Dev Psych.ch5.keynote

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© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT

John W. Santrock

Chapter Five:

Motor, Sensory, and Perceptual Development

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Dynamic Systems View

• Dynamic systems theory– Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and

acting (perceptions and actions are coupled)– Motivation creates new behaviors– Perceptions “fine tunes” movements with repetitive

actions– Infants explore and select possible solutions of

new task; assembles adaptive patterns

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Dynamic Systems View

• Dynamic systems theory– Constraints of possible actions and skills

• Infants body/mind maturation• Environmental support

– Not a passive process• Genes do not dictate unfolding sequence of skills

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Reflexes

• Built-in reactions to stimuli– Govern newborn’s movements– Genetically carried survival mechanisms– Allow adaptation to environment– Provides opportunity to learn– Some disappear (e.g., grasping), some last

throughout life (e.g., coughing)

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Reflexes

Reflexes Description

Sucking Automatic sucking object placed in newborn’s mouth

Rooting Reaction when infant’s cheek is stroked or side of mouth touched

Moro Startle response in reaction to sudden, intense noise or movement

Grasping Occurs when something touches infant’s palms;

infant response is to grasp tightly

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Gross Motor Skills

• Involve large-muscle activities– Foundations for development

• Posture; linked to sensory information for– Regulating balance/equilibrium– Vision and hearing– Self-control increases with infant age

» Linked to neural pathway development» Improved by repetitive movements

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Gross Motor Skills

• Infancy – Development of posture– Locomotion and crawling – Learning to walk– Caregivers important

• Safety of child and environment during efforts

– First year: developmental milestones• Timing of onset varies

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Gross Motor Skills

• Second year – More accomplishments; increased independence– Initiates more interaction with others– Still need safety restrictions on movements– Parent/caregiver involvement

• Encourage/guide child’s development • Structured exercise not recommended• Cultural variations exist

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9Fig. 5.3

Milestones in Gross Motor Development

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Gross Motor Skills

• Childhood– Improved movements; more mastery, confidence

• Boys usually outperform girls

– Extended periods of paying attention, sitting still• More fatigued from extended inactivity• Benefit more from exercise breaks

– Organized sports best for development• Positive and negatives consequences

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Gross Motor Skills

• Childhood– Organized sports best for development

• Provide opportunities to learn how to compete• Improves self-esteem• Opportunities for peer relations/friendships• Reduces risk of becoming obese

– Three or more hours per week beyond school

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Gross Motor Skills

• Childhood– Organized sports can have negative experiences

• Pressure to win or achieve• Risk of physical injuries• Distraction from academic work• Unrealistic expectations for success• Impacted by professional sports and media• Dangers of exploitation

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Guidelines for Parents and Coaches of Children in Sports

Do Don’tMake sports fun Yell or scream at child

Mistakes are okay Continue condemning

Allow questions Point out errors in front of others

Show calm manner Expect instant learning

Respect child’s participation Expect child to be a pro

Be positive role model Make fun of the child

Be supportive Compare child to others

Make sports all work

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Gross Motor Skills

• Adolescence– Skills continue to improve

• Adulthood – Peak physical performance before age 30

• Often between ages 19 and 26

– After age 30; biological functions decline• Not uniform; organ decline varies

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Gross Motor Skills

• Late Adulthood – Decreased activity level linked to biological and

psychological health– Natural aging leads to gradual deterioration

• Lifestyle habits/patterns have impact– Physical activity has more positive effects than

educational intervention

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16Fig. 5.4

Movement and Aging

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Fine Motor Skills

• Infancy– Involves more finely tuned movements, such as

finger dexterity – Reaching and grasping

• Size, shape, and texture of object matter• Experience affects vision, perceptions, skills

– Exercising of skills, safety are important• Palmar grasp, pincer grip at end of first year

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Fine Motor Skills

• Childhood and adolescence– By age 3; ability to stack/balance objects– Precision increases with age; show desire to build

projects — needs adult guidance to complete• Linked to increased myelination of CNS• Hands, coordination improve• Begin to show manipulative skills of adults by age 12

– Musical instruments, fine quality crafts

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Fine Motor Skills

• Adult development– Skills may decline in middle and late adulthood

• Dexterity decreases • In healthy adults, functional skills are good• Pathological conditions may result in weakness of

paralysis of hands• Competent handwriting into old age

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Fine Motor Skills

• Older Adult development– Slowed movements due to

• Neural noise: interference with incoming stimuli • Strategy: ability to perform as usual

– Compensation by engaging in other strategies

– Capable of learning new motor tasks; usually perform slower than young adults

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Sensory and Perceptual

• Sensation– Information (stimuli) processed by sensory

receptors• Eyes (retina, optic nerve), ears (cochlea, auditory nerve),

tongue, nose, skin

• Perception– What is perceived (interpreted) from stimuli

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• Ecological view– Perceptual system selects which information to

process from environment• Guides active/interactive behaviors

– Affordances • Opportunities to interact with objects within one’s

capabilities

– Adaptation: combining of perceptions and actions

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• Infant perception testing– Visual preference method

• To determine if infants can distinguish between various stimuli

– Habituation: decreased response to stimuli– Dishabituation: recovery of habituated response– High-amplitude sucking: nipple sucking rate

indicates preferences/discriminatory abilities

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• Infant perception testing– Orienting response

• Tracking by moving head or eyes to follow moving object or sounds

• Use of startle response — reaction to noise

– Equipment used• Video recorders, computers, recorders of bodily

functions (heart rate, etc.)

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• Visual perception– Variances due to differences in how eyes function

over time (colors, distances, light presence)– Infancy: world is “blooming, buzzing confusion”

• Visual acuity increases with age• Preference for human faces soon after birth• Discriminates female from male at 3 months

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Infants’ Visual Perception

Visual Acuity20/600 at birth, near adult levels by 1 year

ColorSees some colors by 2 months, has preferences by 4 months

Perceiving Patterns

Prefer patterns at birth; face scanning improves by 2 months

Depth Perception Developed by 7-8 months

Visual Expectations

Begins by 4 months; all know visual cliff by 6-to-12 months

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• Visual perception– Perceptual constancy

• Physical world perceptions remain constant

– Size constancy• Recognition that object remains the same even though

the retinal image changes

– Shape constancy• Recognition that object remains the same even though

its orientation changes

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• Visual perception– Depth perception

• Visual cliff experiments– Perceptions affected by experiences

• Debate over affect of nature versus nurture

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• Childhood– Improved color detection, visual expectations,

controlling eye movements (for reading)– Preschoolers may be farsighted– Signs of vision problems

• Rubbing eyes, blinking, squinting• Irritability at games requiring distance vision• Closing one eye, tilting head to see, thrusting head

forward to see

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• Adulthood and aging– Loss of Accommodation — presbyopia– Decreased blood supply to eye — smaller visual

field, increased blind spot– Slower dark adaptation, decline in motion

sensitivity– Declining color vision: green-blue-violet– Declining depth perception — problems with steps

or curbs

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31Fig. 5.12

Glare Vision and

Aging

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• Diseases of the eyes– Cataracts: thickening eye lens that causes vision

to become cloudy, opaque, distorted– Glaucoma: damage to optic nerve because of

pressure created by buildup of fluid in eye– Macular degeneration: involves deterioration of

retina

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Hearing

• Fetus, Infant, and child– Fetus hears in last months before birth– Newborns/Infants:

• Loudness: cannot hear soft sounds well• Less sensitive to pitch; sensitive to human speech• Localization: distinguish general direction of sound

origination

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Hearing

• Fetus, Infant, and child– Most children’s hearing is adequate– Early screening in infancy for problems

• Hearing loss corrections: – Surgery, hearing aids, cochlear implants

• Otitis media: middle ear infection– Unattended results in hearing loss, language

development, socialization– Treatments: antibiotics, tubes in ears

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Hearing

• Adolescence– Most have excellent hearing

• Risks for loss: loud/maximum volume music

• Adulthood– Decline begins about age 40; other factors impact

• Males lose sensitivity to high-pitched sounds sooner than females

• Gender differences: due to occupation?• Treatments: hearing aids, cochlear implants

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Other Senses

• Touch and pain– Newborns: sensitivity to pain, touch

• Circumcision of boys; amazing resiliency• Use of anesthesia in surgery is controversial

• Adulthood: most research on old age– Touch sensitivity: decreases in old age

• Smell: – Decline can start in 20s; declines with age/health

• Affects satisfaction with life, food

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Other Senses

• Taste– Fetus: sensitivity present before birth– Newborns: facial reactions to various tastes– Infants: reference for “salty” tastes at 4 mos.– Older adults: decline in ability to distinguish sour,

sweet, and bitter solutions• Severity affected by medications and health• Seasoned food preferences lead to junk food

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Other Senses

• Intermodal perception– Ability to relate and integrate information about

two or more sensory modalities, such as vision and hearing

– Exists in newborns; sharpens with experience in first year

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Perceptual-Motor Coupling

• Distinction between perceiving and doing?– Controversial for some researchers– Explores how people assemble motor behaviors

for perceiving and acting– Babies coordinate movements with perceptual

information to maintain balance, reach for objects, etc.

– Driving a car is coupling; declines in late adulthood

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