Devices of Design Transcripts

7/27/2019 Devices of Design Transcripts

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TRANSCRIPTS

Colloquium

DerrickDeKerckhove:Introduction 2

MarcoFrascari:ArchitecturalIdeasPutThemonPaper! 9 PeterGalison:EpistemicMachines:ImageandLogic 13

MarioCarpo:BuildingwithGeometry,DrawingwithNumbers 23

MarkWigley:BlackScreens:TheArchitectsVisioninaDigitalAge 37

BernardCache:AprsJeanProuv:lepliagenumriquenon-standard 52

GregLynn:GoingPrimitive 58

Roundtable Discussion

JeanGagnon:Introduction 73

AlainDepocas:Variable Media 76

GregLynn:TheEmbryological House 77

Colloquium & Roundtable Discussion18 November to 19 November 2004

presentedbytheCanadianCentreforArchitectureandtheFondationDanielLanglois


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Derrick De Kerckhove: Introduction / 2CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

Colloquium, 18 November 2004

[WelcomebyJeanGagnon,FondationDanielLanglois,andMirkoZardini,CCA]

Derrick De KerckhoveIntroduction

Ireallywanttothankyou,Benjamin[Prosky],andtheCanadianCentreforArchitecturefortheopportunityoftalkingwithyouthismorning.ButIhavetosayrightawaythatIamneitheranexpertinarchitecturenorinbibliographicalandlibrarypractices,inspiteofthefactthatIamholdingthischairattheLibraryofCongress.WhatIamgoingtotrytodoistosortofsituatethewholeissueofarchitectureandtimeandspaceinthecontextofwhatIcouldsayarethethreegreaterasofthemanipulationoflanguagebyman.

Theoralerahasitsowndimensions,itsownproportions,ratherrestrictedtotheimmediatecontactbetweenpeople.Theliterateeraistheonethatcreatestechnologyaftertechnologyandarrivesataconcept,aconceptionof

space,whichisverypeculiarandcontinuestodominateourperceptions,butisthreatenedtodaybydifferenttypesofexperiencesofspace.Theseareinthethirdera,thatis,theeraoftheelectronictheelectronicman,youcouldsay.So,hereare,rapidlyitsverypedagogical,butitsinterestingtoknowthebasicrelationshipbetweenspaceandpersoninvariouscontextssothatthedominantmediumcanbespeech,writing,orelectricity.Thatmeansthedominantmediumis...language.Obviously,thedominantrolewillbeoralandspeech,literateandwriting,butitisdigitalinelectricity.Andthatsveryinterestingbecausethedigitaleraofelectricityisonlyitssecondoneitsanextension,itsatransformation,infact,ofelectricityintocognition.Wellgetbacktothat.

Socialstructure,collectiveandtribal,individualpersonthismaynotbeaspertinenttothearchitecturaldimensionhere,butitisinteresting.Collective andinterestgroupsarethecorrespondencetothis.Inmyopinion,themostimportantelementofthistableauishere.Themeaningisfoundandcreatedincontextinaculturethatdoesnthavesupportforlanguagesotherthanthehumanbody.Andthatmeansthatlanguageisalwaysshared,andalways,intheinterval,betweenpeople.Inasocietyoftext,thetextisremovedfromthecontextandbecomestheblueprintforctionorfortechnology,orforarchitecture.Itisthepossibilityofremovingthetextfromthecontextthatcreatesthisextraordinaryfreedomfromthepastfromthespringsoftheculture,fromthefundamentals,insomeways,andcreatingthefutureofprojectionofaworldthatisobviouslyforeverbetter.

Theworldofhypertext,whichistheoneweareinnow,combinesthevaluesand,Iwouldsay,thepropertiesofbothcontextandtext,combinesthearchivingpossibilitiesoftextandthiscontinuousexchangeoftheworldofcontext.Atthesametime,itchangescompletelytherelationshipbetweenelementsoflanguage.Soherearespatialmodalities,whichareveryinterestinginatribalculture,inadancegroup,inaschoolof,letssay,Arabicschool,ortribalschool,thespaceislledwiththeinteraction.Idontknowifsomeofyouhavereadproxemics,aworkwiththeproxemicsofEdwardHall,butHalltalksaboutthecultureofintervalandspacebetweenpeople,andhowitismanagedbydifferentkindsofcultures.Forexample,agreatexample,hesays


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thatifArabicpeoplecantsmelleachothertheywontbeabletocommunicate,sotheyhavetotalkvery,veryclose.Thespaceisabsolutelylleditsalledspace.Wehave,intheWest,createdtheillusionofemptyspacethecentralmarginspacewhereastheoralisimmersivewithdevelopedperspective.Youwillseehowinterestingitistorelateperspectivetothewritingsystemthatwehaveadopted,whichisthetext.

Andnowweareintoaveryuidkindofdimension:movingfromtheimmersive,backtotheimmersive.Theimmersiveisthenaturalconditionofatribalsituation,buttheuidityisalsoimmersive.WearealsoimmersiveintheelectronicenvironmentwearenowinwhatIcallthepost-Galileanmoment,atthetimewhentheworldmovesfromsolidtoliquidagain.Galileothemomentwasatimewhentheworldwasmovingfromliquidmystical,religious,theocratictothesolidscientic,natural,phusis.ThatswhatGalileowasdoing,andthepope,bytheway,agreedwithhim,buthehadofciallytocondemnhim.Anyway,weareinthepost-Galileanmomentnow,andweremovingfromsolidtouid.TransArchitecturebyMarcosNovaktheresworkherebyGregLynnthathasthatkindofuidity,allofGehrysworktheresnoquestionthatitistodayexpressedrightnow.Thedominantshapeiscircularintheoralbecauseitisthesurroundofthevoice.Itisxedandplanned

inthetextworld,anditisnotdecorum intheelectricalenvironment.Andwehavetodayaddedaverystrongludicelementinthismanagementofspaceandofarchitecture.

LetmejustsaythathowIlookatthisistherelationbetweenthealphabetandthebrain.Illspareyouthedetailsofthatresearchonlytosaythatliteracy:(a)allowspeopletoappropriatelanguageandtoretireinapointofviewagainsttheworldtheinventionofperspective,whichbeginswiththeGreeksandthealphabetisaninvention...isawaytoexpelthespectatorfromthespectacle,andhascreatedahealthydistance,aneutralspace.Notintervalsanymorethatwepickupbymusic,butaspaceoftheory,aspaceoftheatre,aspaceoflookingfromsomepointtosomethingelse,whichisaconditionfromthesplitfromsubjectivityandobjectivity,andalsorationality.Hereisoneaspectofitinternalizationofspace:whensuddenlyyoupositionyourself,notanymoreasabodyfeelingtheintervalofspacearoundyouorasabodyinvadedbythespacearoundyouasisthecaseoftheFirstNationsofthiscountry,averyinterestingwayofdealingwithspace.No,youinternalizeavisionofthespatialareainyourselfatthecentreandyoucreatementalmappings,youprojecttheworld.Weactuallyhavenowasatellite-basedgeographyinoursensibility.Thatswhathappensthere.

Thisisaterribledigression,butIwanttomakeitbecauseithastodowithwhyIamsayingthatallofthishashappenedtotheWesternmind.TheWesternmindhasactuallydevelopedawritingsystemthatimposedhorizontality,andthatimposedlateralizationthelefttotheright.Ifwereadandwrite

fromthelefttotheright,wethinkfromthelefttotheright.Icanproveitveryeasilybydrawingadiagonal;youwilldecidewhereitrisesfromthestart.Aculturereadingfromtheleftwouldsay,theoneyouthinkisrising,actuallyitsgoingdown.HereisacaseofanobsessiveobservationofChinesearchitecture,andthisgoestotheprimitive,Iwouldsay,asprobablywewillhearfromGregLynn.ButChinesearchitectureisalwaysverysurprising,anditsbasedonsomethingcanyouseewhatisabsolutelyuniqueaboutthesetwomodernbuildingsofBeijing?Theprimitivethereisasquare,andIhavediscoveredthisforalongtime.Ithought,ourprimitiveistheTVscreenortheRenaissancehorizontal,therollersectorourprimitivespatialstructuringisthisway,


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buttheprimitivethereisasquare.Ourscorrespondstothebookandthelateralizationofreadingandwriting.TheChinesecorrespondtothatplate,theinvisibleplateofthebaseballitsthespacefortheideogram.Sotheyareobsessedwithideogrammaticstructureandtheirprimitiveisideogrammatic.

Thisisonlytosaythatliteracy,inmyopinionandtomeitsstillahypothesisthatcannotbereallyprovedbutthatliteracywillthrowitsshapes

inaspeciccontestedenvironment.YouwillndthisinKorea,youwillalsonditinJapan,althoughwithmuchmoremoderationbecausetheJapanesedontonlywriteinagraphicmanner.HereisanexampleofamediaboulevardthatisplannedforIforgotthenameofthearea,aboutfourmilesawayfromtheForbiddenCity.ItsMegalo;itsamazing.Illgiveyouafewimages.Lookathowtheroleofthesquarecontinuestobeprevalentintheplanningofallthesebuildingsandsoforth.AndthenheresanamazingBeijingarchitecturestory.Iwaswalkingwithaguide,whowastellingmehowalltheseread.Andthisisamediaboulevard,bythewayallthemediaaregoingtobethere,whetheritsthepress,TV,lmmaking,basicallyallofit,andhousingforeverybody,thatstheirbigplan.Isay,Oh,howwonderful,youarekeepingtheselittlehousesthatweretherebefore,theBeijinghouses.Andthemansaid,Ohno,no,replica,replica.(laughter)IdidntthinkIunderstood.Imean,atrst,

itsnotthateasytogetunderstoodorunderstandtheChinesecontext,butthefactofthematteris,IjustdidntthinkIunderstood.ThenthateveningIwenttoazonethathadbeendonethatway,andIunderstoodthatitcamebecauseofthis,largely.ItsalsoaveryChinesethingtodo,buttheypickeverythingup.YouknowthattheForbiddenCityhasburnedseventimes,andtheyrediditeverytime,exactlythesame,sotheyknowhowtodoexactlythesame.Thereasontheydothisissanitaryplanningandputtingtheelectricityin.

SoIjustwantedtoshowthatwehave,always,whenanamazingmediumtakesover,awholesocialscene,itactuallytransformsitfromtheEast.Soelectricityandthealphabet,thatsthebiggesttechnological,mythicalmarriage,maximumspeed,bymaximumcomplexitythatwaslanguage,thespeedoflightbylanguage.Thebabiesarestillbeingborn.Telegraphlanguageacceleratesandampliesandredistributedbyelectricity,maximumspeed,relentlessrenementofthecodefromthetwenty-sixlettersofthealphabetto01.Wearegoingtogobeyond01withthequantum,butrightnowthatstherenementofthecode.Twenty-sixletterstothe01viaMorselong,short,andnot01becomesthesmallestcommondenominatorofallexperiencesphysical,mental,actual,andvirtual.Thatwasphaseone.Heat,lightamplication,andtransportationofsignalsthatsthemuscularphaseofelectricity,thatswhenwestartusingelectricity,butrightawaythetelegraphpromiseswhatisgoingtofollow.

Butwhatgivesusheatandlightandenergyistheanaloguephase,andopposingittothedigitalsothatwecanseehowcognitiveelectricitywillbegoing.Information,knowledge,andinstantreconstructionofsignalscomputerswork

buildingsignalsinthedisplayasourmindworksitdoesntsimplydragitorrepeatit.Thatsaveryimportantdifference.Computernetworksimulation.Andrightnowitsthetake-offpointwiththewirelessrevolution,whichishappeningrightnow.Thereisathirdphase...myfeelingisthatitsthequantumphasevery,veryusefultothinkaboutitnowbecausewearealmostinaquantumcomputingstage.WerealmostatthesamestageasVonNeumannbetween1946and55,soitmightjustgothesameway.Keybiasesofphasetwo:IchoseonlythosewhichIfelttoberelatedtoarchitecturebecauseyoucanaddbiasesforever.Therearesomanythings,somanytrendsthatareveryspecictoelectricityglobalizationisanaturalconsequenceofelectricityconvergence


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isintegratedwithinthe01smallestcommondenominatorandelectronicprinciple.Integrationisthemotorfunctioningofelectricity.Realtime,thesameconnectionwehave,whichiscognitivewithourownmind,evokingourownideasandimages,istheoneweneedwithourmachines.Sothetendencyofrealtime,maximumlanguage,andmaximuminterconnectedspeedisactuallythetendencyofbothresearchandtechnology.Ubiquityisobvious.Immersiontotalimmersion,permanentimmersioninthelightofbulbs,obviously,butimmersedindata

weputourhandsintothescreenfollowingourcursor.Totalsurroundisagainwatchyourbackwehavenownotjustfrontalbuttotalsurroundthisisafrontalworld.Virtual,banal.Liquidity,wetalkedabout.Connectivity,natural.Interactivity,wealldoit.Transparency,thatsonewhichislessfrequentlythoughtabout,butthetendencyofelectricity,whichisbothinsidethebodyandoutside,toactuallyeviscerateusandtranslateusintonumbers,andnumbersthatcanbestoredandthatcanberetrieved,makestheworldtransparent,ourselvestransparent,ourcompaniestransparent.AndwehaveParmalat,andEnron,andallkindsofnastybusinesscomingthroughitwillgetworsebeforeitgetsbetter.AndwehaveHomelandSecurity.HomelandSecurityisatypicaleffectofelectricityBushisavictimofelectricity.(laughter)Randomaccessisclearlywhatweneedfromourmachinesthewaywehaveitagaininourownmind.

Hypertextuality,Imentioneditbefore,butIwouldliketosayonemorethingaboutit:weaspeople,withorwithouttechnology,practisehypertextualitynaturally.Butnowwehavetorecognizehowitworks,soIusuallyaskmyaudiencetosaywhethertheyreadtheirhoroscopeornot.AndIndthattherearenevermorethantwoorthreereallyhonestpeopleintheroom.Buthowdoesonereadoneshoroscopepractically?Youactuallyputtogetherthingsthatthishoroscopehaswrittenfor350,000peopleorfornobody,andcertainlynotforyou.Inanycase,youmakeityoursbypickingthis,that,andthat,andputtingittogether,andyoumakesense,hypertextuallyofthisthingthathadnothingtodowithyouinthebeginning.TheChinesehavebeendoingthisforfourthousandyears,usingtheI Ching,whichisamethodofthinkingwhereyouthrowthediceandwhatyouarelookingatisnotyourfutureatall.TheChinesedonthaveafutureitsthatenormouspresenceoftheirs,whichenclosedthefutureandthepast.Whenyouliveintotalpresencepermanently,youareinadeepsituationwhereeverythingisinterrelatedtoeverythingelse.Hypertextualityispickingwhateveritisthatisrelatedtoeverythingelsethatactuallymakessenseandconnectsatthemomentofyourthought.

Sonowweredealingwiththreespaces:weredealingwiththeorganicone,whichisthementalone,whichhasitsowndisciplines;weredealingwiththephysical,whichisthecityspace,whichiswherewearenow;andweredealingwithcyberspace,whichappearsonourscreen.Andsincewespendnowmorethanhalfourwakingtimeinfrontofascreen,whetheritsthatofyour telefonino,yourtelevision,oryourcomputer,Ithinkchronologyshouldbeinvented.

Thescreeniswherethephysical,mental,andvirtualspacecoincide.Isntitinterestingthatthereisaplacewherethethreeofthemaretogether,inakindofconstantinterchange?Wealsoseethatmind,thatappropriationoflanguagethathadputsomuchunderourpersonalandsilent,andinternalizedcontrol,whichmadeourselvesintheWesternalphabeticstructure,hadalsoendoweduswithaquantityofskillsincludingdesignandarchitecture.Butthequantityofskillsthatwehavehadmoreorlessintegratedeverynowandthenweusepaperandputitoutwritingitordesigningit.


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Allofthatnowisemigratingtothescreen,includingstrategiesofdesignandincludingthestrategiesoftheactual,physicalmovementofthedesign.Thehandsomehowischanging;theratioiscompletelychanged.Soisanyrelationofthemindfromthehandtothescreen,whereitsgoingtomeetotherminds.Itcouldverywellbethattheinventionofthescreenspurpose,theteleoofthepsychotechnological,orthetechnobiologicalintegrationbetweenpeopleandscreenactuallyisthewaybywhichpeoplecaninterconnectmentallyonthe

samespace.So,reasonsare[sharing]communication,sharingtheresponsibilityofmakingsensewiththescreen....Itisimportanttorealizethatthealphabetmadeourlivesabstract,andnowallofthatiscomingintoasecondarysenseofreality,asWalterOngsaid.Tactile,visual,auditory,olfactorytoacertainextent,andIamnotentirelysurepeopleworkedontaste,butsharingtheresponsibilityofmakingsenseofthescreenwearebasicallynotanymoreautonomousinthewaywewerewhenwewerejustsilentreaders.Penetratingthescreen,literally.Mymachinedirectconnectisthetendencyoftechnologytoday,whereyouwilllookatthescreenandgetandthinkaboutwhatyouarelookingforontheWebandyouwillbegettingit,ofcoursethesearchenginewillbehighlypertinentatthattime.

Thebodyelectric,asImentioned;weareconstantlyexchangingbetweenthebody

andtheworldinthiswholeelectronicenvironment.AndIjustwantedtoshowit,again,inaChinesecontext.Theinterestingthingisthatthisisafourteenth-centurydescriptionoftheacupuncturepoint,wheretheChinesewouldhaveknownverywellaboutthecurrentsinthebodyandtherelationshipofeverythingwithinthebodytoeverythingelse.Sonowwearepushingaworldfromtheworldofvision,thevisualdominance,totheworldoftouchthatiswhatisnowoccurringwithelectricity.AndsothewaywegofromvisualtotactileisthatwearemovingawayfromthepointofviewoftheRenaissancetothepointofbeingofthecybernaut:heissomewhere,hisbodyissomewhere,andthatswhereheis,butthepointofviewwasthatseparation.Heresacaseofa trompeloeilthefantasticstoryofthetrompe loeilwasinventedtogivethepowerofthehand,thepoweroftouchtotheeyealone.Itisliketheeyessayingtothehand,Idontneedyouanymore.Thedominanceofthevisualovertheothersensesinourcultureisgoingtobecharacteristic.Socomingtothis,whichisentirelythereverseofitin3-Dyoupenetratethescreen,yourenotanymoreexpulsedfromthespace,youreinvitedtoactuallyplaytheintervalsbetweenthevariousobjectswithinthespace.Sotheresacompletereversalofsensorialrealitythatishappeningareversalofperspectivewiththeendoftheory,aswell(hereIamtheorizinglikemad),butwedoalot.Butitstheendoftheoryasthedominantmodeoflearning,orthedominantmodeofpractising,multimedia,therecoveryofthesenses.Vuillardiswearingtheimageasanextensionoftheskin....

Ijustwanttosaythatweareimmersedinaseaofdata,soweremovingintoanextremelythickeraofreferencingandconnectingwiththeRFID.TheRFIDis

aradiofrequencyidentifyingdevice,anditcostsnomorethanyourlabelinyourshirt.Itisindividualized,andtheenergycomesfromlight,soitseasytosendmessagesinaradioemissionform.Nowitspossibletoknownotonlywhereyouare,butwhatyourewearing.Andthatkindofsituationcreatesanincrediblynewarchitecture,anarchitectureofconnectivity...Thisisacaseofdesignofarchitecturalnetworksinacommunitythisisthe[Single]Hub-and-SpokeNetworkwhereyouhavetheHubresponsibleforthedistributionofvariousthingswithinthenetwork.HerestheMulti-HubSmall-WorldNetwork,whichisyetanothercongurationthatdevelopedontheInternettoday.


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WhatIndveryinterestingabouttheconnectivity,forexample,ofblogs,isthatblogscreateanewkindoftechnologicalimageofapsychologicaldevelopmentthatshappeningrightnow.Ablogisaprojection,notanymoretheclosing-inonyourselfwithyourdiary,butprojectingandpostingyourideas,yourdiary,whatever,online,youdosoasamodeofinterestingpeopleinexchangingwithyou.Youthenhavemorethanjustaposting.Youhavethelistofthingsthatinteresttheblogger,andthenyouhavethenetworkoftheblogger,

whichisinconstantchange.Thatsanimageofanarchitectureofconsciousnessthatisnew,eventhoughitspractisedinvariousformats.Intheparticularfocussensethatthebloggerallowsyoutodo,wearedealingwithanewkindofsensibility.

Imjustgoingtonishonthis,thenewperspectiveforInternetarchitecture.TheInternetitselfisaself-organizingarchitecture,butithasreachedacertainpointofmaturity,anditneedstogotothenextstate.InternetTwoisthenewarchitecturethatisplannedfortheexistingInternet,whichwillnowbecalledInternetOne.Thatarchitecturecontainsprovisionsforincreasingthespeed,increasingthenumberofaccessURLs,facilitatingtheactualinterchangebetweenthem.InternetZeroisaninventionofthedirectorofthecenteratMIT,theCenterforBitsandAtoms,NeilGershenfeld,an

inventionthatactuallywouldnotharmtheexistingsituationoftheInternet.Itwouldremovecodeinsteadofaddingcode,thepracticeofMicrosoft,usually,andtheywouldactuallyallowtoconnectandthisiswhereitgetshoteverybulb,everywhereintheworld,everyelectricaldevice,anywhereintheworld,everyURL,everyaddress,everything.AndtheRFIDItoldyouabout,allofitinterconnected.Allofitaccessiblewithoutintermediateservers,thatsanotherthing,withouthandshakeproblems.Likeauniversalgenie.InternetZeroisreally,reallyaninterestingarchitectureforthefutureofartconsciousness.

CreativeCommonsisanotherbrilliantoneitstheideaofLawrenceLessigthatinsteadofhavingcopyrightseverywhere,whichstopsyoufromborrowing,taking,re-using,youhavecopygiven,creativecommons.Thatswhatitmeans:youclickonthatbuttonandyouopenupapagethattellsyou,herearetheconditionsbywhichyoucantakeandusethispiece.Nowthatsinarchitecture.JustlikeLinkouswasanarchitectureofintelligencebecauseitallowedallopensources,[this]allowspeopletoactuallygoandremodelwhateverthereisintheirownterms.Creativecommonsisthiscontent,whichisanextraordinary,brilliantarchitecture,ifyouwant,ofintelligence.

ButyouseethatswhyIwassayingatthebeginningarchitectureissingleisitsingleanymore?Itisnt.Itsimpossibleanymoretotalkaboutnetworkswithouttalkingaboutarchitecture.Ivetriedtosearchthecommongroundbetweenarchitectureandnetworks,andIfeelIhaveonlyhalfaccomplishedthematter....Butwhatcanwedowiththeaccumulateddataisexactlywhatweareabouttodiscusstodayandtomorrowwithvariousexperts.Iwillbeintroducing

thoseexperts,andIwouldliketoverymuchemphasizethateverybodyintheirquestionsisalsoinvitedtoproposesuggestionsofwhattodowiththeaccumulateddata.

ButIcantellyouonething:wereinvitingfromtheLibraryofCongressBrewsterKahle,whowasMr.Archive,andheisgoingtocomeandtellus,ifyouarchivetheWeb,howmanytimesdoyoudoit?Whatdoyoudowithit?Whatwithinitdoyoukeep?Whataretheconditions?ArchivingtheWebisaprocessthatsgoingonconstantly.Theresanenormousquantityofdatathatsgoing[on],anditsnotgoingtostop.AsIsaidbefore,themultiplicationis


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goingtobesuchthatstoringallofthatwillrequire,Isuppose,holographictechniques.Idontknowwhatitis.Whatdowekeepofgoingdigital?OneofthebiggestissuesattheLibraryofCongressisthatwedontwanttospendmoneybuyingthepaper[copy]ifanotherlibraryhasalreadyboughtit.SosomebodyshouldbetakingcareofTheAmerican Journal of History,forexample.Whatdowekeepofpaper?Whatdowekeepofgoingdigital?

Myexperience,thankstoFordPeatross,whoisamongusrighthereIwasallowedtogoandseetheplaceintheLibraryofCongresswherethearchitecturaldesignsarelaid.AndwhatIfoundIwassorryIdidnthavemyphotographmachinewasverynicely,beautifullydone.WhatIfoundwastheamazingquantityofpaperdocumentsthatoneisbothtemptedtokeepandtemptedtothrowaway.Theresananxietyconstantly.Whatcanyoukeepofallthat?Anythingbeforeacertainperiod,ofcourse,onceitsthere,itsthereitstobekept.Butofthethingsthatarecominguprightnow,therearetremendousproblemsandcrises de consciencethatarehappeningallthetime.Itisthatkindofcrise de consciencethattodaywearegoingtobeexaminingtogetheraninterestingone,ofcourse.Iwouldliketoremindpeoplethatthequestionswillbeallattheendoftherstofthefourspeakers,ofwhomIamtherst.Thankyou.

NowIhavethepleasureofintroducingMarcoFrascari....HisprofessionalexperiencebeganintheearlysixtiesunderthetutelageofCarloScarpa,andhehasmaintainedanarchitecturalpracticesince1970.HestudiedattheIstitutoUniversitariodiArchitetturadiVenezia,wherehereceivedadoctorateinarchitecturein1969.Hehaspublishedinmanyjournalsincluding Casabella,AA Files,Terrazzo,andtheNordic Journal of Architectural Research.HehasanimportantessaycalledTheTell-theTaleDetail,whichwaspublishedinTheorizing a New Agenda for Architecture.MarcoFrascariisgoingtotalkaboutwhatIwasjusttalkingabout,paper.Putitonpaper!MarcoFrascari.(applause)


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Marco Frascari: Architectural Ideas ... Put Them on Paper! / 9CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

Marco FrascariArchitectural Ideas Put Them on Paper!

Thankyou.Ireallyliketobehereandtotalkaboutpaper,ofcourse,andnowIhavetostartwithapersonalstory.Iwaselevenyearsold,Iwenttowatchamovie,andinthemovietherewasabutlerwhopulledouthiscuffandwrotedownnotesIlovedit!Iwenthomeandruinedtwoshirts,andmygrandmothercaught

me.Andshesaid,youknow,cometomychestofdrawers.Shepulledoutabox.Insideoftheboxtherewasabunchofcuffsandcollarsofmygrandfather,andsheshowedmeonewheretherewasTiamoRosina(IloveyouRosina).Thatwasprobablywhentheywereengaged.Andsheshowedmethatthecuffwasinpaper,andIwascompletelysurprised,becauseIdidntrealizehowreallypaperisallaroundus.Wearetalkingaboutallthispaperasasupportwhereyouwrite,butpaperisreallyadominantpart,tothepoint,forinstance,thatin1870,oneBostonmanufacturerwasproducing75millioncuffs,soitwasreallyanamazingstory.TherewasasonginLondoninthe1860s,wheretherefrainwasForpapernowisalltherage,andnothingelsewillsuittheage,anditwassungbythismanHowardPaul,andhewasalldressedinpaper!Itdoesntlooklikeitfromthedrawing,butIguesshewas.

Now,alittlepictureinansweringarequestmadebyanEnglishnewspapertoastaffmemberoftheIBMJ.T.WatsonResearchCenter:hewasaskedwhatwasthemostfamousinvention.HesaiditwastheChineseinventionofpaper,andhecomparedthepapertotheInternetbecauseinreality,paperandtheInternetbreakthebarriersoftimeanddistance.Andreally,architecturecameintheageofpaperinthefourteenthcentury.Basically,paperwasinventedbytheChinese,andmovedalongtheSilkRoutedowntotheArabs.Thereisaneleventh-centurytreatiseinArabiconTheWritingBaseofScribesandtheInstrumentsofTheirIntelligence,anditwasabouthowtomakepaper.Sopapercame,ofcourse,fromtheArabs,cametoEurope.Inthebeginningpaperwasreallyconsideredbadinthesensethatthechurchwasforbidding[scribes]towritethewordofGodonpaperbecausepaperwaspaganart,itcouldntbeusedfortheSacredWord.Butslowly,paperlandedonthetableofthearchitect,andIthinkpaperplayedamajorroleinthetransformationofarchitecture.Youcansee,forinstance,inthispaintingofLotto,thereisanarchitect,andofcourse,hesholdingupacompass,andwiththeindexheisreallytouchingthetopofthepaper.Unfortunately,thisisaslowmisunderstandingofthenatureofpaperinrelationshiptoarchitecture,andthathasbeencausedbytwolines:ononesidetheprofession,ontheothersideCartesianthinking,andtheprofessionisveryeasy.

IwasquitesurprisedwhenIcametotheStatesandIlearnedthatthelightyellowtracingpaperiscalledtrash.ThenIlearnedanotherwordandofcourse,Ididntknowwhatitmeantbumwad.ThenIwastold,dontusethatinfrontofclients!ButifyougoontheInternetandpunchinbumwad,you

getthatpicture,andtheysellit,withthename.Andbasically,whathappenedhereis,paperbecamesomethingthatdoesnthavevalue.Ofcoursethereareexceptions.Peoplecanusetracingpaperproperly,likeVenturiintheStates.Butpaper,becauseofthewaytheprofessionbilledtheclient,andbecauseofthecardsayingthatanimageislikealittlebitofinkthatwasthroughhereandthereonpaper,basically,heinventedtheinkjet.Paperdoesnthaveaninteractionwithwhatyouaredesigning,sotheworkofpaperhadbecomecompletelysettled.Andin1994,whentherewastheinventionoftheso-calledpaperlessstudio,therewasthispushingoutofpaper,thenegativefactoroftheprofession,andmovingfromtheanaloguetothedigitalmodewasthiswayof


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breakingtheconditionandpushingfortheenvironment.

Butinreality,tounderstandwhatsgoingonwithpaper,wehavetogoalittlebitbackintimeandusethisdistich,whichwas[used]foranalyzingthetextinmedievaltimes:Littera gesta docet, quid credas allegoria Moralis quid agasquo tendas anagogia.Basically,itisthefoursensesofwriting:theliteral,theallegorical,themoral,andtheanagogical.Nowadrawingreallyhasthese

fourconditions:itisliteralbecauseitistellingyoutheenvelopeofthebuilding;allegoricalbecauseyouhavetorelyonthiskindofmodicationofrepresentation;moralbecauseithastorespecttheverysimpleway,thebuildingcode;andwhatispointingistheanagogical.Nowwhenwetransfertheideafromanalogicaltodigital,weloseananogogia,andthat,Ithink,isthekeyissue:thatweshouldreallybeabletounderstandhowanalogyisinthedrawingoronthepaper.

Nowtotrytounderstandabitbetterwhatanagogymeans,Ihavetodoalittlebitofetymology.AnagogycomesfromtheGreek,anditisthecombinationoftwowords,ana (above,high),andagein(tolead).TheproperLatintranslation,whichwasdoneimmediately,wassursumductio,andcanbefoundinwritingsofIsidoreofSeville,VenerableBede,orRabanusMaurus.Butslowly,theword

anagogia cameout,andreally,inarchitecturaldrawings,theliteral,theallegoricalsenserefersstrictlytoanalogicalconstructsthatspeaktothetectonicandformalimagination.Andofcoursetheyaredidascalicinthatsense,thetropologicalsense,whichis,themoralsensespeakstotheintellectfreefromtheimagination.Butwhatisthemostimportantisanagogia,whichreallyspeakstothetailorsofthatdrawing,demonstratingthatbasicallythefutureisinfrontofthepast.Anditisveryimportanttounderstand,especiallyinthedistich,thatanagogiaisthelastone.Thereweremanywaysthatithasbeenmemorizedforteaching,butthereisalwaysthisconditionanagogyisthelastone.

Soitisinthisformalequalitiveconditionthatarchitectureisdrawntoanalogy.Ofcourse,asweknow,architecturestartedpaperlessapaperlessstudiowasnothingnew.This,forinstance,isthestorythatIcopiedfromabookabouthowpeoplewenttobuildapaperlessbuilding.Onewenttothesitemarkedwithpegsandthenlookedwherethewoodswere,wherethecitywas,wheretheriverwas.Hemadealltheconnectionsnecessarytobuildabuilding,andthatwastherststep.Thenthesecondstepwastheuseofthetracingoor.Therewasdrawing,butthisdrawingtookplaceonsite,andtheywereinlargedimensions.Theybelongedtothebuildingandtheoperationwasthere.Now,ofcourse,thenextstepistheanalogicalstep,anditisbeautifullydescribedbyCesareCesariano.Thetestiswhenheshowstheiconographiathatistheplanofthecathedral,Milancathedral,andhesaysthaticonographiaisanimpressionmadeoverthegroundorondust(heisreferringtothetraditionalabacus,whichwasatrayfullofsand)(thisoneismyfavourite)oronpasta.Icould

imaginetheguyrunningwiththepastaandalargesheet,andworkingthissteponthatoronsnow...andthatisdonewithstepsandleavingprints.

Andthen,ofcourse,thegamebecomesthatthisoperationonpaperisdonewithtwothings:thecompass(andthatisclearlyanalogical),thelegofthecompassbecomesthelegofthearchitectonthesite,andwiththelitmus,whichisthedevicethattheRomanaugurusedtogureoutthetemple.Andthelitmusisthisdeviceyouknow,thetempleissomethingthatwasinthesky,notontheground,soyouhadtodrawwiththisstickofwood(whichwassupposedtonotburn)thefourdivisions,waitingfortheightofbirds.Thenitwasthe


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asotto lucido,hasbeenconceivedasasotto lucido,bywhichasecondpersonwillsetontop,understandingallthenotationsthatarearound.Hewillpreparethepieceoflucidotobeprintedandthensentforproduction.Nowinthissense,thefoursensesareinthedrawing,buttheanagogicislostwhenitistransferred.TheoneonthebottomisbyLouisKahn,andthisisexactlytheoppositemode.Thedraftsmanpreparesthedrawingandheputsapieceofyellowtracingpaperontopandhepullsitout,theanagogicsense.Sothe

threesenses,theliteral,themoral,andtheallegorical,areleftinthe sottolucido.Andtheanagogiccomesonlyinthelucidoperformedincharcoalanddrawing.Sobasically,paperisthisamazingdevice,thatifwearegoingtotransferourunderstandingtothedigitalworld,meansnotonlythatwehavetounderstandhowthephenomenonofpaperwasrelatedtotheanalogicalrealm,buthowtheanagogicalconditionisthere.It[then]becomesverydifculttoknowifthearchitectureisinthestone,inthepaper,orintheInternet.Butthekeyquestionis,whatisthatmeaningthatwecanusebehindtheline?Thankyou.(applause)

BENJAMINPROSKY:Thankyouverymuch,Marco.Wewilltakeashort,twenty-minutebreakforcoffee....


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Peter Galison: Epistemic Machines: Image and Logic / 14CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

that,infact,scienceisdividedintoblocksthatarediscontinuouslyrelatedonetotheother.Theoryandobservationwenttogetherintheoldaccount,forinstance,ofNewtonandclassicalphysics,andthatwasreplacedbyanewwayoflookingattheoryandobservationunderEinstein.Betweenthemwasarevolutionaryparadigmaticbreak,achangeinprogram,aradicaldisjuncturesoenormouslydeep-goingthatitreallybecameimpossibletospeakaboutscienceasbeingaunitaryphenomenonthatcarriedonovertime,insteadonlyin

discontinuousblocks.

WhatIwanttoproposetodayinthisdiscussion,andwhatIhavebeenpursuinginmyworkforquitesometimenow,istothinkofthisinaratherdifferentway.Tosaythattheanti-positivistslikeKuhn,forinstance,wereontosomethingveryimportantwhentheysaidthatobservationwasnotcontinuous,thatcertainthingscameintoviewaspossibleobservationsandotherthingsbecameimpossibleastheorychangedthatstrue.Butthat,infact,fromthepointofviewofthedifferentsubculturesofphysics,fromthesubcultureoftheexperimentalists,thetheorists,andtheinstrumentmakers,therearedifferentperiodizationstheydontmarchinlockstep.Thattheinstrumentmakersmayndabreakwiththeinventionofthecloudchamber,forexamplethatsnotabreakforthetheorists.Thetheoristsmayseeabreakinthedevelopmentofgeneral

relativitythatsnotabreakfortheexperimentalists,andsoon.Infact,theintercalatednatureofthisperiodization,thewaythattheyttogetherlikeabrickwalloranoldstonefence,givesitthestrengththatwerecognizeinscience.Whatsinterestingtoscientistsis,infact,thattheyareabletomoveacrossdifferenttheories.Butpartly,Iwanttosuggest,notbecausetheoryiscontinuousorindeedanypartofsciencebyitselfiscontinuous.Rather,becausethebreaksoccurdifferentlysincetheyareintercalatedratherthanlinedup.

Butthatraisesanotherquestion.Iftherearereallythreesubculturesofphysicsormore,howdotheytalktooneanother?Howisitpossiblefortheexperimentalists,whonddifferentwaysofprovingthingsordemonstratingthingsthanthetheoristsdo,iftheyhavedifferentepistemicapproachestothediscipline,thenhowdotheyhavecontact?Andwhatsbeenveryusefultomeinthinkingaboutthisistothinkaboutthedifferentculturesofphysics,orofscience,moregenerally,asbeingratherstronglyanalogoustothelanguagesthatweknowineverydaylife.

Whenanthropologicallinguistsaddressthewaylanguagesrelate,theydont,infact,lookonlyatradicaldisjunctionsoflanguage,whichisthemodel,forsay,theKuhnianpictureofgreatepistemicrevolutionarybreaks.Rather,theanthropologicallinguistshaveincreasinglybeeninterestedinthewaypartialexchangelanguagesorinter-languagesfunction.Theydistinguishbetweenjargons,verylimitedtermsthataresharedbydifferentlanguages,andpidgins,whicharemoredevelopedsetsofwaysofspeakingthatallow,forinstance,awheat-growingculturetoexchangegoodswithash-basedculture.Butthesearenow

moredevelopedinordertoallowthemtomaketheseveryimportantexchanges:tonegotiateagreements,toformculturalcommonalitiesbetweenthem.AndthenthereareCreoles,whicharefull-edgedinter-languagesthataredevelopedtothepointwhereyoucangrowupinthem,andinacertainsense,allofourmodernlanguagesarethemselvesCreolesofearliercombinations.Theresnoreasontothinkthatthereis,fromeverythingweknowaboutthehistoryoflanguage,tothinkthatEnglish,orFrench,orGermanareprimordiallanguagestheyarethemselvescompositionsofearlierlanguages.Andinfact,thatstherule,nottheexception.


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SowhatIwanttodoistolookatthis.Take,forexample,chemistryandbiology,andtoseetheformationofaninter-languagethateventuallybecomesbiochemistry,butbeginswithverylimitedterms,developsintoamoreelaborateformofexchange,andeventuallyblossomsintoadiscipline,biochemistry,thatonecanindeedgrowupin.Thathappenstoo,inwaysthatIllpointto,betweentheinstrumentmakers,theexperimentalists,andthetheorists.WhatdoImeanbyatraditionofmaterialculture?Ihaveinmindthreelayersofhanding-down,the

literalmeaningoftraditioninthissense.

First,thereisatraditionoftechnology.So,forexample,onegoesfromthecloudchamber,whichisadevicethatprecipitatedlittledropletsofwateraroundthetrackofachargedparticleasitwentthroughthechamber(youmayhaveseentheseverybeautifuldevicesthatleavethesewispytracksinthem,indemonstration);tobubblechambers,whicharedevicesthatmaketinylittlebubblesboilingasifachargedparticlegoesthroughthem;tolm,whichcanbeusedtoallowaparticletoskimalongthesurfaceofthelmandthendevelopitandlookatthetinydepositionsofsilvercompositesthatallowonetofollowthetracksunderamicroscope.Andsoatonelevel,Imtalkingaboutatechnologicaltradition,ahanding-downontheonesideontheimagetraditionofoptics,photography,ofthemeasurementofthepathofparticles,andonthe

othersidethemoreelectronic,logical,statisticaltradition.Ihaveinmindtheuseofhigh-voltagemachines,electronics,scalers,whicharedevicesthatcount,andsoon.

Thentheresthetraditionofpedagogy.Andwhenonelooksatthehistoryofexperimentalscience,oneseesthattherearecertainformsofdevicesthatarehandeddown,justasthecloudchamberandthebubblechamber,andthelmsharecertaintechniques.Alsotheactualhanding-downfromphysicistslike[Robert]Millikan,whowontheNobelPrizeforshowingthatyoucanmakelittledropletsformaroundindividualelectronsanddeterminetheircharge,hisstudentAnderson,whobuiltcloudchambers,hisstudentGlaser,whobuilttherstbubblechamber,andsoon.Peopletendtoremain,generationaftergeneration,scienticgenerationaftergeneration,withinthesepedagogicaltraditionsthatcarryon,forinstance,fromthecloudchambertothebubblechamber,orfromtheemulsiontothebubblechamber,orfromthecloudchambertoemulsion,ratherthancrossingfromonetotheother.

Andnally,theresatraditionofdemonstration,anepistemictradition.Therearecertainwaysofarguingthatarecharacteristic,thatgowitheachofthesetraditions.So,forexample,withintheimagetradition,physicistsfrommanyscienticgenerationsandoverallofthesedifferentinstrumentsbubblechambers,cloudchambers,nuclearemulsions,thatistosay,lmstherearegoldenevents,individualimagesthataresoclear,socompellingtothephysicscommunitythatthatformsakindofdemonstration.Whereasontheotherside,isthesidecombiningclicksandcountsofobjectsfromadevicelike

aGeigercounter,whereanyoneclickmeansnothingandonlythestatisticalaggregationofclicksamountstosomething.Ihaveinmindthesethreemeaningsofatraditionoracultureofphysicsattheinstrumentallevel:technology,pedagogy,andtheepistemicformsofdemonstration....

Lookingbackatthehistoryofphysicsoverthecourseofthetwentiethcenturyofparticlephysics,insteadofsaying,letsbreakthisupintothegreatdiscoveriesoreventhegreatobjectsofphysicsfromatomstoquarks,forinstance,asastandardwayofunderstandingthedevelopmentofmodernphysicalscience,insteadyoucouldsay,letslookatthesetwotraditions.Ontheone


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standardaccountofwhatlaunchedrain,howrainworked.Itwas,theythought,thecondensationofwaterarounddustparticles.

Well,Wilsonsawthisandbegantowonderwhetheritmightbepossibletochangethedevicethisisoneofhisrstsketchesofwhathewantedtodofrom1895buthechangedsomethingveryinteresting.Aitken,whoinventedthedustchamber,wouldtakeasample,whichyouseeontheleft,fromthereservoirfromthelocal

atmosphere,pumpitintothereservoir,andthenitwouldgointothechamberwherethepumpwouldchangethepressureandcausethedropletstogoaroundthedustparticles,whichwouldfallonaglassslide.Wilsontookessentiallythesamedevice,buthelteredtheairbeforeitwenttothereservoir.Nowonthefaceofthings,thatshouldhavemadethisdevicecompletelyuseless:itwasdesignedtomeasuredust.ButWilsonhadthehopethathemightbeabletoshowthatwaterdropletscouldcondensearoundions,atomsthatweresomehowmoreorlesschargedthantheirnormalneutralstatewouldindicate.Sohechangedthis,andhechangeditbecausehehadbeenexposedtothenewphysicaltheoriesandnewphysicalapproachesoftheCavendishLaboratoryofCambridge.WhatWilsondidwasessentiallytosay,howcouldweusethisdevicethatsusedtomeasuredustjustordinarydustthatyoucansometimesevenseewiththenakedeye,orcertainlywithamicroscopeandinsteaduseittoexploreapossiblesourcefor

rainontheonesideorawayoftrackingtheseions,ontheother,bylookingatwaterdropletscondensingnowaroundpuriedair,aroundairthathasnodustinit.

Wilsonsoonbegantoseesomethingquiteastonishing.Peoplehadbeguntopredictthatatoms,actuallywhentheycollidedwithoneanother,werelikelittleBBshittingoneanother.Notthatmatterwasmorelikeapudding,butratheritwasdividedasRutherfordarguedintoveryhardnucleisurroundedafterabigdistancebyelectrons.Sopeoplebegantospeculate,asinthispicturehere,abouthowthosecollisionswouldlook.WhenWilsonactuallycouldshowphotographsofchargedparticlesmovingthroughhiscloudchamberitscalledacloudchamberbecauseitreallyissuedfromhisinterestinclouds,butsuddenlywasabletoseethepathsofindividualparticlestheylookedsomuchlikewhatthephysicistshadexpectedthatitcausedatruesensation,andalmostimmediatelyphysicistsaroundtheworldthisisstartinginabout1913begantosaythiswouldbeawayofactuallyseeingatoms,ofmakingtheinvisibleworldofphysics,visible.

Ontheotherside,thatistosay,onthelogicside,peoplewerebeginningtocombineGeigercountersusingcomplicatedwhatforthetimewascomplicatedelectronics,andevenbeganexploringwaystouseGeigercounters,undercertaincircumstances,tolaunchacloudchamber.[Theywere]tryingtocombinetheenormouslyhelpfulabilityofthecounterstopickoutacertainkindofeventandtocountonlythoseeventsthatareinteresting,andtocombinethatabilitytobeselectivewiththebeautifulvisualizationcapabilitiesofthe

cloudchamberandthiswasadevicelikethat.Somephysicistsintheearly1930sweretryingtousecounterstolaunchthecloudchamberonlywhensomethinginterestinghappenedonlywhen,say,countersA,B,andCred,butnotD,E,andF.Byusingcountersinthisselectiveorlogicway,theycouldgetmorecontroloverthecloudchamber.

Andthecloudchamber,meanwhile,blossomedintooneofthemostinuentialinstruments...insomeways,thersthalfofthetwentiethcenturyhadthecloudchamberthewayearliercenturieshadthemicroscopeorthetelescope.Thecloudchamber,inthispicture,showinganelectronspirallingaroundina


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magneticeldasitlosesenergyandwindsinahelixmoreandmoretightly,wassofascinatingthat[they]evenbegantomakeatlases,scienticatlases,ofcloudchamberpictures,whichiswherethispictureisfrom.Andtheyoungphysicistswouldstudytheseatlasesthewayyoungdoctorswouldstudyatlasesofphysiology,abnormalphysiology,orpathologicalphysiology,inordertorecognizethingsthatwerenew.Inthiscase,thephysicists,ratherthanndingdeparturesfromthenormtobepathologicalasthedoctorsdid,theywouldsay,

onceyoulearnedwhatthestandardpictureswere,thehopewasthatthenifyousawsomethingdifferentitwouldbeadiscovery.

Sothisnewformofdevicebecamethebasisforanewkindofepistemology,anewwayoflookingattheworld,andnewkindsofargumentsbegantodevelopoutofit.Inasense,youcouldseethehistoryofthecloudchamberthisway.Youcouldthinkof,in1895,Wilsonjoiningtwocompletelydisparateelds,ontheoneside,Cambridge-stylemattertheorywhatismattermadeof,aretheylittleions,howbigaretheseions,howdotheycomposetheordinaryobjectsthatweknowandthenthisothertradition,practised,forinstance,highuponBenNevis,tryingtounderstandwhatmadethunderstorms,howdotheywork,howdidlighteninghappen,howdidlarge-scalemeteorologyfunction.WhatWilsondidwastodosomethingthatwasacontributiontoboth,andindeedwasinseparable

fromboth.Hewaslookingathowwatercondensedonionsthatshowedtheionphysicistswheretheionswere,becauseyoucouldseethesedroplets,andwatchthepathsthattheymadeorevenmovethedropletsaroundasMillikandidtodeterminehowmuchchargetherewasonanelectron.Ontheotherside,itwasawayofshowinghowrainformed,andWilsonbelievedverystrongly,againstwhatwelatercametothinkaboutrain,Wilsonbelievedstronglythatthiswasthetruesourceoftherainthatmadeupthunderstorms.

Soforsomeyearsbetween1895and1911,roughlyspeaking,therewasonesubject,anewsubjectcomposedasahybridofmattertheoryandthunderstormtheory,ifyouwill,orthunderstormobservations,andthatyoumightcallcondensationphysicsitwasthecondensationofvapouraroundachargedparticlethatwasatoneandthesametimepartofunderstandingmatterandpartofunderstandingdrops.Inabout1911thatbeginstosplinterintoalltheseotherareas,butforthisperiodofsixteenyearstheresajointfeel.Theyformwhatyoucouldcallatradingzone,aninter-languagethatsmaterializedinthesenewdevices,aformofactinginthelaboratorythatisbothconnectedtomorphologicalmeteorologyandCambridge-styleanalyticmattertheory.

Andthatsthephenomenonthatinterestsme,whereyouseethedifferentscienticculturesorevenscienticandnon-scienticculturesjoiningtogether,sometimesforlongperiods,sometimesforshortperiods,borrowingpiecesofeachandcombiningthemintoaconjoinedeffort.Wilsonsstudentsgoon.Theybecometheleadingcloudchamberphysicists.Theyarealsothepeoplewhobegintodevelopnuclearemulsions.Oneofhisstudents,[C.F.]Powell,isinterested

insteam,andsteaminthewayturbineswork....Powellactuallydiddetailedstudiesofhowsomethingaspracticalassteamfunctionedinthesemassiveturbines.HealsobecameinterestedinhowsteamworkedinexplosivevolcaniceruptionslikethisoneonMontserrat,whichwasatremendousfear.Infact,Powellwastheretostudytheseverydangerousexplosionsinwhichsuperheatedsteamgoesdownunderthelavaandmakesitpossibleforthelavatotravel,notatastatelypace,butactuallytoracedowntheslopestoofastforanyonetogetoutoftheway.Theseareextremelydangerousformsofvolcaniceruptions,andPowellwassenttotheislandtounderstandthewaythiscondensationphysicsworked.


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OneoftheinterestingthingshedoesisgettoMontserrattosetupobservers,whathecallsuntrainedobservers,whoaregoingtomakeseismographicandotherformsofobservationallovertheisland.Thatbecomesextremelyimportantforhimwhenhehearsaboutthenewdiscoveriesthatarebeingmadeinphysics,and,inparticular,hearsaboutthediscoveryinthe1930sofnuclearssion.Sohecomesbackandbeginstotrytousethecloudchambertostudythisnewphenomenon.Hesoondiscoversthatitsnotreallyaverygoodinstrumentfor

that,buttakesthisvisualorientationandstartstothink,HowelsecouldImakethesechargedparticlesvisible?Andhesays,MaybeIcoulddoitwithlm.Interestinglyenough,hetakesapieceoflmthisisprobablynobiggerthanacoupleofpostagestampsanddividesitintolittlesectorsandsendsthemouttowhathecallsuntrainedobservers.Again,modellingwhathesdoinginthelaboratorynowonthewaytheseobservationsofvolcanicactivityhadbeenorganizedbackontheislandofMontserrat.AndhesendsthemouttogroupA,groupB,groupC.Eachoneofthemreceivesatinysliceofthelmandthenhastostudyitunderenormouslydelicatemeasurementsthroughthemicroscope.Thatinstrumentthengetsadaptedusinglminthiswaytostudyhownuclearssionworksinbombphysics.

Infact,foralongtimeitwasagreatmysterytomewhyinthemiddleandjust

afterWorldWarIIthisstudyofthesenuclearemulsions,justordinarylm,totrytoseehowandwhereparticlesgo,wassolavishlyfundedwhen,infact,inBritainin46,47,48,everyone,insciences,inparticular,wasdesperateformoney;therewasnomoneyforanyofthis.Itturnsoutfromthesedeclassieddocuments,oneIshowyouhere,thattheemulsionhadactuallybeenveryusefulinunderstandinghowneutronsmovearoundinatomicbombs,andthiswasworkthatwasconductedinpartinCanadainChalkRiverandpartinEngland,andtheninpartintheUnitedStates.Andsolittlebylittletheyneededtogetbetterandbetterlm.Oneoftheirproblemswastheyhadlmlikethatshownontheleft,herethatwasverydifculttoactuallyseethetrackandmeasureitagainstthebackgroundofrandomothersilverparticles.SothephysicistsstruckwhatIthinkofasaCassandradealwithIlfordandKodak,andtheysaidtoKodakandIlford,Willyoumakeusanemulsionthatwillshowthetracksofallparticlesverybeautifully?andthecompanysaid,Sure,wellmakeyoualmlikethat,butwellhavetodoitinsuchawaythatwewillnevertellyou,ever,howthislmworks.Wewilldesignthisinsuchawaythatyouwillneverreallyhavethecondencethatyouunderstandyourowninstrument,butwewillmakeyoualmwhereyoucanseeeverything,butyoumaynotbeabletobelieveit.

Inanycase,thephysicistsacceptedthedeal.Theyhadlittlechoice;itwassuchcomplicatedchemistry.TherewasonlyonephysicistintheworldwhowasactuallyabletomaketheseemulsionsandIllcometohiminamomentbutthepictureontherightiswhatwasgivenbythesenewemulsions.Theonephysicistwhowasabletodothisonhisown,actuallyaCanadianphysicistnamedDemers,showedhowhethoughtoftheeldinthisveryinterestingpicture.

Itmaybehardtoread,soletmejustgiveyoubroadoutline.Hesaysthattherearetwoaspects:theaspect processusandtheaspect detection,andheessentiallydividestheworldintophysicistswhoarelookingatthewaycosmicrayswork,thewaythebasicelementsofmatterfunctiontheyreonthetopandalltheapplicationsthattheyregoingusetheselmsforareupthere.Andthentherearethepeople,insomepartslikehim,whoareinterestedinthewaylmworksandwhatthistellsus,muchthewayWilsonwasinterestedinthewaythedropletscondensedovertheions,andyoucouldeitherthinkofthatastellingyouaboutdropletsortellingyouaboutions.


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Mario Carpo: Building with Geometry, Drawing with Numbers / 25CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

divide,but[theyare]notgoodformultiplying.Onthecontrary,thesecondway,whichisstillonthescreen,obligestheusertoreadthemeasurementswithproportionsinthedrawing,inthiscase,sexagesimaldegrees;multiplythesenumbersbyoneormoreothernumbersinordertodeterminethenaldimensionsoftherealsizeoftheobject.Thissecondmethod,whichpresupposes,requires,numeracy,andtheuseofHindu-ArabicnumeralstoperformthebasicfouroperationsofarithmeticwasarelativelynewdisciplineinEuropeinthe

fteenthandsixteenthcenturies,whenitwasknowasalgorism,fromtheLatinizednameofitsinventor,Al-Khwarizmi,aninth-centuryscientistfromBaghdad,acitywhichstillexists(orstillexistedtwohoursago).

Theoldgeometricalmethodhadsomeadvantages.Itdidnotrequiretheuseofnumbersadecisiveadvantageatatimewhenmostpeopledidnotknowhowtousenumbers,andmodern,Hindu-Arabicnumbersdidnotexist.(nextpicture)[Roman]numbersarenotgoodforcalculating.Wecandothatontheleft,buttryanddothatwiththenumbersontheright,andwewouldstillbehereverylateintheday.Wecoulduseanabacusorngerreckoning,butthenyouwouldneed136ngers!Soadditionally,asequenceofgeometricalinstructions,astheoneswehaveseen,isanarration,arecitalofsorts.Itcanberecitedaloud,unfoldinginrealtimemoreorless,asIdidthetimethatisnecessaryto

performtheoperationsthataredescribed.Andthenasnow,oneremembersastorymoreeasilythanalistoftelephonenumbers:geometryisthedoctoroforality,andagoodfriendofmemory.Onthecontrary,thenewnumber-basedinstructionsofVignolaandPalladioaredifculttomemorize,andtheyarebetterrecordedandtransmittedinwriting.(nextpicture)Theyareevenbetterrecordedandtransmittedinprint.ThisisVignolasrulesoftheorders,translatedintonumbersbyanineteenth-centurymanualforthecoledesBeaux-Arts.Difculttolearnbyheart,butalso,itisbetterifitcanbeprintedratherthanhand-copied,becausemechanicalreproductionreducestheriskofmistakesthatwouldinevitablyoccurwhencopyistscouldtranscribepagesandpagesofapparentlymeaninglessnumbers.Nowprintmadethistransmissionreliable.

Thegeometricalway,however,featuredanotherevenmorecrucialadvantage.Ageometricalconstruction,suchasthedivisionofasegmentintotwoequalparts,isanentirelymechanicalandanalogoperationthatcanbeperformedregardlessofscaleorsize.Withasmallpairofcompasses,itcanbecarriedoutatthesmallscaleofadrawingonpaper,providedthatyoudohavepaperweknowwhenthathappened.Withabiggerpairofcompasses,youcanperformtheverysameoperation,butattherealsizeofthebuildingoratanyotherscale,forthatmatter.(nextpicture)ThisisSerliostitlepage,1540,andtheladyinthemiddle,Mrs.Architecture,asithappens,doesnthavemanyaccoutrementsonher,butshedoeshaveabigpairofcompassesyoucanseethatfairlybig.ItrytocarryasmallpairofcompassesbecauseIwantedtomakeanon-sitedemonstration,butthatwasfoolishofme.Icouldnotbringthemontheplane;theyweredetectedbyametaldetector.Ihadtoexplaintothecustomssecurity

ofcerwhatthatthingis.Isaid,Well,Ineedthemtoargue,asIamtryingtoargue,butforcenturiesthiswasaweaponofmassconstruction.(laughter)Whichinretrospectwasnotawisethingtosaysecurityofcersarenotkeenonlearningthehistoryofarchitecture,sodontdothat!Butanyway,weagreethatgeometricalconstructionsareatoolforbuildingifyouusethemwithabigpairofcompasses,aswellas...atoolfordrawing,ifIhadhadherethesmallpairofcompasses,whichIhadtoleaveatthesecuritycontrol.Somuchsothatinageometricalenvironmentthemakingofscaledprojectdrawingsmaysometimesbeunnecessary.Letsthinkofitgeometrycangeneratetherealthingatrealsizeontherealsitewithouttheneedtogothroughthelaboriousmediationofa


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havebeenabsolutelyimpossiblein1567.Thisisthediagramofageometricalconstructionthatyoushouldfollowinordertocutthestonesthatyouwillthenusetobuildthatthingthatyouhavejustseen.

Sogeometryisaboutcontinuouslinesandsurfaces.Numbersarediscreteentities,andclassicalgeometryneitherneeded,norusedthem.Indeed,someclassicalthinkersandscientistshadlittleaffectionfornumbers,andinthe

classicalage,manypracticalissuesthatwenowsolvewithnumbersweresolvedwithgeometry.

Butasithappens,intheseventeenthcenturynumberstookover.Differentialcalculusempowerednumberstodescribecontinuity,andthroughanalyticgeometry,curvescouldbewrittendownasalgebraicequations.Thisisinfactwhatwemostlystilldo,asformostofusanellipseisanX,Yfunction,notaconcoctiontobeobtainedmechanicallywitharope,astencil,andtwonails,whichiswhatSerliocouldhavedone.Anditisalsowellknown,asGregLynnhasbeenreiteratingforyears,thatarchitectsdidnotstarttousecalculusasatooltocreateformsasadeviceofdesignuntilsometenorperhapsfteenyearsago.Thiswaswhencomputersrstmadedifferentialcalculusavailabletothemasses,sotospeaknotsomuchcalculus,asthepossibilityofvisualizing

continuousfunctionsgeneratedbyalgebraicequations.Andasweallknow,thisbroughtformalcontinuityprominentlybacktothearchitecturalcentrestageafteranexileofalmostvecenturies.

Imustabridgethestoryandsimplifyherealittlebitbecauseitisevident,butcontinuityofformdidnotcompletelydisappearduringthevecenturiesofthedominionofthenumber.Letusjustthinkofthesurvivaloftraditionalstereotomywellintotheseventeenthcentury,andoccasionallybeyond.OrletusthinkofAntoniGaud,orErichMendelsohn,oreventhelaterworkofLeCorbusier.Butineachofthesecasesthereissomeexplanation.Duringtheageofarchitecturalnumeracy,non-measurableformscouldstillbebuiltfollowingthetraditionalgeometricalapproach,orbyusingthemodernnumber-basedmethodindisguiseand,infact,somehow,cheating.Wemustkeeptheseexceptionsinmind.Yetwhatfollowsfromalltheaboveisachallenging,andattimes,excitinghistoricalparadox.

Ifall,orifevenonlysomeoftheaboveistrue,wemustcometotheconclusionthatoneofthemainconsequencesofthedigitalrevolutioninarchitectureistherevivalofgeometryasatoolfordesign.Asmostrevivals,thisisnotexactlytherevivalofthesame:somemorerecentdevelopmentsingeometryarenowalsoinvolved,andwhatisbeingbroughtbacktolifeisgeometrytranslated,rst,intoanew,number-basedformatbyseventeenth-centurycalculus;second,translatedintoanewmachine-readableformatbytwentieth-centuryelectroniccomputing.Thisnewgeometricaltoolfordesignismanagedbymachines,andtheobjectsthatwecanproduceusing,letmesay,computer-basedgeometry,are

machine-madenothandmade.Wecannowmassproducewhatusedtobeartisanalpices uniquesamarginalpointintheeconomyofthispaper,butamajorpointintheglobaleconomyofthepresent,asthisisonereasonwhywemustusethenewtechnologiesandmakethemostofthem.

Butgeometryisstillgeometry,regardlessofthemachinesthatprocessitcompassesorcomputers.Notonlyisgeometryaboutcontinuityofform,itisalsoasitalwayswasaprocessthatismostlyindifferenttoscale.Theseparationbetweendesignandbuildingsite,anestrangementthatstartedwiththeriseofarchitecturalnumeracyandtheavailabilityofpaperin


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theRenaissance,isnowbeingepistemicallychallengedbyle-to-factorytechnologies,wherebythesamesoftwaremanagescomputer-generatedimagesaswellasthethree-dimensionalmanufacturingofthesameobject.Intime,thegapbetweendesignandproduction,whichstartedinthesixteenthcentury,willmostlikelybereducedbythelogicofthenewdigitaltools.Thesetoolsarenew,buttheirlogicisnotitwasinforceanditworkedwellformanycenturiesbeforethemechanicalageofprinteddrawingsandnumbers.Infact,fully

digitalprojectsareactsofdesign,butinspiteofoccasionallymisleadingappearances,suchdesignsarenotbasedondrawings.Eachdigitaldesignisideallyathree-dimensionalersatzorreplacementofanobjectforwhichallmeasurementsareknownandautomaticallycalculatedinathree-dimensionalspaceofx,y,zcoordinates.Althoughendlesstwo-dimensionalimagesofthisobjectcanbeprintedoutatwill,thesourceandmatrixofallofthesevariablemanifestationsisavirtualsubstitutefortheobjectitself.Allpartsandeachpointofthisdigitalarchetypecanbeautomaticallydrawn,measured,andbuilt.Theironlawoftransferencefromdrawingtobuildingifyoucannotmeasureit,youcannotbuildithasceasedtobe.Inadigitalenvironment,ifyouhaveadrawingyoualreadyhaveallofitsmeasurements,ortobepreciseyoudonthavethemyourcomputerhasthem.

Itisacommonplaceofthedigitalrevolutionthatthenewdigitalenvironmentisinmanywaystheprintenvironmentinreverse.Asmanyhavepointedout,thenewdigitalenvironmentisclosertotheageofthemanuscriptasitexistedbeforetheageofprint,thanitistotheageofprintthatisnowcomingtoanend.Anassessmentofthersttenyearsofthedigitalrevolutioninarchitecturewouldappeartoreinforceandtocorroboratethisassumption.AsIcouldjustbrieyhintathere,numeracycouldexertitsinuenceoverarchitecturaldesignonlywhennumbersanddrawingscouldbeprintedtogether.ItistheallianceofArabicnumeralsandprintedimagesthatbroughtabouttheriseofarchitecturalnumeracyandchangedthecourseofarchitecturalhistoryinthesixteenthcentury.Now,asitseems,thenewdigitaltoolsarebringingarchitecturaldesignbacktoanEdenicstateofpuregeometry,whichiswherearchitecturelivedandthrivedforcenturiesbeforethatparadisewaslost,asitfellunderthedominionofnumeracyandofprint.

Butifthisisso,andthisismyconclusion,ThomasAquinas,averyunlikelynameinthisenvironment,andrightontheeveofarevolutionofprintandnumeracy,LeonBattistaAlbertitheycouldprobablyunderstandthepresentdigitalenvironmentandtheprinciplesofcontemporarydigitaldesignmuchbetterthanWalterBenjaminorMiesvanderRohecouldorwouldtomentiononlytwoofthemosteminentadvocatesofartanddesignintheageofidenticalmechanicalreproduction.ForAquinasandAlbertilived,aswedo,inauniverseofvariablemedia.Forthem,thexityofprintandmeasureddrawingshadyettocome.Forus,thexityofprintandmeasureddrawingshasalreadygone.Anditiscertainlyoneofthemostsignicantparadoxesthatmarkthelateststageinthe

evolutionofnumber-basedcomputingthatthankstocomputers,wecannowmostlyforgetaboutnumbers,andwhennecessary,manipulateintersectingcurvesandbendingsurfacesregardlessofscaleandmeasurabilityjustasourancestorsdidatthetimeofcompasses.Computersarejustasgood,andtobehonest,inmanyways,Ithinktheycanevenbebetter.Thankyou.

DERRICKDEKERCKHOVE:Thankyouverymuch,MarioCarpo.ItsfascinatinghowyourverydetailedresearchdovetailswiththeprevioustalkbyPeterGalison.Itsbeenquiteastimulatingpresence.


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Discussion

DDK:Wearenowgoingtoputchairsonthestageandinviteyou,Mario,tocomebackhere,andalsoMarcoFrascari.Andofcourse,PeterGalisonwillbeamongus,virtually,sowewillbeabletoaskquestions.Andwhilethisissetup,maybeIcouldsayafewwordsaboutwhatimpressionthishasmadeonme.Itisaverydetailedanalysisofatransferofmediathatbringsoutsomeof

thefundamentalcharacteristicsofourepistemology,infact.OnethingthatIndinterestingistorememberthattheGreeksdevelopedgeometryfromthesameprocess,thatgeometryhasthesametypeoftransitionfromthegeometryofcadastreoftheNile.TheEgyptianshadpractisedtheartofcadastrebecausetheyweresupposedtogivebackthepropertyofpeopleaftertheNilehadoveroweditsbanks;itwouldwipeoutalltheareas,whichwereownedbypeoplewhocultivatedthesebanks.AndwhentheNileretiredtheydhavetouseacadastretheygottheideaofgeometryfromthatandtheytransferredandtheydstartmeasuring.

AndthisiswhatIndsointeresting:notasinglemomentwasthewordrationalitypronouncedduringthismorning,whenrationality,theprincipleofrationality,istheintroductionofmeasurementintimeandspace.Andsowe

willnditexpressed,obviously,ingeometryasarationalizedmeasuredrapportbetweensurfacesandlines.Harmonywillbethesame.Thisdividingprinciple,whichIassociatewiththealphabet,comesfromindeed,thiskindofmeasuringthatonehastodoofthereadinglineinordertocreatethemeaningthatcomesoutofititsasortofanalysis.Analysisofspaceintermsoftime,thatswhatperspectiveisanalysisofspaceintermsoftime....

Therearequestionsforeverybody.Iamsurethatstheidea,butjusttostarttheballrolling,IwouldhaveoneforMarcoFrascari,andofcourse,Peter,alsobefreetojumpinwithquestions.ButmyquestiontoMarcoFrascariwouldbeitsfascinatinghowhesecularizedthebiblicalexigenciesprinciplesofthefourlevelsofliteraltoanagogical,andbysecularizingthemactuallypointedoutsomething,whichisaveryseriousbusinessinthewholequestionofarchitecture.Isthebuildingevertobebuilt?Butwhatdidyouthinkabouttheoriginalhowdoyourelatethatnon-buildingofthebuildingtotheoriginalmeaningofanagogicalends?

MARCOFRASCARI:Thequestionthereisbecausebeingthattheprocessofinterpretationofsenses(ddlingwithmicrophone).Whenitgetstotheinterpretationofthethreesensesandthenalcourse,basically,iswhattheanalogicalsenseisrevealing.Buttheproblemis,ifwetaketheclassical[viewpoint],thereisalwaysconfusionaboutwhatisthenalcourse.Andthenalcoursetendstobecapturedinarchitectureinadifferentsenseofwhatreallyisthenalcourseofarchitecture.BecausethetraditionalinterpretationofAristotleiswehavethematerialcourse,soabuildingismadeinbrick,

andthatisthematerialcourseofit.Thereisaform,andtheformalcourseisasimplebuilding.Thereistheefcientcourse,donebyItalianbricklayers,andthenwehavethenalcourse,andingeneral,theansweris,oh,itsgoingtobeachurch.Butthatisnotthecorrectanswertothenalcourse.Itsamisleadingunderstandingofthenalcoursewheretheanalogicalsensewillallowustounderstandbetterwhatisthearchitecturalsensethatisgiventothebuilding.Andtherediscoveryofitinatechnologicalage,aswedoitnowwithdigital,isanessentialofadiscovery,becausepracticallyithasdisappearedfromtheprofession.Andthefactthatwecangobacktothisalmosttactileinterpretationofitbecausewhenyoutalkaboutgeometryandthepractisingof


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atit.Youcantsay,justbecausemostpeoplearedoingthesesquareboxestheyhaventcaughtuptowhattheycoulddoandtheyrenotusingthatsophisticatedequipmentthattheycoulddo.Itgetstothequestionofwhatisarchitectureandwhatitsnot.Idontevenwanttogetintothat.ButIthinkthatpeoplecandothis.Ifotherpeopledontwanttodoit,theydontdoit.Butthatdoesntmeanthatthisvalidatesthekindofformsthatyoucancreatewiththecomputerthatyoucouldnotevercreatebefore.Mario,youhadthis100percent

right.

BC:Iamreadytobetthatwithinahundredyearswewillstillbeinasituationwherewehavetheoctagonalboxasahighmajority.

PL:Sowhat?BC:So,whatistheimportantpoint,isthatIthinkthatthenewtechnologiestodaydonotnecessarilyinduceacertaintypeofform,butthattherevolutionintheprocessofdesignismuchmoreprofound.Thatmeansthattherecanbe,forinstance,variablecubes,variableoctagonalboxes.Ithinkwhatisoccurringhasapotentialtobearevolution,whichisnotjustarevolutionofstyle,butarevolutionofmethodsandwayofthinking.

DDK:Mario,doyouwanttorespondtothat?GL:Bernard,Ithinkyouredoingaveryoddthing,though,whichisyouknow,99.9percentofallthesteelthatsmanufacturedtodayismanufacturedinaCNCdigitalenvironment,sowealreadyhavevariablecubes.Ithinkthereasonthatyouresayingthefutureiswhatsalreadyhere,butwedontevennotice,isbecauseitsafalsestatementtosaythatthetechnologycomesrstandtheconceptscomesecond.Imean,IthinkPeterstalkwasverynuancedinthewaythatheshowedthattherewerecertaindiagramsorcertainconcepts,whichmigratedfromthemassivescaletothecottagescale,fromaeldofonetypeofmorphology,whichwaslookingatnaturalphenomenatotheoreticalphysicsandbackandforth,anditwasmakingallthesemergers.

SoIthinkitsactuallytheconceptsandthediagramsthatareusuallycomingrstandthetechnology,whetheritsacompassorwhatever,isusuallyfollowingsomediagram.Thebigissue,Ithink,isthatthosediagramsarenotalwayssociallyandculturallyexplicittheyareimplicitbetweenasmallcommunityofpeoplethattheymovearoundthrough.SoIdothinkthatitsatasktoarticulatewhatarethenewdiagrams,whatarethenewyouknow,isitasdumbasjustsayingthatthereareclouds?Thatyouknowparticlecloudsconstituteanewkindofmodelofspacethateverybodyisworkingwith.Thatdoesntmeanyouhavetomakeabuildinglikeaparticlecloud.Imean,Iwouldntjumptothatliteralanassumption,butIdothinkthesediagramsareintheair.

MC:Justoneminorpoint.Letscalculatenottheamountofcubicfeetwhicharebeingbuilt.Letscalculatetheamountoftimethatwespendincars,trains,andplanes,allmass-producedandtheyarenotsquare.SoIthinkthat60or70percentofthetimeofourownphysicallife,wealreadyspendinindustriallymanufacturedserial,reproduced,curvedspaces.

BC:Yes,andIwouldliketoaddthatthefactthatabuildingbemanufacturedwiththeCNCmachinedoesntmeanatallthatyoureallyhaveadigitalprocessofthinkingbehindit,whichisavaluableprocess.Iam,myself,veryscepticaltowhichextentanon-standardarchitecturecanndamarketwithinthegeneralarchitectureeld.


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Mark Wigley: Black Screens: The Architects Vision in a Digital Age / 50CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

Inotherwords,whathappens,inmyview,isthattheblueprintisactuallythebackboneofthearchitectureandarchitecturalproductionandevenmodernarchitecture,butisburiedastheantithesisoftheclassicimageoftheshadowdrawing.Itsallabouttechnicalproduction,itsnotaboutreectionandthinking,therefore,itsburied.Itsuddenlycomesuptothesurfaceintheftiespreciselybecauseatthatmomentitbecomesredundant.Justatthemomentitsgoingtodie,itcomesupand[is]broughttothesurface,andarchitectural

magazinesareveryslowtopickuponit.Again,Arts and Architecture,whichisnotaprofessionalmagazine,Ithinkthatsthekey,wasaimedtowardsasortofartistic,culturalaudienceonbothcoastsofAmerica,andabsorbedthewhiteonblackpseudo-blueprintstyleofpopularmagazines.Theyabsorbeditinthe1940sandinthe1950sperfecteditasagraphicstyle.LookatArts and ArchitectureandIllshowyouquicklythreeexamplessoyougetasenseofthegenre.Sobasically,whathappenedis,inthe1950sthepseudo-blueprintwasabsorbedintoarchitectureexactlyatthemomentthattheblueprintdiedout.Torushtothenishinthatmomentthatcolourstartstoappear,thecolouroftheblueprintstartstoappearinpublicationsallovertheworld.Soitsthesortofdeaththroesofthetechnologythatcomesup,andKieslerisdoingthiskindofimageandthiskindofimage,1949oh,itsnotKiesler,itsBenvanBerkel,oh!Sosomethingkeepsgoing,somethingisallowingustoabsorbthesenewkindsof

imagesinthisway.

SohereswhatIamarguing.Themediumrosetothesurface,themediumbeingtheblackbackgrounditself,rosetothesurfaceonlyinthemomentofitsdeaththedeathoftheblueprint,asiftohandoverthetraditionoftheghostimagestoadifferentformofphotographicnegativebeforeitwouldthenbeturnedovertothecomputerscreen.SoIambasicallysayingdigitaldrawingisdeeplyimbeddedinthehistoryofarchitecturaldrawing,thehistoryofdrawingwithlight,ahistoryoftheghostimagethatextendsbacktoVasari.Afterall,thetraditionalblack-on-whitedrawingisitselfalreadyanegativeifyouthinkaboutwhatsdark,andadrawingis,infact,whatwillbelightintheend.

Soheresjustone,letssay,conclusion,inthetermsofcollection.Wehavetorememberthatpaperitself,thatthingwhichwasturnedintotheprivilegedsitefororiginalproductionbyanartistandmadepossibletheveryideaofthearchitectasanartist.Paperwasatthattime,rstandforemostanexpensivetechnologyoftransfer.Theonlypermanentdrawingswerecontractdrawings.Mainly,weweredealingwithcartoonsmadeofpiecesofpapergluedtogether,whichwereprickedinordertotransferanimagefromonesurfacetoanother.Thepurposeofthepaperbeingwhitewasonlytofacilitatetheirtransfer.Drawingonpaperinthesixteenthcenturywasjustatechnologyforimitation,akindofearlyformofXeroxingthatwasgraduallyturnedintothecentreoftheemergingartworld.Thetheartisticoriginalactuallyemergesrightoutoftheheartofsystemsofcopying,butarchitecturaldrawingsneverquitesurvivedthis.

Butwemightarguethatthesamethingwillhappenwithdigitalarchitecturaldrawings.Justaswithpaperandthenwithphotography,thiswillrequireinstitutionalshiftsandredenitions,butwhatarewegoingtocollect?Arewegoingtocollectthelesortheprintsinarchitecturaldesigndepartments?Wherewillwekeepthesethings?Indrawingcollections,photographycollections,printcollections?Shouldwekeepthele,ordoweneedtokeepthesoftware,ordoweneedtoalsokeepthecomputer,butespeciallytheprinter,sinceobviouslytheprinteraffectsthequalityoftheimage?Idontacceptthepointthatwasmadeearlierthattheresafundamentaldifferencebetweenthecalculationandtheprintouts.Thereis,inmymind,neverapossibilitytocompletely


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Bernard Cache: Aprs Jean Prouv : le pliage numrique non-standard / 53CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

Donc,l,ceplanpartenusine.Silesproblmesderapportconomiquesontrsolus,cestautomatiquementrecevableparlamachineBystronicquevousavezvue,pourlelaseretpourlepliage.Maintenant,lefaitquecesoitassociatifsigniequesijereviensautoutpremierchieretquejelemetsctduplandefabrication,jevaismaintenantprendredenouveauunedemeshypothsesdedpartilfautquejerentrepour11chiers.Jevaissaisirlepoint,jedplaceetvousallezvoirquetoutelachanevasereproduire.Vousvoyezque

langle,maintenant,icifait68degrsetquelapiceestdoncentirementactualise.PourceuxquifontdesplanssurAutoCAD[][]quenousvoudrionsdvelopperdefaontrecapabledeproduireunbtimentcommeleMuseSenn-Foulds(?)quejevousaimontr,quiestuneformeunestructuredentrelacs,suivantdesmthodesquisoientvritablementassociativesetnumriques.Pourcela,jevaismaintenantvousexpliquercommentasepasseauniveaugomtrique.Jaifait,toutlheureenanglais,unetoutepetitedmonstrationducalculdunpointdintersectionentredeuxlignes.videmment,onpeutallerversdeschosesbeaucouppluscompliques.Jevaisvousexpliquermaintenantquetoutes

cesvariationssont,enfait,possiblesparceque,parderrire,nousavonsdesinvariantsgomtriques.Lassociativit.Jepensequecequiestimportantdunpointdevuecultureldanslassociativit,etcequifaitquilsepassevraimentquelquechose,cestquaulieudeconcevoirunobjetcommeunarchtypeunique,unobjetni,onconoitenfaitdessriesdevariations.Eta,cenestfaisablequeparcequederrirelagomtriequenousmettonsenuvre,ilyadesinvariants;etlundesinvariantslesplussimplesetlesplusclassiquesestceluiduthormedeThals,cest--direquejezoomeunpetitpeusurmoncransijechangelorientationdesparalllesquisontici,videmmentlesdistancesentrelespointsA,BetCvarient,maislerapportquevousvoyezici,cest--direRC1gale2,18etRC2,2,18,quisontlesratioscalculspourcetteligneetpourcetteligne,restentgaux(?)[restegal]quellequesoitlapositiondecesparallles.Maintenant,rendonslachoseunpetitpeuplusdifcilepourvousexpliquercommenttoutanestpasdutoutlimitunegomtrietoutesimple,maispeutvoluerversdeschosesquideviennentextrmementcompliquesdunpointdevuetopologique.Mais,aulieudallertoutdesuiteauxentrelacs,jevaispasserparlagomtrieprojectivequiestdjuntageassezsignicatif.Onvaprendreceparamtrequirgleleparalllismedesdroites,onlemodieetvousvoyezque,cettefois-ci,leratioicivaut1,96etdelautrect,2,12.Puisquemesdeuxlignesnesontpasparallles,jesuissortiduthormede

Thalsetjaibrisleratioproportionnelentrecesdeuxlignes.Maisrassurez-vous,ilexistedautresratioset,enparticulier,desratiosprojectifs,quisontdesratiosderatiosdoncdeschosespluscompliquesetqui,ellesennlequelrapportvarestergaletinvariantquellequesoitlapositiondecequidevientmaintenantlquivalentdunpointdefuite.Vousvoyezquelesdeuxratiosenjauneicifont1,27et1,27,quellequesoitladformationquejapportecettegomtrie.Uneincidentecommeadanslhistoiredelart,lesgensontbutcontreceratioavantquilsoitinventlasuitedelagomtrieprojectivede


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Bernard Cache: Aprs Jean Prouv : le pliage numrique non-standard / 55CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

desfonctionsdemodlisation,cenesontplusdesfonctionsdetransmissiongomtrique,maiscesontdesfonctionsdesubstitutionparceque,videmment,pourquoitoutcecifonctionne,cestquecethexagonenestpastoutfaitquelconque.Cethexagoneestappuysuruncercleet,parcequececercleestuneconique,jepeuxleremplacerparuneautreconique.Jevais,sousvosyeux,faireloprationdesubstitutionducercleparlellipse

dctquiexpliquebien,jepense,lemcanismefondamentaldelassociativitetquinestautrequeceluiquonutilisedanslinsertiondecomposantscommelapicedeconnexionsurlatabletoutlheure.Jevaisdanscettefonctionquiestditer/Remplacer.Jemontrelecercle.Jevaisdemanderdeleremplacerpourtousleslmentsdudessin.VousvoyezquelensembledudessinsesttransfrsurlellipseetsurtoutquejaiconservlarelationdalignemententrelespointsM,NetL.videmment,toutceciresteassociatif.Onpeutmmeallerversquelquechosedencorepluscompliqu,cest--direpasseruneconiquedgnre.Voussavezquesioncoupeuncne,uncertainmoment,onvaseretrouveravecunplandecoupequiseraparallleceluidelaxeducneetcemoment-l,lellipseseseratransformeenunepairededroites.Jevaisfaireuneoprationderemplacementquivatrebeaucoup

pluscomplique,cest--direjevaistreobligdaffectercettefois-cilespointsluneoulautredesdroitesdudessin.Jelefaisdjpourlestroispremiers.Voil.Vousvoyez,bienentendu,quicionestdansunephaseintermdiairedudessin.Donc,lespointsM,NetLnesontplusaligns.Vousvoyezquelaligneestbrise,maisjevaiscontinuerletravailpouraffecterdautrespointslautredroite:voilpourcepoint,voilpourlecinquimeetvoilpourlesixime.Normalement,amarche.Jevaisdoncrecommencerunedernirefois.Etcestpeut-treparcequejezoome(?)pasassezbien.Voil.Enmmetempsquenousavonsfaitcela,jevoussignalequenousavonsremontletemps,cest--direquenoussommespasssduthormedePascalauthormedePappusquiatcritquelque150annesaprsJsus-Christ.a,cestunaspecttrsimportantettrsintressantdelagomtrie,quelpointlagomtrieprojectiveestuneespcedemurcontrelequeldesgenscommeVitruveontbutaveclescorrectionsoptiques,contrelequelPlatonavaitdjbutavecleproblmedelabonneetdelamauvaisecopiejevousrappellequecestunproblmearchitectural,cest--direlancessitpourlesartistesdedformerlesproportionsdesstatuesdefaoncequevuesdenbas,lesdformationsdeproportionrapparaissentcommebienproportionnes.Cestdoncunproblmequiestfondamentalementlilaculturedelarchitecture.Ici,noussommesen150aprsJsus-Christetvousvoyezquecethormerestevalable.Donc,onacommencparuninvariantproportionnel.Onestpassuninvariantprojectif.Onvamaintenantpasserdesinvariantstopologiquespluscomplexes.

Pourvousmontrerquetoutcecisappliqueaussiunearchitectureplusprochedunespritquecertainspensentcontemporain,jevaisdessinerungraphe.Poura,jaibesoindesimplementunesriedesegments.Voil.Surcegraphe,jevaiscrerunentrelacsen3D.Jevaisici,jeprendsmafonctiondentrelacs.Jevaischangerdecouleurpourqueasoitplusvisible.Jevaisdonnerunehauteurmaximalemonentrelacs.Maintenant,jelancelecalcul.Rassurez-vous,anestpasdelagomtrie2D.Onestbienparfaitementen3D.Dailleurs,aseverraplussionvousmontrelesquatrevues.Ilsagitbiendunobjettridimensionneldontjepeuxcontinuermodierlagomtrieendplaantlespointsquilepilotent.


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Greg Lynn: Going Primitive / 58CCA: Devices of Design Colloquium

Greg LynnGoing Primitive

[beginningwasnotrecorded]

Aprimitiveisbasedonawholesetofproceduraloperationswithinasetofinstructions.So:aprimitiveisathingwhichisyettobedetermined,lets

say,oryettobespecied,butnonethelessithasqualitiesofholism,ofcompletion,ofclosure.Thatwouldbeveryfamiliartoclassicalarchitecture,Ithink,andthisisoneofthekindoftrickyideasImtryingtoworkthrough.Andthismorningthereweresomediscussionsofthinkingaboutclassicalissueslikeenthasisandallkindsofthings,thatmaybeitmightbefuntotryandhookupattheconversation.

Butoneofthethingsthataprimitiveisnot,isaprimitiveisnotsomewholethatgetssubdividedintopartsalotlikewhatMariowastalkingaboutthismorning;itsnotsomethingbasedonfractionsandsubdivisionsofdiscretecomponents.Itsalsonotbasedonsomethingwhichisiterativelyreducedtosomeideal.Theprimitivereplacesbothofthosemodels:ofthewhole,whichissubdividedinafractionalormodularway,ortheidealform,whichisreduced.

Ihavetoadmit,youknow,veortenyearsago,likealotofarchitects,Istartedusingthecomputer,andstartedtothinkaboutarchitectureintermsofbigshapes.Andstartedtothinktheproblemofarchitecturewastheproblemofproducingbigshapes,andthediscourseinquestionshouldbeaboutbigshapes.AndconsequentlyIspentalotoftimelookingaroundforlargecomputer-controlledmachinesthatcouldbuildapieceofarchitectureorabuildinginonepieceatagiantscaleasasingleshape.

NowIhavetosayasaeld,Ithinkweshouldbeembarrassedbythatambition.ImembarrassedthatIhadthatambition,onlybecauseIcompletelyforgotwhatarchitectureisabout,whichistheassemblyoflargenumbersofcomponentstoproduceasingleobjectormultipleobjects.AndIlltalkalittlebitintermsofnumbersofcomponents,butarchitectureisreallythequestionsthatweshouldbetalkingaboutarenotquestionsofmassingoroverallshape.Weshouldbetalkingaboutassemblyofmassivenumbersofcomponentstoproducescalesandhierarchiesofspacesandvolumes,ofwhichthebigshapeisonequestion,butIthinkitsprobablynotthemostcriticalone.

Alsojusttomakeacomment:Ilikethistermdevice alot.ItsthersttimeIvereallythoughtaboutthisterm.Itsusuallytechniques,ordiagrams,orsomeotherterm,butIlikethetermdevicebecauseitkindofconnotessomekindofintricacyofcomponentsthatassemble.Soadevice,likeawatch,isathingwhichismadeoutofsmall,ne-grain,interactingcomponents.Andinthatsense,Ithinkarchitectureismorelikeadevicethanitisashape.Alsothetermto

deviseimpliesakindofinnovationthroughrecongurationofexistingsystems.SoIthinkthisisaverygoodterm,andnobodysreallymentionedit.Ijustwantedtomakesurethatthisideaofdevisingisintermsofapplyingsomeinnovativeapproachtoexistingsystemsisimportant.Ithinkitsnoaccident,thekindofinterestinRenaissanceandpre-Renaissancearchitecture,becauseIthinktheapproachtodeviceswouldmakeushavetothinkaboutpreviousarchitectureratherjustsomekindofbreakandanewness.

SooneofthethingsthedominantthemethatIlltalkabout,andMariomentionedthisalreadyisthatIseethecomputerasusheringinaneraof


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calculus-baseddesignsystemsforarchitects.Ithinkcalculushasbeenaroundforthreehundredyears.Thecomputerwasrstthoughtofintermsofamachinethatwouldbeabletocalculatecalculusequations,andIthinkitsjustrecentlythatwereabletothinkaboutit.AndsowhatIllreallydoisakindofhigh-school-leveldescriptionofcalculusprinciplesandtalkabouthowinarchitecture,specically,thoseprinciplescanaffectthewaywethinkaboutspace.

Thekindofthreemajorshiftsintheprincipleofcalculusisthelossofthezeroandthelossoftheprivilegeofthewholenumber.SoifyouredividingthingsfractionallyinthewayMariowasshowingus,orevenifyouredimensioningthingsinamodularway,itsnotonlythatitsmorecomplicatedtothinkofvariableunits,itsalsometaphysicallyproblematic,becausethewholenumberhasagreatervalueinsomemathematicalsystems.Butthewholenumberincalculushasnovalue;itsactuallyashifttowardsinnitesimalsubdivisions.Secondthingaboutcalculusisthatitsasystemofcontinuouscalculation,soyouredealingwithnotonlycurves,butcurveswhicharevectorsinthesenseofhowtheyrebeingdescribedpositionallyinspace.Sotheintroductionofcurve-basedtools,theintroductionofinnitesimalmodules,andthelossofthekindofsymbolicandrealvalueofwholenumbersystemsareallthingsyouhaveto

thinkaboutwhenyoureusingthesetools.

Again,theideaofaprimitiveistryingtothinkthroughtheseissuesofathingwhichcanbeinnitelysubdivided,athingwhichcanbeendlesslymodiedwithallofitspartsandcomponentsmodifyingcontinuously.Itsnotnecessarilyawholethatgetssubdivided,butitsacollectionofcomponentswhichcanendlesslybeunfoldedindifferentorganizations,anditinvolvessettinguphierarchicaldenitionsofsystems.Andarchitecturesystemstendtobestructure,envelope,panelization,windowsandapertures,massingthesekindsofissuessothemultiplesystemsinarchitecturecanbethoughtofinrelationshiptooneanotherwithakindofexibleprimitive.

Onething,justasakindofaside,isthatarchitecturaltheoryforsomeamountoftimewaslookingtowardthenaturalsciences,andwastryingtocomeupwithbottom-upmethodsofdesign.Ihavetosaythisconceptofaprimitivedoesnotimplybottom-updesign.Thisisnotawayofwritingalgorithmsandhavingalgorithmsgiveyouresults,andthenlikeabreederorakindofomniscientaestheteorfunctionalistpickingthosevariations.Theprimitivedoesusealgorithms,itdoesuseproceduralmodelling,butitactuallythinkstheproblemofthewhole,andtheproblemofthecollection,atitsoutset.Sowhenyoubeginwithanapproachtobuildingprimitives,youhavetothinkofthepartandthewholeatthesametime.Youdontjustgetsomekindofemergentwholeorsomekindofmagicmomentwhereitturnsintoacollection.

Sotoshowyounowacoupleofexamples:

[slide]

Goingprimitive: Curveisinnitesimallydividedsegments Modulationofwholeandpartsinunison Seperatrix:continuityanddifferentiation Monolithicfusionacrossscale Non-modularseriality Complexvariation,notsimplevariety


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Undulationofdetailswithsurface Fusionofform,panel,relief,aperture,andcolour Continuitythroughdisparatemorphologies Intensivesurfaces

Thesearebasicallythethemesthatinvolveacalculus-basedsystemofmodelling,butwithinarchitecture.Imean,Ithinktheresadifferencebetween

disciplines,andsomeoftheseproblemsarespecicallyarchitecturalproblems.Buttheideaoftheinnitesimallydividedmodule,andthefactofcalculuswhereevenastraightlineisdenedasacurveitsjustdenedasacurvewithoutanyinectionmeansthatwhenyouredrawingcurves,curvesareactuallylinesegmentsofaninnitesubdivision,andthemoduleofthatsubdivisionisoneoftheissuesofhowyoudenethem.Again,Imentionedthemodulationofwholeandpartsinunison,insomecontinuousway;theideaofcontinuityisamodelofdeningshape.Non-modularseriality,Ithink,isverysimilartowhatMarioandBernardbothreferredtoasnon-standardcomponents,andthenaswellgoon,[thereare]morearchitecturalissues,likeissuesofdetailing,whichinsteadofthinkingoflargeplanes,connectpointsthatarefrozeninspacewithdetailsthatresolvethoseintersections.Inasystemlikethiswithaprimitive,detailsareubiquitous.Imean,everythingisadetailanddetailisabsolutely

everywheredistributedalloveraform.

[slide]Modulationofwholeandpartsinunison

TherstexampleofthisIvekindofbrokenitup,therearethingsgoingonotherthanthisbutthebestexampleofmodulationofwholeandpartsinunison

[slide]PlanofBijlmermeerproject

isinthishousingprojectthatImdoingjusttothesouthofAmsterdamintheBijlmermeer.

[slide]Explodedthree-dimensionaldigitaldrawing/diagramofBijlmermeerprojectbrokenintoirregularmasses(thediscreteneighbourhoods)

SoImnotgoingtogointoanydepthonanyoftheseprojects,butletmejustsaythisisabuildingthatwasbuiltintheseventies.Itsroughlyakilometrelongifyouwalkit,andtherearevehundredapartmentunitsinit.Wererenovatingthem,andtryingto,whilekeepingthestructureofthebuilding,breakitupintodiscreteneighbourhoodsofftyapartments.Andoneofthethingsthatwedidandthisishowwewonthecompetition,Ibelieveiswegaveeachneighbourhoodofftyapartmentsadistinctpositionandadistinct

shapeinthatblock,sothatinsteadofbeingdividedbythelengthofthebuilding,theyredividedintothesechunks.

[slide]Section/Excelspreadsheet

ThewaywedidittheprojectImean,IllmentionafewofthekindofnerdythingssinceMarioputitonthetablewedesignedthewholethinginMicrosoftExcel,wherewewouldtakeeachoneoftheseapartmenttypes,couldgetallkindsofinformationandadatabaseassociatedwithit,sowecoulddoall


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multiplesystemsofstructureandpanelandinterior.Itsalsoaboutexploitingcomponentsandtherelationshipofcomponents.SointhischurchinNewYork,weproducedasinglevolumewhichorientedyoutowardthealtarandbroughtlightinfrombehind,anddidallthethingsthatmakeaspacelookspiritual.Butwediditthroughcomponentsthatallvaried,buttheyvariedincalculussequence.

[slide]

Photograph?interiorperspectiveofchurchlookingtheotherdirection

Sothekindsofrhythmsofvariationareveryimportant,andsomedegreeofiteration,likeakindofrepetitionwithadifference,isjustaprincipleofthemathematicalsystem,anditsanaesthetic.

[slide]Photographexteriorviewofchurchfacade

Sotosaythattheaestheticandthemachineandthemathematicsaredisconnected,Ithinkisjustatlyincorrect,becausethisisacalculusshapeanybodywouldknowthat.

[slide]Fusionofform,panel,relief,aperture,andcolour

The(checkthis)lookatalittlebitofanover-the-topproject,

[slide]Plan(?)Predatorinstallation

butaprojectthatIthinkproducesanewgenreofobject.WhatIdliketodoistryalittlebitofamusicalinterlude.IwasonanairplaneafewyearsagoandsawadocumentaryonTheWho,andlearnedthatitwasPeteTownshendtherstrockbandtouseasynthesizer.Andtheypulledapartallthetracksofthisonesong,WeWontGetFooledAgain,andplayedeachoneofthetrackstoshowhowtheywereworkingwitheachother.AnditwasveryclearthatinthisbandtheywereoneoftherstbandswherethedrummerKeithMoonwouldbeplayingdrumsoverthevocaltrack.Mostrockbands,thesingerwouldstopsingingandthedrummerwoulddrum.KeithMoonalwaysjustplayedrhythmwhilenobodywassinging,buteverytimeRogerDaltreystartedsinging,hestartedgoingcrazy.Sothatwasonething,andIthought,heresanewmodelofsymphonicinteractiongoingonbetweenthedrummerandthesinger.TheythenshowedthesoundofthesynthesizerandshowedhowPeteTownshendstartedmimickingthesoundofthesynthesizerwithhisguitar.SoIwentbackandlistenedtosomeofTheWho,andIhavetosaythisiskindofacanonicalbandforme,personally,andIdontthinkthatthesethingsareaccidental.Ithinktheresasensibilitythatgoeswithdesignthatyoucantdeny.IrealizedthatPeteTownshendwasimitatingthe

synthesizerbeforethesynthesizerwaseveninvented.

SoIvecomeupwithafewprinciplesforintegratingnewtechnologiesintoexistingelds.Therstistheeldhastobereadytointegratethenewtechnology.Imean,youjustsawMarkdoitwiththewhitelinesonblackbackgrounds;thecomputerwasalreadybeingdrawntheaestheticbeforethecomputerwaseventhere.AndIthinkinarchitecturetherehastobeakindofconceptfortheequipmentandbytheway,allthiscalculusstuffisoverthreehundredyearsold.Soarchitecturehashadtheopportunitytothink[about]theproblemsforawhile.SoTownshendisalreadyplayinghisguitarinawaythat


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[slide]Planviewoftwo-and-a-half-dimensionalmodel:undulating,sculptedgreensurface

Sothetranslationofthesurfaceintotheformgivesyoutheopportunitytomakedecorativeeffectsbyinterveningandactuallydesigningthosetoolpaths.

[slide]

Three-dimensionalviewofwhiteform(EmbryologicalHouse)generatedbyfoldingatwo-and-a-half-dimensionalsurface,restingonasimilarsurface

Iwontgointoallofthat,buttheprincipleisbasicallywewouldmouldplasticontwo-and-a-half-dimensionalforms,sothateachoneofthesepanelscomesfromoneofthesepiecesofformwork.Thisisanotherproject,theEmbryologicalHouse,whichisactuallyhereattheCCA,Imrealhappyabout.

[twoslidesintercutrapidly]Photographseveralcurvedandcut,comb-likefragmentsofsurfacePhotographcutmetalmodelofEmbryologicalHouse(CCAs)

Soandagain,youcancutin2-Dwhich,actuallythismistake,inwater-jet

cuttingsteel,andfoldingitupandweldingit,Irealizedthatthesegaps,whichwereinaccuracies,wereactuallygoodsystemsforthinkingaboutwindowsandapertures.

[sixslidesintercutrapidly]PhotographmouldforPredatorClose-upviewofmouldPhotographmouldforPredatorClose-upviewofmouldDigitalmodelofPredatormulticolouredDigitalmodelofPredatorblue

Sotherststepwaskindofthemassingofthis.AndwecutlittlemodelsandwouldFedExthemtoFabianeverytwodays,andhewouldpaintthemupandsendthembacktous.Thesecondissuewasdesigningsomekindoftexture,sothetoolpathactuallyhadpaintinformationontheskin.

[slide]DiagramofPredatorstripsDiagramofPredatorstripsclose-upDiagramofPredatorassembly

Andthennallytheproblemwascuttinguptwohundredandftytwo-metre-by-threemetrepanels,anddividingFabianspaintingup,sothatwecouldreprintplasticsheets,andthenmouldthoseplasticsheetsontocustomforms,andthen

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