Development of a Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation

Wildland Urban Interface Plan 1

Running head: DEVELOPMENT OF A WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE PROGRAM

Development of a Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation Program for the Rapid City Fire

Department

Mike Maltaverne

Rapid City Fire Department, Rapid City, South Dakota


CERTIFICATION STATEMENT

I herby certify that this paper constitutes my own product, that where the language of

others is set forth, quotation marks so indicate, and the appropriate credit is given where I have

used the language, ideas, expressions, or writings of others.

Signed: _____________________________


Abstract

The Rapid City Fire Department has determined that the threat exists for a catastrophic

wildfire in the wildland urban interface area that could cause significant loss of life, damage to

property and the environment. The problem is the Rapid City Fire Department does not have a

program to reduce the number or severity of wildland fires in the urban interface areas of Rapid

City.

The purpose was to identify the steps that can be taken by the Rapid City Fire

Department to reduce the potential for loss of life, property and damage to the environment due

to wildland fires in the wildland urban interface. A descriptive research methodology was used

to identify methods to reduce the number and severity of wildfires in the wildland urban

interface areas of Rapid City. The research questions to be answered were: 1) What techniques

can be utilized to reduce the severity of wildland fires in Rapid City? 2) What methods can be

used to reduce the number of wildfires in Rapid City? 3) What local resources can be assembled

in an emergency to contain the spread of wildfire? 4) What incentives exist for homeowners to

prepare their property from the threat of wildfire?

A literature review was performed using publications from the Learning Resource Center

at the National Fire Academy, the Rapid City Public Library and the Rapid City Fire Department

Library. Other sources for the review were wide variety of internet or web-based resources.

Personal interviews and correspondents were conducted with subject experts in wildland urban

interface fires and mitigation practices as well as other city departments.

The results of this research project identified a number of best practices and

recommendations for wildfire mitigation programs by other communities, local, state and federal


agencies such as Spearfish, South Dakota, the State of South Dakota, Federal Emergency

Management Agency, United States Fire Administration, United States Forest Service and the

National Park Service.

The recommendations were for the Rapid City Fire Department to utilize what local, state

and federal resources that already exist and develop a wildfire mitigation program dealing with

wildfire mitigation practices such as prevention, public education, reducing structure ignitability,

creating defensible, wildland urban interface code adoption, private homeowner incentives and

fire suppression strategies. A mitigation program should be achievable, sustainable and robust

for true success.


Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………3

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………….5

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..6

Background and Significance……………………………………………………………………..7

Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………...10

Procedures………………………………………………………………………………………..18

Results……………………………………………………………………………………………20

Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………..22

Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………….25

References……………………………………………………………………………………….27

Appendixes

Appendix A: Rapid City Evergreen Forest Coverage Map……………………………………...29

Appendix B: Rob Powell Interview………….………………………………………………….30

Appendix C: Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation Survey……………………………………..34


Development of a Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation Plan for the Rapid City Fire Department

Introduction

Rapid City was established on the eastern slope of the Black Hills of western South Dakota.

Settlers originally came to the Black Hills in search of gold in the high country. Gold mines took

over the landscape in communities such as Deadwood, Lead and Hill City. As the mining camps

flourished, logistical support was needed for these communities. Rapid City was the likely spot

just out of the rugged terrain of the Black Hills yet close enough to be readily available by horse

and wagons. Rapid City was situated along Rapid Creek and in the foothills to be accessible by

those from the mining camps while in the lower elevations where hay could be harvested for the

horses and mules that were used in the mining camps for work. Rapid City was referred to as the

Hay Camp. This close proximity to the Black Hills has caused a significant threat to Rapid City

of a wildfire in the areas where human development butts up to the natural vegetation of the

hillside. This area or zone is referred to as the wildland urban interface or WUI.

In recent years, the western United States have been impacted by a large number of

wildfires that have taken human lives, destroyed thousands of homes, caused catastrophic

damage to property and consumed millions of acres. In the last 10 years, the Black Hills of

western South Dakota have experienced a number of these catastrophic wildfires. These fires

have burned in every area of the Black Hills but have not significantly threatened Rapid City

since the Westberry Trails Fire of 1988. However, due to the proximity of Rapid City to the

Black Hills National Forest, the community is at risk to a catastrophic WUI fire that could

threaten lives, property, human development, critical infrastructure and esthetics of the area. The


Rapid City Fire Department (RCFD) has deemed the threat of a wildfire one of the most

significant threats to the community.

The problem is the RCFD responds to a number of wildland fires in the urban interface

area of Rapid City. These fires present a significant risk of loss of life, property and damage to

the environment. The RCFD does not have a plan to reduce the number or severity of wildland

fires in the urban interface areas of Rapid City.

The purpose of this applied research project was to identify the steps that can be taken by

the RCFD to reduce the potential risk associated with the loss of life, property and damage to the

environment due to wildland fires in the wildland urban interface (WUI) of Rapid City. This

project utilized a descriptive research methodology to address the risk to Rapid City associated

with wildfire in the urban interface. The research answered the following questions: 1) What

techniques can be utilized to reduce the severity of wildland fires in Rapid City? 2) What

methods can be used to reduce the number of wildfires in Rapid City? 3) What local resources

can be assembled in an emergency to contain the spread of wildfire? 4) What incentives exist for

homeowners to prepare their property from the threat of wildfire?

Background and Significance

Rapid City is the second largest municipality in the State of South Dakota and the largest

in the western half of the State. Since 1886, the RCFD has served the city of Rapid City with the

delivery of emergency and non-emergency response as well as providing quality customer

service to the citizens and visitors to Rapid City and surrounding communities. The RCFD

serves the community out of 7 fire stations strategically placed throughout the city. The fire

department staffs 4 advanced life support ambulances, 5 fire engines, 1 quint, 1 truck company


and 1 battalion chief. Each fire station is complimented with a wildland firefighting vehicle in

the form of a type 6 or type 3 engine. All uniformed firefighters are cross trained in the delivery

of EMS, structural firefighting, hazardous materials operations, aircraft rescue and firefighting,

technical rescue and wildland firefighting. These services are provided to the corporate limits of

Rapid City as well as much of western South Dakota. (City of Rapid City, Fire Department,

2010).

Rapid City is a city of approximately 70,000 residents that is nestled in the foothills of

the Black Hills of South Dakota. The Black Hills National Forest is a small extension of the

Rocky Mountains and is a mature natural ponderosa pine forest that has been heavily developed,

roaded and populated for one of the United States Forest Service’s national forests.

In recent past, the city of Rapid City has not experienced a significant loss of life or

structures to a WUI fire. However, the city has a significant number of wildland fires each year

that are successfully suppressed by the RCFD before they get large and cause large scale damage

to the environment, forms of human development, structures or infrastructure. Through an

analysis of potential natural caused disasters or risks, the RCFD has deemed that the potential for

a catastrophic WUI fire exists and has increased due to the encroachment of the city into the

natural vegetated or forested areas of the Black Hills. (Appendix A). The problem is that the

RCFD responds to a number of fires in the urban interface. These fires present a significant risk

of loss of life, property and damage to the environment. The RCFD does not have a program to

reduce the number or severity of wildland fires in the urban interface. This problem is expected

to continue to increase with the growth of the city. Since 1990, the City of Rapid City has

experienced significant growth. From 1990 to 2000, the City’s population grew by 8.1% and is

expected to see a larger number from data collected from 2000 through 2010. (City-Data.com,


2010). This growth translated into a larger number of homes being built in the WUI areas of

Rapid City.

The impact of the growth of the city into the urban interface areas is the ongoing and

increasing threat of a catastrophic wildfire that could adversely affect the community by

potential loss of life, loss of homes, damage to the environment or beauty of the area, damage to

critical infrastructure and the economic impact associated with these potential losses. To assure

that the City of Rapid City and the RCFD is prepared for a fire of this magnitude, the fire

department must identify the steps that can be taken to reduce the potential for loss of life,

property and damage to the environment due to wildland fires in the WUI.

Identifying and developing a wildland urban interface mitigation program for the RCFD

is directly related to the terminal objectives 2 and 3 of the Assessing Community Risk and

Intervention, Program Design and Evaluation segments of the National Fire Academy’s

Executive Analysis of Community Risk Reduction course. These objectives stated that “The

student will: 1) Given a community all-hazards risk analysis model, be able to develop risk-

reduction objectives. 2) Design a draft plan for a local risk-reduction initiative. (National Fire

Academy, 2009, SM 2-1, 3-1). Through a wildland urban interface mitigation program, the fire

department will be able to develop risk-reduction objectives and develop a program to reduce the

risk to the community from a WUI fire. This research topic also relates to the following United

States Fire Administration Strategic Plan Goal #1: “Reduce risk at the local level through

prevention and mitigation”. (USFA.dhs.gov, 2010). Developing a wildland urban interface

mitigation plan for Rapid City will assure that the RCFD is accomplishing this important goal of

the United States Fire Administration.


The research questions of this project were to determine: 1) What techniques can be

utilized to reduce the severity of wildland fires in Rapid City? 2) What methods can be used to

reduce the number of wildfires in Rapid City? 3) What local resources can be assembled in an

emergency to contain the spread of wildfire? 4) What incentives exist for homeowners to prepare

their property from the threat of wildfire? The purpose of this research was to identify the steps

that can be taken by the RCFD to reduce the potential for loss of life, property and damage to the

environment due to wildland fires in the wildland urban interface.

Literature Review

It has been identified that over a 100 years of aggressive fire suppression in the western

United States has contributed to a buildup of vegetation or fuels in forested areas. This buildup

is contributing to hotter, more devastating wildfires. The last decade has produced the most

extreme fire conditions and acres burned in the United States. Those fire departments and fire

districts that are affected by wildfire have taken the risk serious and boosted training of

firefighters in the off seasons for the upcoming fire seasons. When wildfire strikes the local fire

departments are expected to know how to deal with these incidents without hesitation. However,

the downturn in the economy has forced reduced staffing, delayed equipment purchases and

decreased resources all together. Responsible fire service leaders are looking to partner with

other local, state and federal agencies that deal with wildfires on a full time basis. The

expectation is that leaders must understand the management of wildfires in the urban interface,

how to work with other agencies while exercising mutual aid agreements, utilize effective

interoperable communications with other agencies and deliver worthwhile public education tools

within their respective jurisdictions. As resources become more difficult to secure and the

public’s expectations of fire departments soar, the most efficient approach may require a more


strategic approach to wildfire mitigation employing multiple facets of a WUI mitigation

program.

In the development of a wildland urban interface mitigation program, a fire department

must first look at proactive methods to reduce the overall number of wildfires in their

jurisdiction. If the risk was eliminated, the preparedness, response and mitigation of such a risk

would not be as necessary. Prevention is the first element that needs to be assessed.

Of the wildfire occurrences in the Black Hills and Rapid City area, it is important to

know that 35% of wildfires from the years of 1977 to 2000 were lightning caused. (South

Dakota Hazard Mitigation Plan, p. 3-39, 2008). A number of fires will occur naturally and

cannot be prevented. This fact makes prevention a less effective strategy than for structure fires.

To address fires that are human caused public education is the most effective method of reducing

the overall number of fires. With local, state and federal cooperation, the Spearfish, South

Dakota area has actively participated in wildfire mitigation. (USFS, 2003). A group of scientists

funded by the National Fire Plan reviewed the efforts underway in the Spearfish area to mitigate

hazards associated with fires in the WUI. Education was identified as one of the most important

methods for wildfire preparedness in the WUI areas around Spearfish. Areas of the community

that were targeted were schools, individual residents, neighborhood clubs and civic groups.

Brochures were handed out with preparedness and prevention topics. The local media was used

to deliver preparedness messages and demonstrations of fuels reduction were given. A

prescribed fire demonstration area was even utilized to educate residents about the positive

effects controlled fires can have on the ecosystem.


If fire prevention and public education measures fail and efforts to combat WUI fires are

to be successful, the fire service must address broad issues and improve in three areas: 1)

Creating fire adaptive communities where structures can withstand the threat of an approaching

wildfire. 2) Management of wildland fuels by actively treating the areas of overgrown and

flammable vegetation within the interface area adjacent to communities 3) Improve fire

suppression efforts by using the latest technology, best safe practices and fire suppression

enhancements while remaining fiscally responsible (Roper, B, 2010). These three categories can

further be divided to specifically address mitigation efforts that can be targeted within a program.

In the wake of the 2000 fire season, the United States Forest Service developed the United States

National Fire Plan (USFS, 2000). Five areas were outlined within the plan: firefighting or

suppression, rehabilitation, hazardous fuels reduction or mitigation, community assistance and

accountability. The National Fire Plan directly addresses aspects of the need for a wildland

urban mitigation program for communities such as Rapid City.

Techniques that could reduce the severity of urban interface fires can be divided into

several areas. One technique would be to reduce the possibility of a structure igniting due to an

approaching wildfire or reduce its ignitability. The Federal Emergency Management Agency

(FEMA, 2008) has addressed this problem with recommendations that include wise selection of

areas that homes are built, the creation of defensible space around the structure, the addition of

infrastructure like hydrants, hard surface roads that are wide enough for evacuation and fire

apparatus, and more specifically, suggestions that deal with the construction of the home itself to

include fire resistive building materials for all portions of the structure. These recommendations

address new construction as well as existing ones. The recommendations included everything

from roofing materials, siding, decking and the foundation.


In addition to the preparation of the structure to reduce its ignitability, the property or

landscape around the structure must be considered. A number of methods to reduce the severity

of the fire can be utilized. The vegetation or fuels can be treated to reduce the spread or intensity

of the fire in the WUI. According to the National Park Service (NPS, 2010) fuel reduction or

treatment has been a proven method for reducing the severity of wildfires. The idea behind

treatment of the fuels is to reduce the overall amount of the fuel so the fire burns with less

intensity and can be easily suppressed. This fuel reduction or treatment typically refers to the

reduction or removal of surface fuels and ladder fuels and can involve the entire removal of

standing trees. Methods of fuels treatment can include thinning of the trees, removal of brush,

cutting branches and can be done mechanically with chainsaws or manually with hand tools.

Once the fuel is reorganized, it can be piled and burned, removed or chipped. Another more

technical approach is the use of prescribed fire or intentionally set fires to reduce the amount of

fuel buildup. Coordination, collaboration and partnerships among individual property owners,

agencies and jurisdictions are a key to successful mitigation of hazardous fuels in the WUI.

Homeowners must understand their role in the mitigation program for wildfires in the

urban interface. (McCaffery, 2004). Homeowners must determine for themselves the benefits of

fuels reduction and risk mitigation. The cost can be monetary, that of their time and potentially

altering the appearance of their landscape. McCaffrey stated that incentives exist, such as

financial assistance, may change how homeowners view mitigation practices in the WUI.

Assistance could be offered in the form of chipping of woody materials and the hauling of

materials from the homeowner’s property.

The fire service is limited in its capabilities to defend every structure that is built in the

WUI as a fast moving fire front approaches a neighborhood. Some degree of responsibility must


be placed on the homeowner to prepare their property from an approaching wildfire. In recent

years incentives have been developed for property owners to manage the fuels on their respective

property and take an active part in the preparedness aspect.

In some instances some homeowners will take advantage of incentives based on

perceived importance of mitigation efforts and others will not. What may occur in

neighborhoods is a checker board effect where there is no consistency from one property to the

next. In the event of a large WUI fire, structures become fuel themselves that feed the fire.

Without entire neighborhoods conducting mitigation practices, the fire may still be able to

consume entire neighborhoods or clusters of structures. In terms of using incentives, the best

case would be entire communities or neighborhoods would partner or collaborate in seeking

incentives for fuels reduction and mitigation practices. More attention may be given by state and

federal programs targeting WUI projects to those entire communities.

In 2003, the Healthy Forest Restoration Act was enacted and entire communities were

targeted to develop Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPP). Federal agencies like the

USFS and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) use these completed community plans to

prioritize incentives offered for forest management and fuels reduction projects. Issues such as

hazard mitigation, response, preparedness and structure protection are targeted. There are

currently communities in the Black Hills that have received assistance from these agencies.

(South Dakota Hazard Mitigation Plan, p. 4-8, 2008).

South Dakota’s Hazard Mitigation Plan addresses the need for creating defensible space

between structures that lie adjacent to forested areas or the WUI. Potential funding sources that

have been identified by the state are the South Dakota Department of Agriculture, the USFS and


the South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks. Assistance from these agencies specifically targets

private citizens and land owners and offers incentives and assistance for wildfire mitigation

efforts.

Another incentive for homeowners is their individual insurance agencies. Insurance

agencies that deal with clients in the more fire prone western states offer different incentives to

deal with preparedness measures that are taken by individuals. It is recommended that

homeowners call their insurance agent, discuss the issue and ask for a home insurance

assessment of the property. In October of 2007, the California Department of Insurance and the

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) entered into a memorandum

of understanding (MOU) that both agencies would work collectively in dealing with California’s

wildfire problem. Both agencies agreed that preparedness, public education and mitigation

efforts were worthwhile. No specific incentives for individual property owners were listed. This

is a step in the right direction to have both agencies looking into issues together. (California

MOU, 2007).

As fire chief, this researcher has the ability to offer local incentives offered by the City of

Rapid City that could include free hauling of brush and vegetation as it is removed, free dumping

at the city’s landfill, a WUI hazards assessment from the Rapid City Fire Department and some

assistance with mechanical thinning on private property adjacent to city property like green

space or parks. Another practice that has been successful is prescribed fire on private property.

The Rapid City Fire Department has used this approach as a training tool for firefighters while

removing hazardous fuel buildup on private property.


In addition, Rapid City has been addressing the WUI through the planning process where

new subdivisions are being created, or existing lot modifications are made. At this time the

primary focus has been on fuels mitigation for the affected properties within the three mile

planning jurisdiction, attempting to limit the number of dwellings served by a single access to 40

units, identifying minimum road widths, and taking advantage of any opportunity to educate the

citizens. As Rapid City continues to develop and adopt standards there will be an effort to

coordinate with the county officials for a county wide set of standards or codes.

When discussing the reduction of severity of a fire in the WUI, the areas impacted are

human lives at risk, loss or damage to property and the environment. To reduce the risk to

humans, a key factor is the safe and orderly evacuation of people from the fire area. The City of

Colorado Springs states that evacuations are probable in the WUI. (Springsgov.com, 2010)

Evacuation plans should be of a proactive nature to assure residents are prepared prior to the

incident. Recommendations for residents are to: create individual evacuation plans, be prepared

by having medications, photos, documents, pets and other items ready, plan on not returning for

two to three days, communicate with neighbors and heed warnings and follow instructions of

emergency responders.

Previous methods to reduce the severity wildfire in the WUI address proactive measures.

A reactive technique is that of a rapid emergency response to the report of a wildfire. This

involves the local fire departments to specifically address the responses to wildfires. If the fire

department having jurisdiction received early notification of a wildfire and responds with the

appropriate resources to handle a wildfire in the WUI, there is a better chance to reduce the

severity of the fire. South Dakota Department of Agriculture Division of Wildfire has the

philosophy to catch fires when they are small in an effort to gain control to eliminate the


potential for a large damaging wildfire. In 2009, the Division was able to control 98% of all

wildfires in their response area with initial attack resources (SDDA, 2010).

There are local resources in the Rapid City area that could be assembled during an

emergency such as a wildfire in the WUI. These resources could have a positive impact by

containing the spread of the wildfire thus reducing the severity. According Rob Powell

(Appendix B), Rapid City and the Black Hills are a good example of multiple agencies working

together to prepare for and fight wildfires in the WUI. Powell emphasized the importance of

preparedness and multi-agency cooperation previous to the incident occurring. As the incident is

occurring is not the time to attempt to build those relationships with other resources and

agencies. Powell cited the importance of firefighter training, established communications, pre-

fire planning, mutual aid agreements and utilization of the Incident Command System. Powell

also discussed the importance of knowing other agencies capabilities, urging property owners to

practice wildfire preparedness methods, conducting public education for those living in the WUI

areas and wildland code adoption by the local jurisdiction. Lastly, Powell talked about the

forming of relationships with local elected officials prior to the incident to educate them of

associated costs of catastrophic wildfires in the WUI and the possibility of a FEMA disaster

declaration after the incident. During the interview, it was evident that there is considerable

work that needs to be done prior to ordering of resources during a wildfire in the WUI.

If things are in place prior to the incident, assembling of resources can be done with ease,

in the case of Rapid City. In order of how Powell would order them was fairly systematic and

escalates with the incident. Cost of ordering specialized resources must be factored in during

tough economic times. Powell explained that time of day, time of year, expected fire behavior

and fire danger rating all factor into assembling of resources. Powell emphasized how important


placing the right people in the right places for the instances when extreme fire danger is

forecasted is a key factor to success in accomplishing incident objectives. Resources that could

be expected to be available during an average fire season for Rapid City and the Black Hills were

as follows:

Type 6 engines (Rapid City, volunteer fire departments, USFS, State of SD)

Type 3 & 4 engines (volunteer fire departments USFS, State of SD)

Denny Gorton-Pennington County Fire Coordinator (single resource)

20 person hand crews (Bear Mountain, Black Hats, Tatanka Interagency Hot Shots)

Dozers (State of SD and USFS)

Helicopter from Custer, SD (recon, helitack crew, fire suppression, support)

Air tankers from nearest air tanker base and air attack

Type 3, type 2 or type 1 incident management team from Region 2 (incident dependant)

Procedures

This applied research project that was completed for the Executive Fire Officer Program

used a descriptive research method, collection and analysis of data to identify methods to reduce

the number and severity of wildland fires in the wildland urban interface areas of Rapid City.

Research for this project began in January, 2010 at the National Fire Academy’s Learning

Resource Center located in Emmitsburg, Maryland. Literature review continued off-campus at

the Rapid City Public Library and the Rapid City Fire Department Library.


A survey was developed and distributed to 20 fire departments located in the western

United States (Appendix C). These communities were selected based upon their location and

proximity to wildland areas. Survey recipients were asked if they had a significant threat of a

wildland fire in the WUI, if their firefighters were training in wildland firefighting practices, if

they have wildland firefighting vehicles, if they have adopted codes or ordinances dealing with

the WUI, if their jurisdictions offered incentives to private property owners for mitigation

practices, if they currently have wildland mitigation plans in place and if they have response

plans for those areas most affected by fires in the WUI. The survey assumed that these

departments had a basic understanding of the questions in relationship to the issues of the

wildland urban interface, accepted mitigation practices and terminology. A limitation to the

survey was not knowing how many recipients would respond to the survey.

The last procedure used in this research was an interview conducted with Battalion Chief

Rob Powell (Appendix B). Chief Powell has 23 years of wildfire experience in the Rapid City

area and has served as a Division Supervisor, Structural Protection Specialist and Operations

Section Chief on numerous WUI fires in the western United States. Powell is also involved with

WUI planning, training and preparedness in the Rapid City area. He is currently an Assistant

Chief for the Johnson Siding VFD Fire Protection District and serves as an Operations Section

Chief on the Rocky Mt Region Type II Incident Management Team "C". In the interview, Chief

Powell was asked what local resources could be assembled in an emergency such as a wildland

fire in the WUI area of Rapid City to limit the spread.


Results

The results of this research answered the project’s four research questions. The

first research question asked “What techniques can be utilized to reduce the severity of wildland

fires in Rapid City? One technique would be to reduce the possibility of a structure igniting due

to an approaching wildfire. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA, 2008) has

addressed this problem with recommendations that include wise selection of areas that homes are

built, the creation of defensible space around the structure, the addition of infrastructure like

hydrants, hard surface roads that are wide enough for evacuation and fire apparatus, and more

specifically suggestions that deal with the construction of the home itself to include fire resistive

building materials for all portions of the structure. Another technique is the reduction of

hazardous fuels. The vegetation or fuels can be treated to reduce the spread or intensity of the

fire in the WUI. According to the National Park Service (NPS, 2010) fuel reduction or treatment

has been a proven method for reducing the severity of wildfires. Another technique is too

improve fire suppression efforts by using the latest technology, best safe practices and fire

suppression enhancements while remaining fiscally responsible (Roper, B, 2010). Lastly, to

reduce the risk to humans, a key factor is the safe and orderly evacuation of people from the fire

area. The City of Colorado Springs states that evacuations are probable in the WUI

(Springsgov.com, 2010). Evacuation plans should be of a proactive nature to assure residents are

prepared prior to the incident. Recommendations for residents are to: create individual

evacuation plans, be personally prepared by having medications, photos, documents, pets and

other items ready, plan on not returning for two to three days, communicate with neighbors and

heed warnings and follow instructions of emergency responders.


The second research question asked “What methods can be used to reduce the number of

wildfires in Rapid City? Of the wildfire occurrences in the Black Hills and Rapid City area, it is

important to know that 35% of wildfires from the years of 1977 to 2000 were lightning caused.

(South Dakota Hazard Mitigation Plan, p. 3-39, 2008). A number of fires will occur naturally

and cannot be prevented. This fact makes prevention a less effective strategy than for prevention

efforts for structure fires. To address fires that are human caused public education is the most

effective method of reducing the overall number of fires.

The third research question asked “What local resources can be assembled in an

emergency to contain the spread of a wildfire? Powell explained in an interview that the

resources could be assembled fairly easily in the event of a wildfire, however, could be affected

by time of year and extent of fire season and burning conditions. Powell listed type 6 and type 3

engines, the Pennington County Fire Coordinator, 20 person hand crews, dozers, a helicopter, air

tankers from nearest air tanker base, air attack and a type 3, type 2 or type 1 incident

management team from Region 2 depending on the severity of the incident. Training of Rapid

City firefighters in wildfire tactics was important. Of the 12 fire departments responding to the

survey, 100% of them conducted training for wildfires and 92% of them had a fleet of wildland

firefighting vehicles. Lastly, 70% of the departments surveyed had response plans to areas at

risk to a fire in the WUI.

The last research question asked “What incentives exist for homeowners to prepare their

property from the threat of a wildfire? In 2003, the Healthy Forest Restoration Act was enacted

and entire communities were targeted to develop Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPP).

Federal agencies like the USFS and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) use these

completed community plans to prioritize incentives offered for forest management and fuels


reduction projects. Issues such as hazard mitigation, response, preparedness and structure

protection are targeted. Another incentive for homeowners is their individual insurance

agencies. Insurance agencies that deal with clients in the more fire prone western states offer

different incentives to deal with preparedness measures that are taken by individuals. Incentives

offered by the City of Rapid City could include free hauling of brush and vegetation as it is

removed, free dumping at the city’s landfill, a WUI hazards assessment from the Rapid City Fire

Department and some assistance with mechanical thinning on private property adjacent to city

property like green space or parks. Of the departments that responded to the survey, 43% offered

some form of a cost share incentive for fuels reduction between the local municipality and 57%

offered state of federal grant money to private property owners.

Discussion

Wildfires have been a naturally occurring event in Rapid City and the Black Hills of

South Dakota for over a hundred years. As a society, those living in the west must accept

wildfires and understand that they will likely be personally impacted by a wildfire if they choose

to live in the wildland urban interface. In recent years, the severity and devastation of these fires

has increased as more residents find value in moving their home into forested areas like Rapid

City. The results of the research that was conducted clearly showed the steps that can be taken

by the Rapid City Fire Department to ultimately reduce the potential for loss of life, property and

damage to the environment due to wildland fires in the WUI through the development of a

mitigation program. It is apparent in the results of this research that fires in the WUI are an

identified widespread problem that is being addressed by local, state and federal agencies by

working together, establishing partnerships and including the individual property owners in the

reduction of the risk of wildfire in the WUI. Results showed there are a number of programs


available to assist in the development of a wildland urban interface mitigation program for the

Rapid City Fire Department. However, responsibility must be shared among governmental

agencies and the private homeowners. Homeowners can play a role by reducing the ignitability

of their homes as encouraged by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA, 2008).

In addition to the preparation of the structure to reduce its ignitability, the property or landscape

around the structure must be considered. A number of methods to reduce the severity of the fire

can be utilized. The vegetation or fuels can be treated to reduce the spread or intensity of the fire

in the WUI. According to the National Park Service (NPS, 2010) fuel reduction or treatment has

been a proven method for reducing the severity of wildfires.

Expectations are that the fire department will respond to a wildfire in the WUI and have

enough resources to place a fire truck at every structure for protection. With resources and

budgets becoming harder to come by and fires burning more intense, that expectation simply

cannot be met. In the last 10 years, the Black Hills of western South Dakota have experienced a

number of these catastrophic wildfires. These fires have burned in every area of the Black Hills

but have not significantly threatened Rapid City since the Westberry Trails Fire of 1988.

However, due to the proximity of Rapid City to the Black Hills National Forest, the community

is at risk to a catastrophic WUI fire that could threaten lives, property, human development,

critical infrastructure and esthetics of the area. The Rapid City Fire Department has deemed the

threat of a wildfire one of the most significant threats to the community.

If efforts to combat WUI fires are to be successful, the fire service must address broad

issues and improve in three areas: 1) Creating fire adaptive communities where structures can

withstand the threat of an approaching wildfire. 2) Management of wildland fuels by actively

treating the areas of overgrown and flammable vegetation within the interface area adjacent to


communities 3) Improve fire suppression efforts by using the latest technology, best safe

practices and fire suppression enhancements while remaining fiscally responsible (Roper, B,

2010). These three categories can further be divided to specifically address mitigation efforts

that can be targeted within a program. In the wake of the 2000 fire season, the United States

Forest Service developed the United States National Fire Plan (USFS, 2000). Five areas were

outlined within the plan: firefighting or suppression, rehabilitation, hazardous fuels reduction or

mitigation, community assistance and accountability. The National Fire Plan directly addresses

aspects of the need for a wildland urban mitigation program for communities such as Rapid City.

In 2003, the Healthy Forest Restoration Act was enacted and entire communities were targeted to

develop Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPP). Federal agencies like the USFS and the

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) use these completed community plans to prioritize

incentives offered for forest management and fuels reduction projects. Issues such as hazard

mitigation, response, preparedness and structure protection are targeted. There are currently

communities in the Black Hills that have received assistance from these agencies. (South Dakota

Hazard Mitigation Plan, p. 4-8, 2008).

Prevention of fires in the WUI is only so effective when 35% of fires are lightning caused (South

Dakota Hazard Mitigation Plan, 2008). Effective prevention tools can be the utilization of

schools, individual residents, neighborhood clubs and civic groups. Brochures can be handed out

with preparedness and prevention topics. The local media can be used to deliver preparedness

messages and demonstrations of fuels reduction (USFS, 2003).

Prevention and fuels mitigation measures have been identified. Emergency response is

the reactive approach to limiting damage by wildfire. If the fire department having jurisdiction

received early notification of a wildfire and responds with the appropriate resources to handle a


wildfire in the WUI, there is a better chance to reduce the severity of the fire. South Dakota

Department of Agriculture Division of Wildfire has the philosophy to catch fires when they are

small in an effort to gain control to eliminate the potential for a large damaging wildfire. Rob

Powell outlined local resources that can be assembled for fire suppression, Powell listed type 6

and type 3 engines, the Pennington County Fire Coordinator, 20 person hand crews, dozers, a

helicopter, air tankers from nearest air tanker base, air attack and a type 3, type 2 or type 1

incident management team from Region 2 depending on the severity of the incident.

Recommendations

The problem is the Rapid City Fire Department responds to a number of wildland fires in

the WUI. These fires present a significant risk of loss of life, property and damage to the

environment. The Rapid City Fire Department does not have a program to reduce the number of

severity of wildland fires in the WUI. Wildfire will occur in and around the Rapid City area and

will impact the WUI areas. Leadership within the RCFD should actively participate in planning

and program development for the day that a catastrophic wildfire impacts Rapid City. Based on

the research that has been completed and the results of that research, the RCFD should begin the

process of developing a Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation Program.

In accordance with the Healthy Forest Restoration Act (2003), the Rapid City Fire

Department should strive to develop a Community Wildfire Protection Plan (CWPP). By doing

so, the community stands a better chance to secure assistance from federal agencies such as the

United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management. It is not only the

responsibility of the RCFD but that of the entire community down to individual property owners.

The RCFD should seek to create partnerships and working relationships with private citizens and


other local, state and federal agencies in the Black Hills for development of a comprehensive

mitigation program. Such a program should target every aspect of the community and not just

the RCFD. Once completed, this program should be shared with elected officials and the entire

community. The application of state and federal assistance should follow to create a robust and

sustainable program that includes private property owners. Assistance such as grant funding and

financial incentives to property owners could go a long way in preparing structures for wildfires

in the WUI thus reducing the severity or amount of risk.

The risk to catastrophic wildfire in Rapid City is not going away in years to come. It will

be part of this community as long as we have homes built where they interface with the forested

areas. The Rapid City Fire Department is tasked with educating homeowners and committing to

reducing the severity of these fires which will inevitably add to the quality of life in Rapid City.


References

California MOU. (October, 2007). Memorandum of Understanding between California

Department of Insurance and CAL FIRE. Retrieved November 8, 2010, from

http://www.insurance.ca.gov/0400-news/0100-press-releases/0060-

2007/upload/Insurance_CDI_CALFIRE_MOU_091007TC.pdf

City of Colorado Springs. (2010). Wildfire preparedness. Retrieved on October 21, 2010 from

http://www.springsgov.com/SectionIndex.aspx?SectionID=11

City of Rapid City, Fire Department. (2010). Rapid City Fire Department: 2009 annual report.

Rapid City, SD: Author.

City-Data.com (2010). Retrieved October 18, 2010, from http://city-data.com/us-cities/The-

Midwest/Rapid-City-Population-Profile.html

FEMA. (September, 2008). Home builders guide to construction in wildfire zones. Technical

Fact Sheet Series, FEMA p. 737.

Mccaffrey, S. (2004). Thinking of wildfire as a natural risk. Society and Natural Resources, 17,

509-516.

Roper, B. (2010, January). Wildland fire and the wildland urban interface. International

Association of Fire Chiefs: On Scene, p. 5.

National Fire Academy. (2009, February). Executive Analysis of Community Risk Reduction,

student manual (FEMA/USFA-EACRR-SM). Emmitsburg, MD: Author

http://city-data.com/us-cities/The-Midwest/Rapid-City-Population-Profile.html�

http://city-data.com/us-cities/The-Midwest/Rapid-City-Population-Profile.html�


National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior (NPS). (2010). Fire and aviation

management. Retrieved October 21, 2010, from

http://nps.gov/fire/public_und_hazardousfuel.cfm

South Dakota Department of Agriculture (SDDA). (2010). Division of Wildland Fire

Suppression. Retrieved November 10, 2010 from http://sdda.sd.gov/WFS/about.aspx

State of South Dakota. (2008, April). Hazard Mitigation Plan. South Dakota hazard mitigation

team. Pierre, South Dakota. pp. 3-39, 4-8

USFA.dhs.gov (2010). Retrieved October 18, 2010, from

http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/about/strategic.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS). (2000). National fire plan: Managing the

impact of wildfires on communities and the environment. Retrieved October 12, 2010

from http://www.forestandrangelands.gov/NFP/index.shtml.

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS. (2003). Spearfish, South Dakota and the

Northern Black Hills: Steps to improve community preparedness for wildfire. 2003.

Retrieved on November 1, 2010 from http://ncrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/bro/spearfish.pdf.

http://nps.gov/fire/public_und_hazardousfuel.cfm�

http://www.usfa.dhs.gov/about/strategic.html�

http://www.forestandrangelands.gov/NFP/index.shtml�

http://ncrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/bro/spearfish.pdf�


Appendix A: Rapid City Evergreen Forest Coverage Map


Appendix B: Rob Powell Interview

Chief Powell, can you summarize your qualifications as they relate to fires in the WUI?

Wildfire experience in Rapid City area for 23 years, currently a Battalion Chief with

RCFD. Served as Div/Sup, Structural Protection Specialist and OPS Section Chief on

numerous WUI fires. Involved with WUI planning, training and preparedness in Rapid City

area. Current Assistant Chief for the Johnson Siding VFD Fire Protection District. OPS Section

Chief, Rocky Mt Region Type II Incident Management Team "C".

Can you tell me what local resources could be assembled in the event of a wildfire in the WUI

areas of Rapid City to reduce the spread of that fire?

It is difficult for me to only address the response component or resources that can be

assembled without mentioning the work prior to the fire and after the fire that will need to be

considered. The work an organization does prior to ignition is the key to the organization’s

success in dealing with a large WUI fire. Training and drilling with your firefighters on ICS and

wildland fire response throughout the year is a given and most FD's do a good job with working

with their own folks. Another major key to success is working with, talking and training with

other agencies that can provide assistance. Here in the Black Hills we have developed an

exemplary example of inter-agency cooperation and response with local VFD's, State and

Federal fire agencies and law enforcement. Get to know them personally! Seek out

opportunities to train together and set up mutual aid agreements prior to your next big

fire. Know what resources they can provide and the ordering process to get them

quickly. Trying to figure that out during a rapidly escalating incident is ineffective and sets you


up for failure. Remember, these relationships are a two way street and it is important to offer up

your resources when they are in their time of need.

Pre-fire responsibility with the public and political entities we serve is very important.

PSA's and meeting with home owner groups and civic clubs on the importance of making their

property more fire safe through thinning and debris removal will pay dividends when fire moves

through their neighborhood. Educate them on what to do when fire approaches their home if

they choose not to leave and what to do and where to go when they do have to leave. Strive for

Wildland Fire Code adoption in your community which includes fire resistive construction

features, road widths, ingress/egress requirements etc. Talk to the people who have the eventual

responsibility of paying for your fire response on what the potential is and advise them on what

the best options are. Resources like air tankers, helicopters and dozers are very expensive but

may be absolutely necessary to save life and property. Inform them of the real possibility of

those resource needs in your jurisdiction along with knowing the process for financial assistance,

such as a FEMA Disaster Declaration, prior to the event will show them that you are being

a proactive Fire Chief.

We could go on and on about preparedness such as preplans, hazardous

fuels mitigation etc. but one of the keys to our success is allowing our firefighters to go to fires.

Participation with Incident Management Teams and supporting out of state fire assignments for

our firefighters helps citizens in our region during their time of need. The experience that they

(we) attain and bring home to our community is invaluable when we have a WUI fire in our

community. It is also a great way to supplement budgets during these tough financial times.

My last point on preparedness: During times of very high/extreme fire danger, put your

most experienced/qualified personnel in the areas where they will be most effective should you


have an ignition. Brief your crews daily on expectations, LCES, ICS, fuels and predicted

weather. Call for mutual aid early, find out what is available for resources, both air and ground

and plan for the day. Then in the event of a wildland fire in your jurisdiction you will have done

your part to begin an adequate response.

One common objective for wildland fires in the interface is perimeter control as safely

and rapidly as possible. Fire behavior, resource availability/deployment will determine the

strategy and tactics you will use to meet this objective. Your command and control presence will

be challenged and the environment will be stressful. Your efforts in pre-fire responsibility and

preparedness will play a part in your level of success. Get a handle on resources by designating

a staging area and a qualified staging manager. Order and assign a Public Information Officer,

you will need one shortly after ignition. As the responsible agency having jurisdiction, be alert to

changing conditions and fire behavior and adjust initial attack resources accordingly. Follow the

Incident Command System and communicate your incident action plan to ensure everyone on the

fireground is working together to meet your incident objectives. Once again, your preparedness

will drive your success.

Available resources in the Rapid City area are somewhat dictated by time of year,

availability and expected fire behavior or fire danger in the area. Initial attack resources begin

locally with the 911 call to the Rapid City/Pennington County 911 center and the Great Plains

Interagency Dispatch Center. The initial response would begin with the Rapid City Fire

Department’s on duty resources in the form of our type 6 and type 3 engines with trained

firefighters and the on duty Battalion Chief. Depending on time of year and expected

conditions, the incident can grow from there. Working from inside out I will list them as I would

order them as if the incident was escalating:


Type 6 engines (volunteer fire departments, USFS, SDS)

Type 3 & 4 engines (volunteer fire departments USFS, SDS)

Denny Gorton-Pennington County Fire Coordinator

20 person hand crews (Bear Mountain, Black Hats, Tatanka IHC)

Dozers (SDS and USFS)

Helitack from Custer (recon, helitack crew, fire suppression, support)

Air tankers from nearest air tanker base and air attack

Type 3, type 2 or type 1 incident management team from Region 2 (incident dependant)

As for our post-fire responsibility, it will be our responsibility to answer questions from

the news media and public as to what happens next. Be proactive with scheduled news releases,

PSA’s and face-to-face briefings on what people can expect when they return to their

neighborhood. Set up a plan with your dispatch center to deal with political smokes. After

action reviews and Post Incident Analysis are ways to identify what went right and what we can

do better next time. Finally, ensure thorough documentation of the incident and prepare for the

next one.


Appendix C: Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation Program Survey

Good afternoon,

I am conducting a survey for an applied research project as part of the National Fire Academy's Executive Fire Officer Program. The survey involves 8 short questions relating to the wildland urban interface. You or your community has been selected due to your location or proximity to the interface zone. I ask that you please complete the survey or forward it on to someone in your organization that would be willing to participate. I thank you in advance.

Just follow the link to the survey below.

http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ZS7VQKD

Sincerely,

Mike Maltaverne

Fire Chief

Rapid City Fire Department

Rapid City, SD

1. What is the population served by your department?

less than 10,000

10,000 to 25,000

25,000 to 50,000

50,000 to 100,000

Greater than 100,000 2. Does your community have an existing threat of a significant wildland urban interface fire?

yes

no 3. Are your firefighters trained in modern wildland firefighting tactics for the urban interface?

http://webmail.rcgov.org/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?URL=http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/ZS7VQKD�


yes

no 4. Does your fire department have wildland firefighting vehicles? (brush trucks, type 6, type 4 etc.)

yes

no 5. Has your community adopted wildland codes or ordinances to address fuels mitigation on private property? If so, briefly describe.

yes

no

Please specify

6. Does your municipality offer incentives to property owners that conduct fuels mitigation or prevention measures for wildland fires in the urban interface? If so, check those that apply.

Cost share

State, Federal or local grants

Reduced insurance premiums

Reduced property taxes

other Other (please specify)

7. Does your community have a wildland urban interface mitigation plan?

yes

no Other (please specify)

8. Does your fire department have an emergency response plan to areas of your jurisdiction that are at risk to a wildland urban interface fire?


yes

no Other (please specify)

Documents

Development of a Wildland Urban Interface Mitigation