DIALECTICALTIME:TAOISMANDTHEPROCESSOFCHANGE

TimCloudsley

Thecomplexofcosmological,ethical,intuitiveendpracticalorientationsknownasTaoismseemstohaveitsoriginsintheearliestemergenceofChinesecivilization.RecentscholarshipsuchasthatofNathanSivin(1)hasshownnewdifficultitistoarriveatadefinitionofTaoismbecausethetermhasbeenusedinsuchvagueandvariedwaysboththroughoutChinesehistoryandintwentiethcenturyscholarship.Furthermore,somanyoftheapparentlydistinctworldviewsendpracticesofTaoismare,oncloseinspection,tobefoundoutsideanycontextwhichcouldbedescribedasTaoist,howeverdefined.Inspiteofthisdifficulty,whichisareflectionoftheparticularlycomplexwayinwhichChinesetraditionshavehistoricallymerged,overlappedandmutuallyinfluencedoneanother,itisdesirabletoconsiderTaoismasaspecific,continuouslydevelopingculturalamalgamofpopularreligion,orthodoxliturgy,andesotericteachings(chieflytheLao-tzu,theChuang-tzu,andthel-ching).

lnitsmorerefinedformulationsTaoismseesanundifferentieted,timelessvoidwhichgivesbirthtotheOne-theultimatelyunitarytotalityofreality,apotentialityofformsfromwhichemergepairsofoppositeprincipleswhosepolesarecontainedineachother.Thedynamic,dialecticalinteractionsbetweenoppositesmakeupthephenomenalworldofchange,fluxendprocess,whichisonlyapparentlyconstitutedofdiscrete,separateobjectsandevents.(2)Therelationshipbetweentimelesseternity,containingwithinitallpossibilities,andtheactualobject-eventsofphenomenaintime,isrepresentedbytwotime-mendalas-theSequencesofEarlierHeavenandLaterHeaven.Theinterplayofthetwo"wasunderstoodasasacredmarriagehetweenHeavenandEarth,thecomingtogetheroftheeternalorderoftimewiththeactualjust-somoment,indicating“fieldsofprobability”withinwhichsynchronisticeventscouldoccur”.(3)

Timewasunderstoodasinherentinthephasingofendlesstransformationofthecosmicwhole,theunfoldingofanimanent,imperceptible,timelessinfiniteintothecontingentfluxofphenomenalreality.Thetotalityofactualobject-eventsatanymomentoftimeisboth“accidental”andalsoimbuedwithmeaning.AsC.G.Jungobserved,theI-chingseesmeaningin"theconfigurationformedbychanceevents".Henotedthat"synchronicitytakesthecoincidenceofeventsinspaceandtimeasmeaningsomethingmorethenmerechance,namely,apeculiarinterdependenceofobjectiveeventsamongthemselvesaswellaswiththesubjective(psychic)statesoftheobserverorobservers".(4)Thiscontrastswiththedominant,post-Renaissance,westernscientificconcernwithabstractionfromthecontingentandexplanationintermsofcausalrelations,inaworldinwhichtimeisthoughtofasalinearhomogenousadvance.

TheChineseconceptionoftimemanifestingmeaningfulconfigurationswasconnectedwiththeviewofnumbersasrepresentingnotmerelyquantitybutquality.Numbersaresymbolic,andthe

unfoldingofeventsmirrorsanunderlyingcosmicpattern.ThesebeliefswerebasedinthetraditionalChineseconcernforgovernment"tobeinharmonywiththemovementoftheuniverse".(5)ThecomplicatedcycleofritualsundertakenbytheEmperorwithregardtotheseasonsunifiedthenaturalendsocialorderinaprocessthatcanbedescribedasdialectical:timeisbothcyclicalandseasonallyregenerativebutalsoanunfoldingmotionfromparticularqualitiestotheiropposites,developinghighersynthesesthroughtheprocessoftransformation.

ItisinterestingandsignificanttonotehowmanyphilosophersofmodernphysicshavefoundtheviewofrealitygeneratedbymodernscientificresearchtocoincidewithTaoistconceptualisations.DavidBohm,forexample,describestheontologyendepistemologywhichmodernphysicsrequiresas"unbrokenwholenessinflowingmovement,forintheimplicateorderthetotalityofexistenceisenfoldedwithineachregionofspace(andtime).So,whateverpart,element,oraspectwemayabstractinthought,thisstillenfoldsthewholeandistherefereintrinsicallyrelatedtothetotalityfromwhichithasbeenabstracted.Thus,wholenesspermeatesallthatisbeingdiscussedfromtheveryoutset".(6)Theontologythatemergesimplicitlyfrommodernphysicsisthatofonultimatelyunifiedmatter-energyinflux,afourdimensionalpatternofinter-relatedobject-eventswherepast,present,andfutureareaspectsofaninterconnectedtotality.AsFritjofCapraputsit,inthisunitarycosmos"everyparticleconsistsofallotherparticles"whichself-interact."Particlesarenotisolatedgrainsofmatterbutareprobabilitypatterns,interconnectionsinaninseparablecosmicweb."Furrthermore,justasJungsawtheTaoistnotionofsynchronisticeventsasactsofcreationintime,Caprasays,"allmatterisinvolvedinacontinualcosmicdance,"and"everysubatomicparticlenotonlyperformsanenergydancebutalsoisanenergydance,apulsatingprocessofcreationanddestruction".(7)

TheclosestsimilaritiestothisontologyinWesternphilosophicaltraditionsaretobefoundinHegel'sphilosophyandin"dlalecticalmaterialism"whichdevelopedfromit.ThelikelihoodthatHegelwasinfluencedbyChinesethoughthasbeencommenteduponbyJosephNeedham,(8)whilstJohnBlofeldrecognisestheparallelbetweenTaoistandMarxistthought.(9)Wecannotgoindepthintothesignificanceofsuchconceptualsimilaritiesintraditionsemanatingfromsuchwidelyvariedculturalcontextshere,(10)butthepointmadebyDeirdreGreenwithrespecttothedifferenttraditionsofmysticismcanbetakenasequallyappositetothevariousformsof"dialecticalthinking":

“Scholarlyappraisalsofmysticism,consideredasacross-culturalphenomenon,haverangedfromtheviewthatallmysticismisbasicallythesame,tothestandpointthatthereareasmanytypesofmysticismastherearereligioustraditions……Thequestionofwhetherdifferentexamplesofmysticismarethesameornot,hastobeconsideredfirstlyonthelevelofthephenomenologicalexperienceitself;secondlyontheleveloftheinterpretationsplacedupontheexperience;andthirdlyontheleveloftheontologicalsourceoftheexperience.(11)”

This"ontologicalsourceoftheexperience"canbetakentoincludethesocialcontextwithinwhichformsofthoughtemerge.W.MayshaswrittenthefollowingaboutHegel'sconceptionoftime:

“Hegel‘sposition[is]essentiallydifferentfromthatofKant.Thisisclearfromhisstatement"Itissaidthateverythingarisesandpassesawayintime,andthatifoneabstractsfromeverything,thatistosayfromthecontentoftimeandspace,thenemptytimeandemptyspacewillbeleft….Buteverythingdoesnotappearandpassintime,timeitselfisthisbecoming,arisingandpassing

away….Timedoesnotresembleacontainerinwhicheverythingisasitwereborneawayandswallowedupintheflowofastream.Timeismerelythisabstractionofdestroying.Thingsareintimebecausetheyarefinite;theydonotpassawaybecausetheyareintime,butarethemselvesthatwhichistemporal....Itisthereforetheprocessofactualthingswhichconnstitutestime."ForHegeltimetakenbyitselfandrepresentedasbeingindependentofthings,becomesan"abstractionofexternality"-thetimeofordinarycommonsenseendscience.(12)

Actually,theabstract,externaltimeofNewtonandKantthatHegelexposestodialecticalcritiqueistheexperienceoftimeinwesternscience(untiltheemergenceofrelativityandquantumtheory)andwesternsociallife.

ThecontrastbetweentheinfiniteandfiniteinHegelisclosetothatbetweennon-beingandbeinginTaoism.YetinasenseTaoismisclosertodialecticalmaterialismthantoHegel,forinHegeltheIdeaistheultimatereality,phenomenabeinginafinalsenseunreality,asobjectificationandsimultaneouslyalienationofSpirit.Ratherlikesomeversionsofdialecticalmaterialism,Taoismdoesnotmakephenomenasecondaryorillusory:itismorea"dialecticalpantheism"forwhichneither“spirit"nor"matter"isfundamentalasinwesternidealismsandmechanicalmaterialiasmsrespectively.Beingandnon-beinginterpenetrate.SuzukirelatesthestoryofamonkwhoaskswhatistheGreatSourceofallthings,andthencommentsthat"thisconceptionofGreatSourceasexistingseparatelysomewhereisthefundamentalmistake."(13)Similarly,Lao-tzusays:“”Nothingness¨isthenameforitpriortotheuniverse‘sbirth.'Being'isthenameforitastheMotheroftheMyriadObjects.Therefore,whenyouseektocomprehenditsmystery,itisseenasunendingvoid;whenyouseektobehelditscontent,youseethatitisbeing."(14)AgaininthewordsofYung-chiaTa-shih´s"SongofEnlightenment”:

“Emptinessnegativelydefineddeniesaworldofcausaiity,

Allistheninutterconfusion,withnoorderlinessinit,whichsurelyinvitesevilsallaround;

ThesameholdstruewhenbeingsareclungtoattheexpenseofEmptiness,

Forritislikethrowingoneselfintoaflame,inordertoavoidbeingdrownedinthewater.(15)

AsMarie-LouisevonFranzobserves,themutualdependenceorentailment,andreciprocalcreativecausationofthepolaritieseternityandtime,arecommontoJung'sthoughtandTaoism.Speakingofthetwotime-mandalasconsideredearlier,shewrites:"TheEarlierHeavencorrespondstowhatJungcalledacausalorderedness;itistimeless.TheLaterHeavendealswiththelapseoftime.Timeinitisa'field'whichimpartstoallthingswhichcoincidewithinitadefinitequality.Itmediates….betweenthepossibleandtheactualmeaningfulchance-event."Sheaddsthatthe"notionof'blind'chance"ischaracteristicofadeterministicviewofreality.(16)

JosephNeedhamtermstheontologyofTaoism"organicnaturalism",andheandhisassociateshavearguedthatitprovidedabasisandimpetusforChineseScience.Itorientatedtheattentivemindtowardinvestigatingallphenomena,inanempiricalandintellectually"democratic"spirit,sincetheTaopermeateseverything.Asrealityisconceivedofasaseamless,interwovenweb,

Taoismallowedasusceptibilitytowardacomprehensionof"field"and"actionatadistance"hencetheearlydiscoveryinChinaofmagnetismandthecausesoftides.ltsnon-dualistontologypreventedmedicinefromoperatingwithinapreconceivedmind/bodydichotomy:ratherasinWilhelmReich´stheoryofanintegral,libidinous"life-force"inthehumanbeing,physiological,psychic,mentalorspirituallevelsofhumanreality/experiencearethoughtofasmutuallyconsti-tutive.Thepresumptionofinterrelatednessbetweenallpartsofatotalitymadepossiblesuchdiscoveriesasacupuncture.ThoughthestructuredneedsoftraditionalChinesesocietypreventedsciencefromdevelopingtoanextentcomparablewiththemodernWest,theunderlyingontologyofTaoismmaynowbemoreappropriatetomodernscientificunderstandingthanthedualistic,mechanisticworld-viewthathasdominatedthepost-RenaissanceepochintheWest.

Thebeliefinanultimateunityofspiritandmatter,consciousnessandunconsciousness,humanityandnature,ensuredthatTaoismsawhumanhistoryasbothan"objective"developmentalprocessandalsoanethicalconcern.ToflowspontaneouslywiththeTaoistounderstanditbothrationallyandintuitivelyinordertoarriveataninnerself-integrationwithinanharmonioussocialexistence.RatherinthewaythatDavidBohm(17)connectstheneedforanunbroken,unfragmentedepistemologyinsciencewiththeneedforahuman"innermeasure"soTaoismseesspontaneityandharmonynotaspurepassivitybutasaglidingwiththeinherentnatureofprocesses,transcendingfalseboundaries,unrealfragmentatiensandageneral"warofallagainstall"intheflowing,cosmictotality.

Humanexperienceoftime,asofallfacetsofexistence,takesplaceonmanylevels.Onepossiblemodeofcategorisation(18)-bynomeanstheonlyone,norexhaustive-mightbeaccordingtoa)immediate,"daytoday"experience,b)anabstractworld-perspectiveuponsocietyandhistory,andalsonature,andc)asubjectiveconceptionoftheself’s"life-project".Thesethree"levelscouldbeseenasbeingrelated,asexperientialprojections,toanindividual'sactivitywithintheparticularformofsocietyinwhichhe/shelives,onthefollowingthreesociallevels:a)thecharacteristicformsofeverydayworkandpersonalinteractions,b)thetypeofoverallprocessofsocialdevelopmentendsocial"reproduction",whichincludestheexperienceandunderstandingofnaturethatsocialprocessesentail,andc)theconsequencesofa)andb)fortheindividualthroughsocialisationandsocialconditioningofconsciousness,psyche,andtheorientationoftheegotowarditsentirelife-span.Thislastconcernstheprojectionofegointothefuture,and,insocietiesenbracingreligiousconceptionsofsalvationorimmortality,intoeternity.

Verybriefly,wecouldsketchtheprevailingexperiencesoftimeinmodernwesternsociety(puttingasidetheobviousvariationsthatexistbetweengroupsandindividuals)asfollows.(19)Experienceina)isreifiedandrepetitiveinmostinstitutionalisedcontexts.Workandbureaucraticorganisationarecharacteristicallyrepetitive,fragmented,andregulatedaccordingtoanabstract,standardised,homogeneousandquantifiabletemporality.Commercialised("commodified")formsofentertainment,fashion,andculturalactivityalsotendtoconformtoastandardised,fragmentedabstractionandrepetition.Consumptionofcommoditiesisshapedintoacompulsive,repetitivechannellingofdesiresandsatisfactionofneeds,whichcorrespondstoafragmentedandunintegratedpsychicorganisation.The"fetishismofcommodities"alsoestablishestheimaginativeappreciationofculturalformsasisolated,decontextualisedactivities.However,desiresforflexibility,spontaneity,qualitativelyvariableandmultidimensionaltemporality,forcreativeself-developmentandforhumaninteractionsthatstemfromauthenticsubjectivity,

conflictwithreification.Experienceinb)ispredominantlyintermsofanalienated,externalideaoflinearprogress.Acertaincontradictionbetweena)andb)ensuresthatc),theimpulseto"getsomewhere(ordosomething)inlife"entailsapeculiarlywesternanxietyregarding"rationalised"time,atendencytowardsobsessivecompulsionsconnectedtoparticularpatternsofpsychicrepression.(20)

Incompletecontrast"primitive",classlesscommunitiesexperiencea)asaflexibledurée,anorganicburgeoningtimecorrespondingtoasocietyundividedintomentaladministrationandphysicalexecutionofactivities,andwithoutarigidseparationofworkfromleisure–whoserhythmsthereforeareexperiencedasbeinginthemainsubjectivelydetermined.(21)Thequestionofwhatistheprevalentexperienceofb)inprimitivesocietieshasbeenandisthesubjectofmuchcontroversyandanalysis.Alongtraditionhasseenprimitiveexperienceof"world-time”asacontinualrecreationofpasttimeinthepresent,inaformthatiscyclical.Cyclesarerepeatedinsuchawaythatthesuccessionof"nows"inone(e.g.annual)cycle,reproducesearlierones.{22)PeterRigby,bycontrast,hasthefollowingstatementconcerningtheIlparakuyoandMaasai:

“Temporalconceptsoflifecycles,days,months,years,generations,andage-setsareincorporatedinaveryspecifichistoricalmannerinasocialformationwhichhasmanagedtoretainitssingularidentitynotthroughconservatismandthemerereproductionofthepast,butinthecreativeuseofthepastinthepraxisrequiredforadaptationtoanalwaysuncertainfuture….TheveryfluidityofIlperekuyconceptsdealingwithtimeandhistoryarethereforeaconditionofcontinuingandsuccessfulpastoralpraxis.…IlparakuyoandMaasaiconsciousnessof"timeinhistoricity"isdialectical,andtothatextentitisantitheticaltothe"metaphysicalmodeofthinking"characteristicofbourgeoisphilosophy.ltissimilar,ontheotherhand,towhatEngelsidentifiedasconceptionsofhistoryandtimein"thisprimitive,naïve,butintrinsicallycorrectconceptionoftheworld"characteristicofancientGreekphilosophy,”firstclearlyformulatedbyHeraclitus:everythingisandisnot,foreverythingisfluid,isconstantlychanging,constantlycomingintobeingandpassingaway".(23)

ltseemsgenerallyagreedthereforethatprimitiveconceptionsoftimearenotofalinear,homogeneouscontinuum,thoughwhethertheyaremulti-cyclic,(24)spiral-like,orpermanent"nowtimes"remainsproblematic;thereisalsoapowerfultraditionofargumentthatmaintainsprimitivecosmologiesarecharacteristicallynon-dualist,dialecticalfluxesforwhichtimeisinherent,notexternal.Theprimitiveexperienceofc),accordingtoMartinSpencer,isinherentlylimited,asthereareno“extendedvistasoffuturetime….[and]noeternityoftimetocontemplateinwhichthefateoftheego[has]toberesolved".(25)

Taoismseemstoretainelementsofaprimitivecosmologicalorientation,seasonedandsophisticatedbythousandsofyearsofChinesecivilization.Wecannotgointothisissueindepthhere,butcannotethegeneralhistoricalconnectionofTaoismwithegalitariansocialprinciples.TherewasatendencyforTaoismtostandagainst(andbedespisedby)theconservative,Confucianrulingclassesatthesametimeasoverlappinginsomecharacteristicattitudeswiththeorthodoxcosmologiesoftheimperialstate.(2s)ThelastpointconnectstantalisinglywiththeobservationofErnestMandelandothers,that"lnthetableofrulingclassesknowntohistory[theclassicalChinesestate]iscertainlytheclosesttotheprimitivefunctionsofthe'servantsofthecommunity'".(27)

Thus,ifinspiteofrepresentingpopularsensibilitiesTaoism"modelledrelationswiththegodsontheusagesoftheimperialbureaucracy",(28)thismaybebecausestateritualsdevelopedfromclassless,primitiverites.MarcelGranetwrites:

“IftheYinandtheYangformapairandseemtopresidejointlyovertherhythmoftheworldorder,itisbecausetheseideasarederivedfromanearlierageinwhichtheprincipleofrotationhadsufficedtoregulateasocietydividedintotwocomplementarygroups….Infactweknowthatanewerawasinauguratedbyafestivalconsistingofamockbattlebetweentwochiefs,supportedbytwoseconds.Thetwosidesrepresentedthetwomoietieswhichhadsharedthecontrolofsocietybyexercisingitalternately.(29)

Inmorepoeticvein,Blofeldseemstobemakingarelatedpoint:

Bynomeansall[Taoist]beliefsandpracticesareofgreatworth.Somearetoobizarretocallformorethanasmile,whichisscarcelysurprisingwhenoneconsiderstheirenormousantiquity;yet,embeddedinmuchcharmingmoonshineisapreciouscoreofwisdomandexaltedspiritualaspirationsostrikingastomakemealmostreadytobelievethatan"AncientWisdom"wasoncedispersedthroughouttheworldofwhichscatteredfragmentsstillremain.HuangLaoTaoismmaybethoughtofasakingdomwhereinpeasant-likeneivetyprevailsthroughoutthefar-flungprovinces;inthecentralarealiesasmilingparklandembellishedwithhillsandstreamswherepoetsandloversofnature´smysteriesroam;and,inthemidstofthis,standsacitadelofwisdomsosublimeastoleadbeyondtheworldofmortalstothesecretheartofBeing.(30)

NOTES

1)E.g.NathanSivin,"OntheWord'Taoist'asaSourceofPerplexitywithSpecialReferencetotheRelationsofScienceandReligioninTraditionalChina",HistoryofReligions17(1977-8).303-30.

2)SeeJohnBlofeld,Taoism:TheQuestforImmortality(MandalaBooks),UnwlnPaperbacks,London,1979,pp.2-5.

3)Marie-LouisevonFranz,Time:RhythmandRepose(ThamesandHudson,London,1978),p.29.

4)C.G.Jung,CollectedWorks,Volume11PsychologyandReligion:WestandEast(Routledge&KeganPaul,London,1958),pp.591-2,paras.969and972;cf.vonFranz,pp.26-7.

5)GeorgeThomson,StudiesinAncientGreekSociety,Volume2TheFirstPhilosophers(Lawrence&Wishart,London,1955),p.65.

6)DavidBohm,WholenessandtheImplicateOrder(ArkPaperbacks,London,1983),p.172.

7)SeevonFranz,pp.20-1and28,wherepassagesarequotedfromFritjofCapra,TheTaoofPhysics(Berkeley,1975),pp.203,241,244and295.

8)JosephNeedham,ScienceandCivilizationinChina,Volume2(CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,1956),pp.77,201,291,303,423-5,505.

9)Blofeld,p.5;cf.alsoTheConciseEncyclopediaofLivingFaiths,ed.R.C.Zaehner(Hutchinson,London,1959),pp.406-12.

10)ButseeTimCloudsley,"TheSocialStructurationofTimeinThoughtandExperience",unpublishedpapergivenataconferenoeoftheAssociationfortheSocialStudiesofTime(ASSET)inMarch1984.Conferencepapersareavailableatreproductioncostfromtheassociationoffice,18VictoriaParkSquare,LondonE29PF.

11)D.Green,"MysticismandtheSevenfoldCastle",Shadow2(1985),p.59.

12)W.Mays,"TemporalityandTimeinHegelandMarx"inTheStudyofTimeII,ed.J.T.Fraser(Springer-Verlag,NewYork,1975)p.99.

13)D.T.Suzuki,TheZenDoctrineofNo-Mind(Rider,London,1983),p.134

14)Blofeld,pp.3-4.

15)D.T.Suzuki,ManualofZenBuddhism(Rider,London,1953),p.96.

16)vonFranz,p.29.

17)Bohm,pp.22-5.

18)Forasimilarcategorisation,seeM.Spenser,"SocialScienceandtheConsciousnessoftheFuture”,TheoryandSociety11(1982),p.690.

19)SeealsoTimCloudsley,"ConsciousnessandExperienceofTimeWithinanAlienatedDivisionofLabour",papergivenataconferenceoftheAssociationfortheSocialStudiesofTimeinApril1985;seenote10.

20)SeeLeonardW.Dobb,"Time:CulturalandSocialAnthropologicalAspects”inTimingSpaceandSpacingTime,Volume1MakingSenseofTime,ed.TommyCarlsteinetal.(Arnold,London,1978),pp.58-9,for“ageneralizationsuggestingthatsocietiesthatarefuture-orientatedinthisrespecttendtobemore´complicated´and¨puritanical´ifthosewordsmaybeusedloosely".

21)SeeE.P.Thompson,"Time,Work-Discipline,andIndustrialCapitalism",PastandPresent38(1967),pp.56-97.

22)SeeCloudsley,"SocialStructuratlon",andthediscussionofideasaboutprimitiveexperienceoftimeintheworkofLévy-Bruhl,Evans-Pritchard,andothersinPeterRigby,"TimeandHistoricalConsciousness:TheCaseofIlparakuyoMaasai",ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory25(1983),pp.428-56.

23)Rigby,pp.450-1.ThequotationsfromEngelsarefromDialecticsofNature(InternationalPublishers,NewYork,1940),pp.27-8.

24)Seee.g.,SimonHarrison,"YamsandtheSymbolicRepresentationofTimeinaSepikRiverVillage",Oceania53(1982-3),pp.141-62.

25)Spencer,pp.684and687.

26)Sivin,pp.322-3.

27)ErnestMandel,TheFormationoftheEconomicThoughtofKarlMarx(MonthlyReviewPress,London,1971),p.131.

28)Sivin,p.323.

29)QuotedinGeorgeThomson,p.68,fromMarcelGranet,Lapenséechinoise(Paris,1934),pp.26and105-6.

30)Blofeld,p.vi.