Describe perception in terms of the social information processing model.

Identify and briefly explain four managerial implications for social perception.

Explain, according to Kelley’s model, how external and internal causal attributions are formulated.

Demonstrate your familiarity with the demographic trends that are creating an increasingly diverse workforce.

Identify the barriers and challenges to managing diversity.

Discuss the organizational practices used to manage diversity identified by Ann Morrison

Understanding Social Perceptionand Managing Diversity

Learning Objectives

Chapter Four

Perception is the process of interpreting one’s environment.

4-1

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Perception Defined

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4-2 Figure 4-1

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception

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Competingenvironmental

stimuli:* People* Events* Objects

Interpretationand

categorization

Stage 1Selective Attention/

Comprehension

Stage 2Encoding

and Simplification

A

C

F

A

B

C

D

E

F

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4-3 Figure 4-1

A Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.)

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Stage 3Storage and

Retention

Stage 4Retrieval

and Response

MemoryJudgments and

decisionsC

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Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuli

Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding is the process of interpreting environmental stimuli by using information contained in cognitive categories and schemata- The same information can be interpreted differently by people due to individual differences

4-4

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Social Information Processing ModelOf Perception

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Stage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded information or stimuli is sent to long- term memory- Long-term memory is composed of three compartments containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people

Stage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory when people make judgments and decisions

4-5

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Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.)

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A Stereotype is a belief about the characteristics of a group

4-6

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Stereotypes

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4-7 Table 4-1

Commonly Found Perceptual Errors

The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

Central Tendency

A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.

Leniency

A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.

Halo

DescriptionPerceptual Error

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4-8 Table 4-1

Commonly Found Perceptual Errors (Cont.)

The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.

Contrast Effects

The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.

Recency Effects

DescriptionPerceptual Error

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Basic Premise: An attribution is based on the consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency of the observed behavior.

4-9

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Kelley’s Model of Attribution

Consensus- Involves comparing an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers.- High consistency indicates an individual is different from peers.Distinctiveness - Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on one task with the behavior or accomplishments from other tasks. - Highly distinctive behavior or results represents a situation where the current behavior or result is significantly different from typical behavior or results on other tasks.

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4-10

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Kelley’s Model of Attribution (Cont.)

Consistency- Involves comparing a person’s behavior or accomplishments on a given task over time.- High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time.

Predictions - Internal or personal attributions are made when a behavior is associated with low consensus and distinctiveness, and high consistency. - External or environmental attributions are made when a behavior is related with high consensus and distinctiveness, and low consistency.

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4-11 Figure 4-2

Consensus

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People

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

A B C D EPeople

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

eA B C D E

Low High

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

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4-12 Figure 4-2

Consensus

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Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Tasks

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

A B C D ETasks

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

A B C D E

Low High

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4-13 Figure 4-2

Consensus

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Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Time

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

Time

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

Low High

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4-14

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Attributional Tendencies

Fundamental attribution bias- ignoring environment factors that affect behavior

Self-serving bias- taking more personal responsibility for success than failure

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4-15 Figure 4-3

The Four Layers of Diversity

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Personality

Functional Level/ Classification

Geographic Location

Age

WorkLocation Seniority

Division/Dept./Unit/

Group

WorkContent/

Field

UnionAffiliation

Mgmt.Status

MaritalStatus

ParentalStatus

Appearance

EducationalBackground

WorkExperience

Race

Income

PersonalHabits

Religion

RecreationalHabits

Ethnicity

PhysicalAbility

SexualOrientation

Source: L Gardenswartz and A Rowe, Diverse Teams at Work: Capitalizing on the Power of Diversity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994), p. 33

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4-16 Table 4-2

Projected Entrants and Departures in the USWorkforce from 2000 to 2010

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Percent Entrants

2000-2010

Percent Leavers

2000-2010

Total

Men

Women

100

49.6

50.4

100

55.4

44.6

White

(Non-Hispanic)

60.6 77.4

African-American 13.7 11.8

Hispanic 17.9 7.2

Asian and

Other Races

7.8 3.6

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4-17

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Barriers and Challenges to Managing Diversity

1. Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice

2. Ethnocentrism

3. Poor career planning

4. An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees

5. Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees

6. Difficulty in balancing career and family issues

7. Fears of reverse discrimination

8. Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority

9. The need to revamp the organization’s performance appraisal and reward system

10. Resistance to change

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4-18 Table 4-3

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Common Diversity Practices: Accountability Practices

1. Top management’s personal intervention2. Internal advocacy groups3. Emphasis on EEO statistics, profiles4. Inclusion of diversity in performance evaluation

goals, ratings5. Inclusion of diversity in promotion, decision criteria6. Inclusion of diversity in management succession

planning7. Work and family policies8. Policies against racism, sexism9. Internal audit or attitude survey10. Active AA/EEO committee, office

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Common Diversity Practices: Development Practices

1. Diversity training programs2. Networks and support groups3. Development programs for all high-potential

managers4. Informal networking activities5. Job rotation6. Formal mentoring program7. Informal mentoring program8. Entry development programs for all high-potential

new hires9. Internal training (such as personal safety or

language)10. Recognition events, awards

4-19 Table 4-3

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Common Diversity Practices: Recruitment Practices

1. Targeted recruitment of non-managers

2. Key outside hires

3. Extensive public exposure on diversity (AA)

4. Corporate image as liberal, progressive, or benevolent

5. Partnerships with educational institutions

6. Recruitment incentives such as cash supplements

7. Internships (such as INROADS)

8. Publications or PR products that highlight diversity

9. Targeted recruitment of managers

10. Partnerships with nontraditional groups

4-20 Table 4-3

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