrators, and other teachers(Alsup, 2006; Bullough & Baugham, 1996; Connelly& Clandinin, 1990, 1999; Estola, 2003).

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

Luke and Toni, the participants in this case study,were part of a larger cohort of 12 first-year Englishteachers located in five Southeastern states in theUS who voluntarily joined an e-mail listserv createdin 2004. Both began the master’s-level teachereducation program in 2003 and finished in thespring or summer of 2004. The e-mail listserv wasformed to (1) gather information about how theteachers experienced the first year of teaching and(2) continue the online support group, which was inplace during their internships the prior year. Theprimary data source was e-mails (n ¼ 607) amongLuke, Toni, and other listserv members spanning a

10-month period, from July 2004 to May 2005.(The listserv continues to be active, with allmembers continuing the discussions and storytell-ing.) Semi-structured individual interviews lastingfrom 45 to 60min were conducted with seven of thesupport group members (Luke and Toni included)in May 2005 at their respective high schools is asecond source of information. Follow-up conversa-tions and e-mails with Luke and Toni continuedthroughout the initial writing of the manuscript andduring the revision process to provide clarificationand fill in missing details.

Luke: Luke, a Caucasian male, was 24 when hebegan his internship in August 2003. With anundergraduate degree in English and militaryexperience, he felt well prepared to enter teaching.Luke completed his internship at a large, suburbanhigh school in Tennessee. Luke deemed his intern-ship experience difficult but educational. Difficultiescame from pedagogical and philosophical conflictswith some members of his department. For exam-ple, one of Luke’s cooperating teachers believed in amore traditional method of teaching grammar thatconflicted with his philosophy of teaching grammarin the context of writing. Overall, though, he feltthat the English department members taught himmany things he would take into his first year. Hisfirst paid position was at a large, reputable highschool near Birmingham, Alabama.

Toni: Toni, a bi-racial (African-American andCaucasian) female was married and 24 when shebegan her internship. Like Luke, and all otherparticipants, she possessed an undergraduate Eng-lish degree. Toni’s internship school, also inTennessee, although suburban in geographic loca-tion, served a more urban population. Her intern-ship experience was positive overall. However,Toni’s two mentor teachers differed in teachingstyles—one was regimented and the other lackedstructure—thus modeling contradictory practices.After graduation, Toni accepted a position at a‘‘good’’ high school in a neighboring county.

2.2. Methodological perspective

A qualitative case study methodology (Merriam,1988) was chosen to explore the teachers’ experi-ences in the secondary classroom. Case study is ‘‘anempirical inquiry that investigates a contemporaryphenomenon within its real-life context, especiallywhen the boundaries between phenomenon andcontext are not clearly evident’’ (Yin, 2002, p. 13).

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4Pseudonyms.

L. Scherff / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 1317–13321322

The case study method also influenced the researchbecause participants were in essence bound(Creswell, 1998) by their novice teacher status, andthat factor was integral to the study itself.

The study was also approached from an inter-pretive (narrative) paradigm, which accepts thatresearchers have a participatory stance, andthat research requires the description of specificcases, through narrative expression and analysis.This paradigm presumes that people use interpretiverepresentations, which must be understood,and that the features of the local context mustbe articulated. According to Connelly andClandinin, narrative is ‘‘both phenomenon andmethod y narrative is the study of the wayshumans experience the world; teachers and learnersare the storytellers and characters in their own andother’s stories’’ (1990, p. 2). In short, throughnarrative inquiry we try to make sense of our lives(Clandinin and Connelly, 2000). This method ofinquiry, then, promotes a collaborative relationshipbetween participants and researcher (Noddings,1986).

This collaborative relationship, and the same newteacher experience I shared with the teachers at thattime, led me to approach the research from anarrative perspective. Clandinin and Connelly(2000) maintain that ‘‘narrative inquiry character-istically begins with the researcher’s autobiographi-cally oriented narrative associated with the researchpuzzle’’ (p. 41). Through my own writing (Scherff &Kaplan, 2006) and sharing of stories through theonline environment, like Clandinin and Connelly, Ibegan to see ‘‘teaching and teacher knowledge asexpressions of embodied individual and socialstories’’ and started thinking ‘‘narratively’’ as Ientered into a research relationship with the noviceteachers (p. 4).

Polyvocal analysis method was employed inexploring the transcripts. Data analysis and inter-pretation occurred through several steps. First, e-mail and interview transcripts were read as a whole.Then, all voices contributing to the data wereidentified and marked. Particular voices wereselected for inclusion (Luke and Toni) and anarrative was begun for each. The total data setwas revisited to refine and/or alter the narratives.Finally, member checks occurred through partici-pants reading and verifying both their e-mail andinterview transcripts. Luke was more involved inverification, participating in a second interview tosupplement the data analyzed. This manuscript

accomplishes the final step, revising the stories(Hatch, 2002).

3. Findings and interpretations

Luke and Toni’s stories were not created in thesense that participants sat down and wrote atraditional story with a beginning, middle, andend. Nonetheless, the elements of plot—exposition,rising action, climax, falling action, and resolu-tion—can be applied to both narratives. As Lukeand Toni’s stories show, although the elements oftheir stories and pace of events differed, theresolution for each teacher was, unfortunately, thesame.

3.1. Luke: ‘‘you should call it disavowed’’

This section’s title comes from a conversationbetween Luke and me in February 2006 about theevents that led to his leaving the profession. Wechatted at a local bookstore for about an hour and,as he was getting up to leave, Luke said (regardingthe title of the book the listserv group wants toauthor), ‘‘you should call it disavowed—here’s yourmission: if something goes wrong, you are on yourown.’’ The irony of the quote is that throughout thefirst year, and until his resignation in October 2005,Luke was the cheerleader and morale booster foreveryone in the listserv group, including me. Thefact that he chose such a strong word anddescription to title the story of his teachingcareer—and I do believe he was offering asummative title—shows the pain and loss associatedwith his experience.

3.1.1. Exposition

The beginning of Luke’s story is not unlike thatof countless other first-year teachers; he feltprepared to teach and was excited about getting apaycheck. He believed he was very well prepared,with an undergraduate degree in English, a master’sdegree in secondary English education (whichincluded courses in educational psychology, specialeducation, and school trends and issues), a year-long internship, military experience, and a fatherwho is a school administrator. Luke was verythrilled to receive a job offer at Hidden Oaks HighSchool,4 noted for being one of the Top 100 highschools in the country. Even as he was nervous


about the school year, he still maintained hischeerfulness and sought to inspire others, as hisfirst e-mail to the group (August 6, 2004) shows:

My first day is Monday and I am a littleoverwhelmed. The amount of documentation islike nothing I have ever seen. Our grades andlesson plans are posted online for parents toviewy everything requires documentation andsignatures—even tardies. This will be difficult toadjust to, but my principal made a good point.She said that we are in the business of teachingand if this is what the business requires rightnow—it is part of the package.My principal is great! She has an amazingattitude, discipline is strict but it comes fromgenuine concern for students and teachers. Shebelieves in helping kids learn because you careabout the kids and it is an infectious attitude. Iam concerned about the beginning of the year ybetween my wedding and moving—I havenothing prepared ahead of time. However, I feelthat centering my goals as a teacher aroundcaring for children and educating them will helpme to stay focused and be successful. I think thatis what will get me through this week. I careabout kids, I love teaching, and I believe in whatI am doing.I also got the chance to meet the NationalTeacher of the Yeary She believes that teacherscan overcome the obstacles in the classroom bycaring and by giving their best. This is myencouragement for the year.

3.1.2. Rising action

For the first few days, Luke was pleased with theconditions at his school, including the workingrelationship he had with his administrators andfellow teachers. However, his ‘‘encouragement forthe year’’ was soon put to the test. An e-mail to thegroup, a week into the school year, revealed thestruggle between his optimism and his students’apathy toward school.

I am still holding on to my goal to care withouttaking anything too personal y Today was veryfrustrating, my kids do not want to do work y

instead of trying to deal with my kids beingfrustrated and making class about trying toconvince them to not be frustrated, I continuedto teach as if they were interested y I think itworked y it makes me very tired to wrestleagainst their wills. (August 10)

This rising action and building of tension lastedthroughout the entire first year. Although Luke’sprimary concern and source of dissatisfaction wasstudent apathy (which was mentioned in nearlyevery e-mail and a large portion of our May 2005interview), he also became increasingly frustratedwith political and bureaucratic issues at his school,namely student behavior and discipline and specialeducation policies (and the paperwork that goeswith them). He realized that first impressions ofadministrators and a school do not often match thereality of their personalities or culture.

Although in his first e-mail he mentioned thatdiscipline would be strict, Luke found this not to bethe case, at least for students. He voiced thisconcern numerous times over the course of oure-mails. ‘‘The administration makes us more like thestudents every day. The students can talk worse tous with no consequences, and if we did half of thatto them we could lose our jobs y and the kidsknow it’’ (May 2005). Luke also noted the powerthat students and parents held: ‘‘these kids knowyou can’t do anything to them. Like if you fail asenior, there’s a good chance you’re gonna [goingto] see lawyers y there’s a good chance you’regonna see at least parents talking about lawyers’’(May 2005).

Like many other schools struggling with morespecial education students than certified staff toadequately teach them, Luke’s high school wassimply overwhelmed. Teachers were expected toaccommodate too wide a range of disabilities in oneclassroom. Moreover, Luke felt it was left up to himto determine how to teach such students. Yet, evenhis accommodations did not go far enough to pleaseadministrators and parents. During our May 2005interview he said,

You should come back next year; we’re doing fullinclusion. No special ed[ucation] classes. I have afriend who teaches in another county that’s beendoing that and says it’s a nightmare. Some of theteachers here have special ed[ucation] kids whohave never been in a regular classroom, with IQsless than 50 and we have to put them in therenext year. I don’t know what’s gonna happen.Some of the kids y can only have multiplechoice tests, with only two questions, with onlytwo choices y and seniors who miss 58 days inone semester allowed to do the make-up work y

and when the make-up work is not close enough,well is there anything else we can [do]? It’s like,


here’s my grade book, put the grades you wantfor them y I had a kid who never came to class.His IEP [individual education plan] said thatemotionally y if he needed to leave he couldleave. He’d go up and take a nap in the specialed[ucation] room. He came to class 12 times inthe entire semester and passed cause I had tosend all of his papers, all his tests, everything upto that room and I’d just get ‘em back at randomintervals.

Luke often used humor and sarcasm as a way tocope with the problems he faced. For instance,annoyed with the number of allowances special

I propose ITP's - Individual Teaching Plans. I have alre

appropriate plan of action:

ITP for Luk

Mister Paiva suffers from a number of teaching disorde

O.D.D.D. - Oppositional Defiance Defiance Disorder -

not respond well.

A.D.H.D. - Teacher does not have enough of an attentio

more than once.

O.E.D. - Oral Explosive Disorder - levels of frustration

students - i.e. "Shut your hole you little bastard!" or any

(deaf, blind, crazy, etc.)?"

Accommodations to be made:

Teacher needs as much time as he requests to complete

If teacher becomes overly frustrated he must be allowed

no less than 15 min. and as long as necessary.

An aide must be provide to generate all tests and to take

are "acting up."

Teacher is only required to meet 1/2 of the national/stat

does not have to be written – oral documentation is all t

Teacher may choose which 1/2 of teaching requirement

for not meeting half of the requirements.

Teacher must meet with problem student parents at leas

that student is a failure every week.

If the teacher chooses, please just give him his paychec

These issues will all be addressed on a yearly basis, if f

be made.

Fig. 1. Luke

education students received, he sent a tongue-in-cheek e-mail to the listserv members narrating aclassroom encounter with a special educationteacher. ‘‘I actually had a special ed[ucation] teacherknown here as Exceptional Education (exceptionalmy ass)—anyway, this teacher comes up to me oneday and says—‘I don’t know what to do—thosekids are clueless.’ Who needs a department forthat—I could have diagnosed that.’’ The ITP(Fig. 1) was also included in the e-mail. He latervented his disappointment after low attendance atparent open house, imitating the popular MasterCardTM television commercial format: ‘‘Students onroll ¼ 72, Average Daily Attendance ¼ 48, Parents

ady met with myself and we have decided on an

e Paiva

rs that affect his quality of life:

teacher does not respond well to those who do

n span to repeat instructions or assignments

may cause vulgar comments to be addressed to

comments that begin with "Are you F*!#ing . . .

any grading related to English.

to leave the room and go to a "safe place" for

over teaching when his ADHD ODDD or OED

e teaching requirements and the documentation

hat is required.

s he will meet and cannot be fired or docked pay

t once a week and the parents must explain why

k and let him stay home for the rest of the year.

urther accommodations are necessary - they will

’s ITP.


at Parent Night ¼ 3, Watching the Downfall ofSociety from Within ¼ priceless.’’

Despite the negative issues he encountered in hisfirst year of teaching, during our May 2005 inter-view, Luke was definite in his desire to return to thehigh school in the fall. He cited his departmentalcolleagues as instrumental to his feeling successfuland happy as a teacher, notwithstanding hisconflicted emotions and values over the proceduralissues (i.e., student discipline, special education) atthe school. However, his experiences during thatfirst year changed his outlook in terms of commit-ment to the profession saying, ‘‘You need a teacherthat can go 5–10 years, do the absolute best job theycan, and when they can’t take it anymore, goprepare kids to go five to ten years [to] do they bestjob they can, and keep a cycle going like that. Causeto have someone who can teach the way things areright now for thirty years, I don’t know how’d theydo it.’’

By October of 2005, Luke’s attitude towardteaching became more negative. From his perspec-tive, the politics of the school, in which he felt thatadministration catered to parents in an attempt tokeep ‘‘appearances and reputation’’ in check, led tothem stripping teachers of their power, profession-alism, and dignity. As such, Luke was considering acareer change. He wrote,

y I love teaching. But most students don’t careabout anything in school and all school does ismake sure they graduate and their parents don’tcome down to the school complaining y I feellike my job in the classroom is to keep parentshappy and kids moving no matter what theylearn or how they act. At least as a police officer Ican affect some sort of change even if only bylocking up a DUI [driving while intoxicated] fora few hours y I know that I will be a betterpolice officer because of what I have learntteaching—I also believe I will be a more effectiveteacher as a police officer y

3.1.3. Climax

While the building tension lasted more than ayear, the turning point in Luke’s story was abrupt,coming less than 2 weeks later. On October 24, herelayed his story to the group.

Well glory of all glories I did not make it out ofteaching before why I was leaving manifesteditself. I am a little too pissed now to fully talkabout it but a student I was escorting out of my

class turned on me and shoved me both hands inmy chest—I held him down on the ground untilthe principals came—who suspended—me—what am I waiting for—see what the parentsand students feel—BULLSHIT! Does anybodycare that I was attacked first—doesn’t looklike it. Does the boy have a mark on him—no.Did I do anything that is illegal in a high schoolathletic competition—no. Did he—yes. F#*kteaching.

3.1.4. Falling action

What happened after the climax in this story?Whether or not Luke actually violated the student’srights, broke any school rules, or physicallyassaulted the student is not known (although frommy knowledge of Luke, his ethics, and the fact thathis father was an administrator, I believe his story).However, what is known is that Luke was nevergiven the chance to tell his story or verbally defendhimself regarding the incident. As he related to me 2months later, after the student confrontation he wassequestered in the principal’s office for 6 h while thestudent’s parents came to school, discussed thematter with their son and school administrators,and spoke with the superintendent. Statementsregarding the incident were taken from Luke’sstudents, but he was not allowed to read norrespond to them. In essence, Luke was madepowerless while the students held all the power—with their testimony going unchecked. He was senthome immediately, and indefinitely. His repeatedcalls to the school were not returned. The unioneventually advised him to resign.

3.1.5. Resolution

The resolution to this story was not initiallypositive. With a lawyer’s help Luke was able toreceive pay through the end of the semester(2 months), provided he ‘‘resign.’’ He remainedunemployed until he could begin the applicationprocess to become a police officer (although,interestingly, he was allowed to substitute teach ina neighboring school system). Luke’s story dideventually have a happy ending, as he related to thegroup in December 2006.

After a year of applying, I am a police officer in___. I leave for the academy in a week. I havebeen working at the department for two weeksand love it y After a year of substitute teaching(including a 6 week maternity leave English


position), I am sure I don’t want to teach. Thatis the quick update for me. What I can say isthat I know my time as a teacher and in teachereducation have made me a better policeofficer than I ever would have been before—but I am definitely a police officer and not ateacher.

3.2. Toni: ‘‘it’s been so obvious what should have

happened here’’

Toni’s story gets its name from a comment madeduring our May 2005 interview in which she voicedher frustration over not being mentored or takencare of by her colleagues and administrators duringher first year in the classroom. Unlike Luke, whofelt supported and appreciated by departmentmembers, Toni felt ignored and isolated from herfellow teachers. She came to realize that goodstudents could not compensate for the icy schoolculture she faced on a daily basis.

3.2.1. Exposition

Toni’s teaching story started off well. Immedi-ately after graduating from the master’s program,she was offered a secondary English position atWest Ridge High School (see footnote 4). Theschool had a good reputation, primarily serving thechildren of workers at a large, US scientific researchcenter. Teachers in the county earn, on average,$10,000 more per year than their counterparts inneighboring areas. With school about to start, Toniwas spending time preparing her room and initiallessons. She was also looking forward to meetingher new colleagues and learning about her respon-sibilities. Below is her first e-mail to the supportgroup.

This coming week my school is having newteacher training, and since there’s 10 of us I’mfeeling comfortable with the idea. Usually, I amoverly nervous in any situation, but for somereason I’m not scared this time. It’s like I can feelmyself growing up, gaining courage. And it feelsgood! Both of my mentor teachers [from theinternship] gave me this advice: the one thing youhave to stop doing is doubting yourself. Theinternship has given me more courage becausewithout the friendships and bonds I made at myinternship school, starting this career would seemimpossible.

3.2.2. Rising action

Although initially overjoyed, Toni soon realizedthat with any teaching position come some negativeaspects. In her case, the biggest issue was indifferentcolleagues, which caused her to feel lonely andisolated. Without the camaraderie of her friends andformer classmates, Toni desperately sought friendsin her department only to find herself ignored. Only3 weeks into the school year Toni closed an e-mailwith, ‘‘I guess my only real concern at this point isthat at school I feel utterly alone.’’ Later, inSeptember 2004, she reiterated this point with,‘‘oh, and someone finally told me the truth y thatmy English department was ‘known’ for beingunkind and hateful. Great! Well, I guess thatexplains a few things.’’ Even though Toni eventuallycame to terms with the atmosphere in her depart-ment, she was never really able to work past it.‘‘I don’t think I am going to be able to get over nothaving friends in the department I teach with. It’sjust not normal, not cool.’’ In April 2006, afterrereading her e-mails and reflecting on them, Toninoted, ‘‘I think perhaps being alone ultimately didme in.’’

Like other novice teachers, Toni also soonrealized that the bureaucratic demands of teaching,like paperwork and special education accommoda-tions, and the ensuing fatigue it caused, left littletime to actually teach. She began to view teaching asa short-term career rather than a long-term profes-sion. Less than 2 months into the school year shewrote the following note to the group:

I think in 5 years I must decide what I mightwant to do next and get prepared for it y I maylove teaching and do it forever, but I doubt it. Idon’t know about everyone else, but most oftenthe teachers I see retiring are the teachers I don’twant to be. It just seems like if we’re going towork our hardest and do the best possible job wecan, we just can’t last 25 years. No one hasenough energy. Teaching is too damn hard anddraining. The teachers I see who stay for yearsand years are often the ones who are like ‘‘sitdown, shut up,’’ ‘‘read the chapter, answer thequestions,’’ ‘‘watch this movie,’’ and so on.Maybe I’m all wrong y but this is what’s gonethrough my head.

Toni additionally recognized what good induc-tion and mentoring meant. That knowledge cameboth from the discussions we (the teacher educationcandidates and I) had throughout the teacher


education program and reading about others’experiences that first year. Another listserv membersent an e-mail to the group asking, ‘‘Do any of youguys have to put up with a mentor that stops by tosee you every week?!?’’ Toni’s reply was, ‘‘Not at all,it’s more like a mentor who doesn’t seem veryinterested.’’ So, again, Toni faced yet another levelof isolation and snubbing, and faculty and admin-istrators missed an opportunity to support and keepa new teacher in the profession.

Adding more complication to the story wasToni’s understanding of what good inductionshould look like. As a novice teacher, Toni soughtthe collaboration and discussion that took place theyear before among her fellow student teachers andbetween her and her mentors. Knowing howvaluable and enriching those conversations were,to be missing them now, was even more detrimental.In our May 2005 interview, Toni was quite clearin describing the conditions that hampered herexperience.

It’s so obvious to me. From having classes withyou and others; it’s been so obvious what shouldhave happened here. I should have had a greatexperience. I shouldn’t have been given the worstclasses, all those things that research shows thatnew teachers need, or just a general goodexperience, not just being thrown to the wolvesy if teachers were eased in, given lots of support,felt that they were given classes they’d be good atand not what no one else wanted to teach thatthey would last longer y cause otherwise, myfirst year’s been so frustrating that at Christmas Iwas contemplating quitting y not right then butat the end of the year y It just seems like it’s stilltraditional. No one takes it to heart what newteachers need.

Despite her negative first-year experience, Toniwas more hopeful about the upcoming academicyear. Yet, her confidence had been shaken and shewas plagued with feelings of self-doubt. Statementslike, ‘‘I’m looking forward to actually feeling like agood teacher again next year’’ were distressing forme to hear. Looking back at our interview, I seethat she offered foreshadowing of what was tocome: ‘‘If it doesn’t happen for me and it’s anotheryear like this, then I won’t be back. And, if it’s somekind of crazy schedule, I’m sorry but I’m not goingto do it y hopefully that won’t happen because I’lldefinitely feel like a failure. I already do.’’

3.2.3. Climax

Although the summer provided some mental andemotional relief for Toni, hearing about a fellowlistserv member’s decision to leave the professionand look for a job that was more satisfying providedher with the confidence to consider other careeroptions. By the second week of school, she was‘‘thinking about jobs for socially-minded, non-buying-into-capitalism person[s]’’ like herself. Lessthan a month later, seeing no improvement in sight,she e-mailed me about her situation: ‘‘Our newprincipal is less than desirable. I couldn’t feel anyworse about leaving, but I have to reason that thirtydays should be most adequate for most any job. Ican’t help that teaching is the way it is. I feel like if Ido not leave I will suffer a serious personalcatastrophe in the near future.’’

She announced her decision to resign to listservmembers a month later (October 5, 2005) and afterher last day of teaching wrote ‘‘y I’m walkingaway. I’m walking away from all the time I spent inschool, all the files and supplies I have, many sweetstudents, health insurance, all of it. Teaching is justnot worth the constant stress and pain that crushedmy very soul and being.’’

3.2.4. Resolution

Toni’s climactic departure, because it was pre-ceded by over a year of discontent and because itwas her decision, lacked the falling action typical ofmany narratives—there was no fallout like in Luke’sstory. She simply left the school, and severed theties. After her resignation, she took a few weeks offjust to relax, sleep, and ‘‘catch her breath.’’ Soonafter, she worked part-time in her family’s business;then, she began looking for another job. In 2006,after reading over her set of first-year e-mails, shewrote:

After reading over these e-mails I just want to cryout ‘‘why are you driving us away!?’’ Why haveyou left us alone, fending for ourselves among asea of IEPs, screaming students, angry parents,micromanaging superiors, and unfeeling co-workers? Here we are, stripped of our sense ofpurpose. Our plans trampled. I remember sittingon my husband’s lap practically yelling about allthe great plans I had. This year was going to begreat! I knew my stuff, I had files, I had plans, Ihad experience. I could handle it! And if it didn’twork out, we would find a new job for me thenext year. Instead, I’m looking for a job now.


4. Conclusions and implications

The most salient issue to emerge is that theplotlines of Luke and Toni’s narratives werecentered on professional, social, and/or emotionaldisavowal. Their stories show that despite what weknow about assisting, protecting, supporting, andnurturing new teachers it often is not done. Iconclude this paper with a discussion of these issuesand implications for the field, both here in the USand abroad.

4.1. Professional, social, and emotional disavowal

Given the high-stakes culture in Americaneducation, principals and administrators are some-times forced to make exigent decisions aboutresources, faculty, and curricula. Thus, dependingon demographic, geographic, and political factors,administrators’ choices may be more heavily influ-enced by parents, politicians, and the community atlarge. Soder (2004) suggests that ‘‘teachers areenmeshed y in a web of complex and contradictoryrelationships that impinge directly and indirectly ontheir work as teachers’’ (p. 4). These relationshipsare those with the state, the school district, parentsand guardians, the community, the workplace, and/or the profession. Luke and Toni’s experiences anddecisions to leave the profession were heavilyshaped by their relationships with, and by, theworkplace. In Luke’s case, the workplace cultureseemed most influenced by students and theirparents and in Toni’s by the way colleagues treatedeach other. Both school environments mediatedtheir capacity to find approval, what supports theywould receive, and what kinds of behavior wereencouraged and discouraged (Johnson & Birkeland,2004). Both novices found conditions similar tothose studied by Flores and Day,

Balkanization and competition amongst tea-chers, the ‘normative’ and bureaucratic side ofteaching, the existence of ‘vested interests’ andunwritten and implicit rules at school affectednegatively new teachers’ attitudes and practices,which became less progressive and innovative. Asa result, learning became more and more a lonelyprocess as identity became both bounded (by theculture) and boundaried (Flores & Day, 2006,p. 229).

Luke’s ideal professional environment, one wherehe could successfully work through the micro-

politics of the school—including NCLB require-ments, problems with special education and inclu-sion, intrusive parents, and the apathetic attitude ofhis students—was no match for the external politicsthat shaped his actual experience. Although he hasstated that perhaps he should have not touched thestudent at all (and learnt implicit rules: ‘‘just let thekids hit each other’’ and ‘‘never step in at anytime’’), Luke insists that he only protected himself.From his perspective, he learnt that at his highschool public reputation was key, and maintainingit meant that parent and student desires tookprecedence over teacher professionalism and re-spect. Hidden Oaks’ professional culture was onewhere administration promoted student and par-ent’s interests (such as passing undeserving studentsor not enforcing discipline) over those of its staff.

Conversely, Toni felt supported by her principal,but ignored by her mentor and fellow Englishteachers. While her first year started off positively,she soon learnt that the departmental culture wasnot conducive for collaboration or mentoring.Throughout her time at the school, Toni describedher departmental colleagues as cold and her theorywas only reinforced by the other faculty members.Whereas she wanted professional collaboration andthe sharing of teaching resources and activities,things she had in her teacher education program,others were content to remain in their rooms andmaintain their autonomy. That this heavily influ-enced her decision to quit teaching is not surprising;research shows that the quality of interactionsbetween novice teachers with their more experiencedcolleagues impacts their decision to remain in theprofession or not (e.g., Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Gold,1996; McDonald, 1980; Johnson & Kardos, 2004;Weiss, 1999).

A second and related factor that led to herdecision to leave was her teaching assignment andlevel of support. As she stated in one of the e-mailsfeatured earlier, Toni knew what should havehappened—she should have received an easierteaching load and support in the form of books,supplies, technology, etc. However, she taught theworst classes (those no one wanted and those withproblem students) and had more preparations(three) than any other teacher in the department.Her computer was consistently broken. She spentseveral hundred dollars of her own money just tohave the necessary supplies to teach. As a result,Toni battled with the realization that she could notbe the kind of teacher she could and should be and


felt it would be better to quit than become what shedetested (and saw around her).

4.2. Implications

Luke and Toni’s stories, unfortunately, arecommon. Teacher retention and attrition rates arean international concern as evidenced by variousstudies conducted across the globe: morale andretention in the UK (Rhodes, Nevill, & Allen, 2004);satisfaction and motivation for teachers in Austra-lia, England, and New Zealand (Dinham & Scott,1998); satisfaction and retention in the US andChina (Ouyang & Paprock, 2006) and Taiwan (Fwu& Wang, 2002); and an international overview(Cooper & Alvarado, 2006), to name a few. Theimplications, then, extend far beyond the geo-graphic boundaries of this study.

A host of research (e.g., Darling-Hammond,2003; Ingersoll, 2003, 2004; Ingersoll & Smith,2004; Johnson, 2004; Rhodes et al., 2004; Smith &Ingersoll, 2004; Weiss, 1999) shows that while someform of dissatisfaction is inevitable, two keys toretaining teachers are a positive sense of profes-sional community and administrators’ support. AsToni reiterated several times, she wanted andneeded to belong to a collaborative group thatshared knowledge and expertise. She learnt whatthat was during her teacher education program andentered teaching expecting it. The only supportiveknowledge community she had access to was thee-mail listserv, which did provide her with a safeplace to share stories and negotiate meaning (Craig,1999, 2000). But, in the end, that community wasnot enough to sustain her. She writes, ‘‘The truth. Ifonly I had seen it I wouldn’t have taken the job.But, that is in the past, and the ‘truth’ is that I havelearnt a great deal about my own limitations, stressthreshold, and what I can accomplish in the face ofanimosity, or perhaps a less inflammatory term,isolation. What can I accomplish in isolation? Howlong can I persevere? I needed more.’’ Without asense of collegiality, Toni, at the time, believed thathelping kids could get her through the tough aspectsof the job. However, she later reflected, ‘‘When ateacher must rely on only her students to push herthrough, she doesn’t make it. Students are just kidsy how can I rely on them to get me through theday? And when I couldn’t take it anymore I just hadto walk away.’’

While teacher education programs can attempt toprepare teacher candidates for the profession

through coursework, case studies, and the intern-ship itself, ultimately, school administrators musthold some responsibility for novice teachers’ feel-ings of satisfaction or disavowal. New teachers entera building with its own history, ways of interaction,methods of operating, and social and organizationalculture (e.g., Craig, 1999; Kuzmic, 1994; Rex &Nelson, 2004; Weiss, 1999). As Luke’s storyillustrates, the power rested not with classroomteachers, but with students (and their parents) who,in turn, influenced how administrators operated.Appeasing parents came at the expense of teachercontrol, decision-making, and professionalism.At Hidden Oaks, reputation was key, and as longas the school looked good in the eyes of the public,things were okay.

Since a major cause of teacher attrition seems tobe the result of difficult working conditions,changing the culture of schools should be the keytarget of policy efforts (Cooper & Alvarado, 2006).As Luke and Toni’s stories show, teacher educationcannot account for all of the issues that driveteachers out of the classroom. Both had contentarea degrees and a year-long internship and course-work that prepared them for teaching—whatteacher education cannot do is lead them throughthe politics and culture of unhealthy schools.Although high rates of attrition do not plague allcountries, hard-to-staff schools exist everywhere,and the cost to replace teachers goes beyond dollars.Cooper and Alvarado (2006) concur:

Teacher turnover is expensive. There is thehidden cost of public investment that goes intotuition and tax support for preparing newteachers, many of whom leave teaching within afew years y local areas bear the costs ofrecruiting, inducting, and mentoring new tea-chers, only to lose many of them through therevolving door of teaching y there are oppor-tunity costs related to disruption of coherence,continuity, and community that are critical toeffective schools, particularly those serving largenumbers of at-risk students. The most seriouslong-term consequences of high teacher turnoverare loss of teaching quality and lower levels ofstudent achievement (p. 5).

In sum, schools must invest in the resources—fiscal, cultural, personal, and emotional—necessaryto keep teachers teaching. Local education agenciesneed to create high-quality induction and mentoringprograms, making sure to utilize and compensate


mentors who are willing to do the job. If conditionsprevent or hinder such support, then administratorsneed to establish new teacher support groups so thatnovices have a safe community in which to raisequestions and air concerns. School administratorsalso need to create and maintain school conditionsthat support teaching and learning (Johnson &Birkeland, 2003). Finally, and most simply, ‘‘tounderstand the problems teachers face y theteachers themselves must be asked and must beasked often’’ (Futernick, 2007, p. 6). Althoughasking Luke and Toni to share their stories cametoo late to preserve their teaching careers, it is myhope that their accounts do so for other teachers.

4.3. Afterward

During a portion of the time that data werecollected (fall 2004) I was on leave from myuniversity position and became a ‘‘new’’ teacheragain, teaching English and remedial reading at ahigh school. As such, I was also an active member ofthe listserv. I maintained a relationship with all ofthe participants, formerly serving as their programadvisor, major professor, and university supervisor(for seven participants). Thus, despite the verifica-tion process used in this article, as both theresearcher and a participant in the online commu-nity, I cannot be totally objective. Each of us, asreader and responder to others’ e-mails, can onlymake sense of and comment on what the storytellerprovides. Moreover, missing data (such as inter-views with school staff and classroom observations)prevents me from presenting an unquestionablyunbiased account.

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Documents

Disavowed: The stories of two novice teachers