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Volume 2

Number 2

2014

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editorial ........................................................................................................................................ 3

Towards a Johannine Authorship of the Pericope Adulterae ............................................... 5

George Paki: Andrews University .................................................................................................. 5

Sabbath - Opportunity for Authentic Community ................................................................. 18

Dr Murray House & Linval H. London: ....................................................................................... 18

Traditional Foods, Nutrition and Disease ................................................................................ 24

Dr Warren A. Shipton: Asia-Pacific International University & James Cook University ........... 24

Teaching Sociolinguistics at Universities ................................................................................. 36

Dr Jillian Thiele: Pacific Adventist University ............................................................................. 36

Sylvia Botoa Hamanin: Silent Heroine.................................................................................. 48

Alice Hamanin Sareke .................................................................................................................. 48

Hugh Alfred Dickins .................................................................................................................. 56

Dr Jillian Thiele ............................................................................................................................ 56

Book Review ............................................................................................................................... 61

Danijela Schubert, Youth Ministry in Papua New Guinea. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock,

2013. 133pp.................................................................................................................................. 61

Abstracts from Pacific Adventist University: Masters Theses .............................................. 63

1. The role of the teacher in addressing Occult Sub-Cultures in a PNG Secondary

School: A Case Study: Unia Api, 2012 ........................................................................................ 63

2. Genesis 3:15, The Seedbed Of The Theme Of Enmity In Genesis. ..................................... 64

A Historical Grammatical And Theological Study: Thomas Egei Davai Jr: 2011 .................... 64

3. Influence of Tok Pisin on learning English: Sarah Keliwin, 2013 ....................................... 65

4. Customary Marriage versus Church Marriage in the Seventh-day Adventist Church:

Jeffrey Paul, 2012 ......................................................................................................................... 66

5. Pacific Trainee English Teachers Classroom Response to Critical Literature through

Process Drama: A Critical Sociocultural Analysis: Rebecca Thomas, 2012 ................................ 68

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Editorial This is the second issue of Davaria: Journal of Pacific Adventist University (PAU) for

2014. This has been a combined effort. I wish to thank my editorial team at PAU for their

contributions in editing the articles. I wish to thank guest editors, Bill Gammage and

Ceridwin Sparks from the Australian National University, Jonathon Richie from Deakin

University, and Jack Corbett from Griffith University, for assisting in editing the life

stories. The two life stories are just a taste of what will be in the next issue of Davaria.

The four articles, included in this issue, cover a range of topics. The first article by George

Paki, a Papua New Guinean currently studying at Andrews University in the States, argues

that John wrote the Pericope Adulterae in the Gospel of John.

The second article, written by Dr Murray House & Linval H. London, a lecturer and

student from Avondale, College of Higher Education, examines the relational aspect of the

Sabbath.

We are very privileged to have Associate Professor Warren A. Shipton write our third

article. Dr Shipton has worked in PNG on a food security project with the Australian

Centre for International Agricultural Research. He is currently associated with Asia-Pacific

International University and James Cook University.

Dr Jillian Thiele of Pacific Adventist University has written our fourth article. She has

taught a sociolinguistics subject at PAU and has seen the positive attitude change towards

language issues.

During December, 2013, PAU held a PNG Writers Workshop. Skills were provided in

how to write life stories. In this issue of Davaria, two life stories are published. The life

story of Sylvia Botoa Hamanin, by her daughter Alice Harmain, brings tears to our eyes as

we are reminded of the many struggles faced by Papua New Guineans in the past. The

second life story is about a SDA missionary, Hugh Dickins, who came to the South Pacific

just at the completion of World War Two. He, and his family, contributed to the

educational development of Fiji, Samoa and mainly Papua New Guinea for twenty-seven

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years. His daughter, Dr Jillian Thiele, a missionary in her own right, documents his

struggles and his accomplishments.

It is great when one of our previous lecturer. Dr Danijela Schubert, formerly teaching in

the School of Theology wrote a book based on her research she conducted while at PAU.

Read Dr David Thieles book review and you will wish you could read the book, Youth

Ministry in Papua New Guinea, as well.

PAU has a vibrant post graduate program. Included in this issue of Davaria are samples of

abstracts of masters students theses. The full paper is available on line through the PAU

Library site.

1. Unia Api examines The role of the teacher in addressing Occult Sub-Cultures in a

PNG Secondary School: A Case Study.

2. Thomas Egei Davai Jr presents an excellent study of Genesis 3:15, The Seedbed

of the Theme of Enmity in Genesis, a Historical Grammatical and Theological

Study.

3. Sarah Keliwin documents the transfer issues of Tok Pisin on English.

4. Jeffrey Paul provides an insight into the reasons why so many Seventh-day

Adventist choose cultural weddings rather than church ceremonies.

5. Rebecca Thomas uses drama to illustrate Pacific Trainee English Teachers

Classroom Response to Critical Literature through Process Drama: A Critical

Sociocultural Analysis. All these theses abstracts are worth reading.

It is hoped that Davaria will continue to publish two issues during 2015. Already there are

more interesting life stories in the pipe line. The editorial team invites you submit an

article or a life story for the next issues planned for April, next year.

Dr Jillian Thiele

Editor of DAVARIA: JOURNAL OF PACIFIC ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY.

Coordinator of the Learning and Academic Support Centre

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Towards a Johannine Authorship of the Pericope Adulterae

George Paki: Andrews University Biographical note: George Paki, a Papua New Guinean, is currently Theology at Andrews

University, MI, in America.

Abstract

Since the earliest available manuscripts of the Gospel John do not include the Pericope

Adulterae (John 7:53-8:11), the general consensus amongst NT scholars is that this

passage was added by a latter scribe. Most scholars also agree that the passage in its

current location seriously interrupts the flow of the book. However, this paper argues for a

Johannine authorship of the passage. It particularly attempts to show: (1) The literary,

stylistic and contextual relationship between the pericope and the rest of John; (2) The

significance and the function of the Pericope Adulterae in the text; (3) The possibility of

the pericope being excised before the second century.

Problem

Although the Pericope Adulterae 1

(John 7:53-8:11) has often been described as one of

the jewels of the Gospel,2 it is not free from textual problems. The problem surrounding

this account has to do with its authorship whether this passage is Johannine or an

authentic piece of Jesus-narrative that was inserted by a later scribe. This study re-

examines both the internal and the external evidences to determine if this passage was part

of the original Fourth Gospel.

The external evidences which are usually cited in support of either view will be

considered first.

Manuscripts that omit the Pericope Adulterae

DAT

E

I

(ALEX)

II

(EGYPT)

III

(MIXED

)

IV

(WEST)

V

(BYZ)

VERSIONS/FATHERS

2C P66

Lect/

3C P75

ita/syr/cop/slav

4C N 01, B Diatessaron(2C), Origen,

5C-

6C

Cvid

, T W Avid

N Chrystosom(4C), Cyril(4C),

Tertullian(253),Cyprian mss

8C L, y

9-13C Q//33 D/565/01 1424*

1 Allan F. Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel in the Pericope Adulterae, Bulletin of the Evangelical

Theological Society 9, no. 2 (1966): 91. The same passage is also referred to as the Pericope de Adultera. It simply

means the passage of the adulteress. 2 J. E. Carpenter, The Johannine Writings: A Study of the Apocalypse and the Fourth Gospel, (Boston; Houghton Mifflin

Company, 1927), 219.

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41,157/12

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Manuscripts that include the Pericope Adulterae

DAT

E

I

(ALEX)

II

(EGYPT)

III

(MIXED)

IV

(WEST)

V

(BYZ)

VERSIONS/FATHERS

5C D ita, vg(4/5C), syr,

cop(3C), slav,

9C 892 Apostolic

constitutions4vid

(380),

mss

10-

11C

1243 700 1006,15

05

Ambrosiaster(384),

Ambrose(397),

Pacian(392),

Rufinus(410), Greek &

Latin mss

12-

15C

579,

1292,1342

1071 180/101

0,597,

205 Byz

[FGHM]

Jerome(419), Faustus-

Milevis(4C),

Augustine(430)

Several things emerge when the above data is analyzed. First, the oldest and the best

manuscripts (P66, 75

, N and B) omit this passage.3 Next, according to Metzger, no Greek

Church Fathers commented on the passage until the twelfth century.4 This implies that the

pericope was a later insertion. Third, most NT scholars observe that, the style and

vocabulary [of this pericope]differ noticeably from the rest of the Fourth Gospel.5

Therefore, if and when included, they think it interrupts the sequence.6 Perhaps this

explains why this passage has been treated as a, mobile unit of material that shifted

aboutat the whim of the scribes.7 Metzger then concludes, that the pericope of the

adulterae being against Johannine authorship is, overwhelming[and] conclusive.8

Despite these alleged conclusive evidences, the UBS4 renders an {A} rating, because the

editors considered the incident to be an authentic historical account, but not as an integral

part of the Gospel of John.9 Therefore, UBS

4 printed it,

10 enclosed within double square

3 The weight of the external evidence largely depends on the date of the witness (earlier the better), geographical

distribution, and the quality of the manuscripts. 4 Bruce M Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (New York: United Bible Societies, 1971),

219-220. 5 Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220. 6 Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220. 7 Zane Clark Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, Bibliotheca Sacra 136, no. 544

(1979): 325. 8 Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 219-220. 9 Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel , 94. See also Metzger, A Textual Commentary. 10 The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1993).

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brackets,11

NRSV also in brackets, and most modern commentators have attached this

account in the appendix,12

while some totally ignore it.13

However, the internal evidences14

seriously conflict with this weighty external evidence. In

this paper I will demonstrate this tension and argue for the pericope being an integral part

of the Gospel of John. Since the external evidences seem to speak against such a thesis, I

will begin with the internal evidences and then theorize on the external evidences.

Analysis and Discussion: Internal Evidences

Vocabulary and Style

Most scholars find that the vocabulary of this passage is dissimilar to that of the rest of the

Gospel of John. Metzger and more recently Kstenberger, for instance, reached their

conclusions based on linguistic statistics, claiming that the vocabulary is totally foreign to

the rest of the Gospel.15

However, Johnson convincingly demonstrates that the entire

process of mathematical word counts is grossly a flawed criterion. Because when the

same criterions are applied to other passages (e.g. water into wine of John 2) that are

considered Johannine, they do far worse than the Pericope Adulterae. Therefore, it is

insufficient to discredit the Johannine authorship of 7:53-8:11 based purely on linguistic

considerations.16

Others rightly see that the vocabulary of the pericope is highly reflective

of the first twelve chapters of the Gospel. Allison Trites surveys the vocabulary and the

controversies from chapters 1-12 and correctly identifies the themes of witness, testimony,

stoning, judgment and the tone of the entire controversy has essentially identical to the

section considered.17

She then concludes, there is no overriding contextual problem. The

story of the adulterous woman fits admirably into the controversy developed in John 1-

12.18

Second, Johnson reaches a similar conclusion by analyzing the explanatory interjection,

tou/to de. e;legon peira,zontej auvto,n([na e;cwsin kathgorei/n auvtou/ [They were using

this question as a trap, in order to have a basis for accusing him.] of verse 6. The phrase

11 Metzger, A Textual Commentary, 221. 12 Andrew T. Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, Blacks New Testament Commentary (New York:

Hendrickson Publishers, 2005), 524-536. 13 Andreas J. Kstenberger, John, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker

Academic, 2004). He only commits only five pages arguing why it shouldnt be included, 245-249. 14 Internal evidences includes the linguistic, literary, stylistic, structural, contextual, thematic, and theological

considerations of the text itself in relation to the overall pattern of the book(s). But of these two, scholars naturally see

the external evidences as more objective than the internal ones. 15 Kstenberger, John, 245. 16 See Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 94-96. 17 Allison A. Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, Bibliotheca Sacra 131, no. 522 (Ap-Je 1974): 144-145. 18 Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, 146.

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not only appears ten times (6:6,71, 7 :39, 11:13, 11:51, 12:6, 12:33, 13:11, 13:28, 21:19),

but more so this is a literary style found only in the Gospel of John. He observes that this is

a distinctive literary trait of the Fourth Gospel.19

Therefore, it seems more reasonable to

assume that this interjectory statement is an integral part of the whole narrative and thus,

that the passage also is an integral part of the whole Gospel.20

Scott, however, contends

that linguistic and stylistic similarities could also reflect a good redactorial skills on the

part of the scribes who edited the story into the manuscript, rather than an original

Johannine provenance for the account.21

If Scott is correct, one must admit that such

skilled scribe(s) he refers to must be as good as the author himself; to perfectly weave

such a non-canonical story into the overall pattern of the Fourth Gospel!22

Structure and Context

Keener argues that this passage, seriously interrupts the flow of thought in Johns

narrative.23

However, there are equally sufficient indications to show that this account

smoothly fits into the book. Anyone reading the Gospel of John will notice that the book is

written in a seamless manner. Unlike the other Synoptic gospels, there are temporal or

chronological indicators that join the entire Gospel together.24

In the first 12 chapters,

for instance, the author connects the passages with phrases like, the next day, on the

third day, after this, some time later, as he went along, (1:29,35,43; 2:1,12; 3:22;

5:1; 6:1; 7:1; 9:1; etc). The Pericope Adulterae in its present location naturally blends into

the flow of the narrative.

First, note the phrase, Orqrou de. pa,lin parege,neto eivj to. i`ero.n [he appeared again in

the temple courts] (8:2). The word pa,lin [again] makes perfect sense, seeing that he had

previously taught at the same place in 7:14, 28.25

19 Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96. 20 Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96. 21 J. Martin C. Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story: John 7.53-8.11, in Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of the

Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11) ed. Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic

Press), 73. 22 Also note the manner in which the author concludes this pericope with the one in John. 5:1-15. The Pericope

Adulterae concludes with the words; Go and sin no more (Jn. 8:11), while the other ends with sin no more (Jn. 5:14).

Not only the two accounts conclude the same way, but also the exact same Greek is used in both scenarios. 23 Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, vol. 1 (Boston: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003), 736. 24 Keener, The Gospel of John, 113. 25 Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story. Scott correctly notes, it is to the environs of the Temple that he once more

comes, alerting the reader to the potential for entrapment, given the immediately preceding plotting of his opponents and

the role of the Temple police in it. 57.

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Next, the phrase each went to his own home, is appropriately used here as the previous

day had been the last and the greatest day of the feast during which they had been living

in tents (7:37). If, as seems likely, this last "great day" was after all the eighth day referred

to in Leviticus 23:39, there is an almost unique appropriateness to the mention of each

person going to his "house." For on the previous seven days observant Jewish worshipers

would have followed Old Testament prescription and would have lived in "booths." But

with the feast now over everyone returned home! This delicate point, so sensitive to the

festal setting of the preceding material, is an obviously authentic touch. That an

interpolator should show such contextual sensitivity or conversely should be so

unwittingly fortunate as to tie the narrative thus deftly to the custom of the feast,

stretches credulity to an unbearable degree.26

Third, most textual critics claim this account interrupts the flow of the narrative, because

they think the people of vs. 12 as those Jesus addressed earlier in chapter 7:25,31. While

this is true, it could also refer the the people of 8:2. Because following Jesus invitation

to those without sin to cast the first stone, the story says that all left leaving only Jesus

and the woman standing there. If those who left refer to the teachers of the law and the

Pharisees who brought in the woman, then it is probable that Jesus initial audience [and

his disciples] remained.27

In that sense, the people of vs. 12 could also refer to the people

of 8:2.

Further, in the previous conversation (chapter 7), the audience vehemently disputed

amongst themselves and with Jesus concerning the identity of the latter. The leaders

charged Jesus, soldiers were sent to capture him, two unsuccessful attempts were made to

seize him (7:30, 44) and such situations necessitated Jesus to stand and teach (7:37).

But early the next day, he sat down to teach as peoplegathered around him (8:2). In

this way, the people of vs. 12 is more reflective of John 8:2, than the hostile audience of

chapter 7. Jesus sitting surrounded by an eager audience, implies that this audience is

different or at least on a different day as the narrative suggests, than that of the seventh

chapter.

26 Zane Clark Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, Bibliotheca Sacra 137, no. 545

(1980): 42. 27 Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story, also observes this when he writes two distinct groupings are present: scribes

and Pharisees who have dragged the woman in, and the crowd who were listening and learning before the others arrived.

The narrator has thus left open the possibility that the accusers, those morally responsible, have departed the scene, while

the seekers after the truth, the crowd, remain as witnesses to the entire event. 69.

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Finally, the narrative continues in vs. 12, Jesus spoke again to the people saying, I am

the light of the world. Some commentators think that verse 12 picks up the dialogue of

chapter 7, because the imagery of light was an integral part of the weeklong celebration.28

Although that is reasonable, one must admit that chapter 7 is not intended as a theology or

an exposition on the Jewish festivities. The author had a totally different purpose in mind,

and that is why he selected his material and chose not to include the imagery of light in

chapter 7. And it would be a mistake for anyone to supply that which the author did not

include. Therefore, this imagery seen as a continuation of 8:2 makes a compelling case.

Moreover, it appears that after bidding the woman, go and sin no more, he again turns to

his initial audience, as indicated by the preposition again (vs 12). Also, if Jesus was

teaching in the morning as the story indicates, then as the sun begins to rise on the horizon,

and him declaring himself as the, light of the world makes a lot of sense.29

These structural and contextual evidences mean that this account blends more smoothly

into the entire narrative than is claimed by most NT scholars.

Signs, Themes, Theology and the Intent

Although there are about seven miraculous signs in the Gospel of John, the book is also

impregnated with figures of speech. Not only did Jesus teach using figures of

speech/parables, but the author of John intentionally presents these as a structural theme.

The signs fall into one of three categories:30

Firstly, those miracles done having come

from Judea to Galilee (Chapters 1-4); secondly, those miracles done in or within the

vicinity of Jerusalem (chapters 5, 9, 11), and, thirdly, the rest of the signs which are

illustrative in nature (chapters 6-7). The author also appears to make this distinction. When

making reference to the sign of chapter 5, the author quotes Jesus as saying, I did only

one miracle and you are all astonished (7:21 italics supplied). Ten verses later, the people

acknowledge this, when they said, When the Christ comes, he will do more signs than

this man does (7:31 italics supplied). By stating this, the author ignores the other four

miraculous signs Jesus did prior to chapter 7. This indicates that each sign was intended to

serve a different purpose.

28 Gail R. ODay and Susan E. Hylen, John, ed. Patrick D. Miller and David L. Bartlett, Westminister Bible Companion

(Louisville: Westminister John Knox Press, 2006), 91. 29 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 43. 30 This is my own observation.

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The one miracle (chapter 5) and the two more signs (chapters 9 & 11) Jesus does in

Jerusalem are combative in nature. They are presented in an intensifying manner (chapter

5 leads to enquiry and warning, chapter 9 interrogation and excommunication, chapter 11

the authorities resolved to exterminate both the Christ and the evidence/Lazarus)

culminating in the crucifixion of Jesus.31

The miracles of chapter six, especially the

feeding of the five thousand and Jesus walking on water are illustrative in nature, as they

begin with Jesus rebuking the people for not believing in Moses who wrote about him, for

if you believed Moses, you would believe me, because he wrote about me (5:45-47). The

two miracles (the feeding of the five thousand and Jesus walking on the water of John 6)

that follow this rebuke are presented to illustrate that Jesus is the prophet whom Moses

wrote about. However, by walking on the water, the author presents Jesus as even greater

than Moses.32

Now, why is this important to our current study? Two things; First, just like

the miraculous signs of John 6, the Pericope Adulterae is also deployed here as an

illustrative sign. Second, it plays an important role in shifting the discussion going

from Jesus being like Moses/One greater than Moses to One like the God of Moses or the

God Himself.

First, the authors presentation of Jesus as the Mosaic God is not a peripheral teaching, but

is one of the two cardinal themes presented in the Gospel (John 5:16-18). In the prologue,

the author identifies Jesus as the only begotten God, who is in the bosom of the Father

(John 1:18). This theme is reiterated only in the fifth chapter of John but this time as the

reason for His rejection and crucifixion; For this reason the Jews tried all the harder to

kill him; not only was He breaking the Sabbath, but he was even calling God his own

Father, making himself equal with God (Jn. 15:18). However, the discussion and

controversy concerning Jesus Sonship and divinity is fully developed only after the

Pericope Adulterae (Jn. 7:53-8:11). If this was intentional on the part of the author, the

Pericope Adulterae may have been crafted in its present location to serve as a prelude to

the discourses that follow.33

31 C. S. Keener, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, 6. 32 See Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story, 62. 33 The book is in fact arranged in a similar manner a series of discourses follows a sign . The rest of the 6th and the 7th

chapters follows the feeding of the 5,000 of chapter 6. The same is also true for chapters 9 and 11.

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Second, the discussion following this account concludes with Jesus declaration that

before Abraham was, I am (8:58). The Jews who understood the significance of this

statement began to pick up stones. Perhaps the Pericope Adulterae was employed to

illustrate this very point; that the Jesus of Nazareth was indeed the Mosaic God. The Jews

picked up stones as they considered this declaration to be a blasphemy against God.

Third, scholars have speculated regarding the content of what Jesus actually wrote on the

ground (8:6). Many have attempted to supply the words that Jesus wrote.34

Trites and

Derett think Jesus wrote Exodus 23:1,35

Jerome suggested that Jesus wrote the sins of the

accusers, but recently others have argued that Jesus wrote the Ten Commandments.36

ODay, however, thinks that Jesus gesture indicates his unwillingness to spring the trap

that has been set for him. Jesus writes on the ground to indicate his refusal to play the

game according to the scribes and Pharisees rules.37

Although these suggestions are

undoubtedly insightful, I think Hodges is accurate when he says;

Certainly, had the content of Jesus writing been a crucial element in this

narrative, John would naturally have specified what it was. That he has not

done so is the clearest evidence that the act of writing not what was

written is the really important consideration.38

Then he appropriately sees a parallel between God stooping down and writing the Ten

Commandments with his own finger twice at Mt Sinai, with the act of the pericope

adulterae account. He writes, As the broken tablets of Old Testament times were replaced

by new ones, so the Law she had shattered by her sin must again be rewritten with the

words, "go . . . and sin no more" (John 8:11).39

Although, Hodges makes an important

contribution when he highlights Jesus act of writing as the essence of this account, he

nonetheless, fails to elaborate on the significance of that act as far as Jesus identity is

concerned.

There are few things that need to be stressed here. First, note that the emphasis is not only

on the act of writing, but also on the instrument of writing with his own finger. This

34 Gail R. O Day, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, Journal of Biblical Literature 111, no. 4 (1992): 632. 35 Trites, Woman Taken in Adultery, 145. 36 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 45. See Hodges for a lengthy discussion on

this. Here Hodges quotes Jerome (Contra Pelagium 2.17) and James Sanders. Also see Scott, On the Trail of a Good

Story, 63-65. 37 ODay, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, 632. See also Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, 531-

533. 38 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 45-46. 39 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition, 47.

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account also illustrates40

what the apostle wrote in the prologue; For the law was given

through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ (1:17). Thus this story

illustrates the fact that the very same finger that stooped low and wrote the Ten

Commandments twice on the rock, now writes grace and truth on the sand!

Next, the issue concerning Moses versus Jesus, which is punctuated from chapters 1-7

(John 1:17; 3:14; 5:47-47; 6; 7:19-24, 50-51), is heightened in this passage when the

Jewish aristocrats hauled in the woman and demanded In the Law Moses commanded

us to stone such women. Now what do you say?" (8:5). When the Jews who prided

themselves as disciples of Moses (John 9:28) pointed to the writings of their master;

Jesus simple gesture (act of writing twice with his finger) was intended to show that He

was the God of Moses. In other words, while the professed disciples of Moses pointed to

the laws of Moses, Jesus pointed to himself as the compassionate and gracious God

whom Moses actually saw and worshipped (Ex. 34:35-38; Jn. 1:18).41

Finally, in an interesting article, Poytheress uses the conjunctions de, oun, kai to test the

authorship of this passage. Calling the author a pattern-producer, Poythress describes

him as one who has digested his sources thoroughly. He digested them grammatically,

rhetorically, thematically, theologically.42

Strangely, the application of his devise on this

passage found that the absence of the test pattern from John 7:53-8:11, taken together

with the external manuscript evidence, shows that 7:53-8:11 was added after the

autographic stage.43

Although this passage may have failed Poytheress conjunction-

tests, it does however, convincingly qualifies the author of the Gospel of John as the

Pattern-producer. The grammar, rhetoric, themes, theology, and the intent of this pericope,

favor the author of the Gospel of John as the Pattern-producer, also of the Pericope

Adulterae.

Therefore, contrary to what most NT scholars suggest, this pericope is not just an integral

part of the Gospel of John, but according to the weight of internal evidence, this account

40 Hylen. Hylen and O Day also think this story enacts the themes of the proper interpretation of the Law (chapter 7) and

sin (chapter 8). But they fail to demonstrate their claims. 89. 41 When the Jews attempted to use Moses against Jesus, Jesus turns this around and uses Moses against them. He does

the same when they tried to use Abraham against him in the same chapter (Jn. 8:31-41). If the older ones left the scene

first they perhaps came to the conclusion that they were not acting like Moses. 42 Vern S. Poythress, Testing for Johannine Authorship by Examining the Use of Conjunctions, Westminster

Theological Journal 46, no. 2 (1984): 356. 43 Poythress, Testing for Johannine Authorship, 355.

14

could indeed be the jewel of the Fourth Gospel. For this reason, I agree with Johnson who

says, if internal evidence is highly determinativeperhaps a re-interpretation of the

external evidence of John 7:53-8:11 is in order.44

External Evidences

As noted above, we must acknowledge that the earliest and the best manuscripts do not

include John 7:53-8:11. However, it would be wrong for anyone not to re-examine those

manuscripts especially when the internal evidences compels us to. We will, therefore,

consider several scenarios which may help us shed light on this passage.

First, the general consensus among scholars concerning this pericope being an authentic

historical account (but not Johannine), implies that this pericope existed (either in oral or

in written form) scores of years before our oldest and best (available) manuscripts ever

came into existence. Simply put, this account is as old as the Gospel of John.

Second, some scholars rightly think, this passage could have been one of those many signs

Jesus did, but by the authors own admission, was not recorded in this book (20:30)

and added by a later scribe, or as Carpenter so eloquently puts it the most conspicuous

illustration of this process [later addition].45

However, it could also have been part of the

Gospel, but removed by a later scribe. Both of these scenarios are possible, because

scribal tampering was already evident when the book of Revelation was written (Rev.

21:18-19). But, for this pericopes insertion to occur, one condition must exist. The scribe

responsible for it must be both, a close associate and a contemporary of the Pattern-

Producer (author). In other words, the scribe responsible must be thoroughly immersed in

the authors grammar, rhetoric, themes, theology and the intent. However, if the contents

of the Gospels and the Epistles still baffle the scholarly world from the period of those

unknown scribes up until now, then such a scribal precision from a later scribe is highly

unlikely. The chances are almost improbable, if by later, scholars mean after 200 AD.46

Hodges, on the other hand, makes an interesting case on the warning of the same issues in

Revelation 21:18-19. He wonders if such a warning is an early indication of, addition to

44 Johnson, A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel, 96. 45 Carpenter, The Johannine Writings 219. 46 Most scholars think this pericope was inserted two centuries or more after the Gospel was written. See Carpenter,

The Johannine Writings 220.

15

the text or an early excision from the books which were later to be canonized.47

This

coupled with Eusebuis admission that Papias knew of such a story contained in the

Gospel according to the Hebrews,48

makes such early excision more probable. To this,

some would point out the unavailability of a specific gospel for the Hebrews. Such

arguments are not only superficial, but they also imply ignorance on the part of those

making it. We all know that the titles of most, if not all, NT books were later insertions.

This is more true when it comes to the writings of John and the book of Hebrews, as they

lack both the author(s) and the addressee(s) identity. The titles of the NT books, as we

know today, were not the same names they had in the times of Papias. The close

resemblance between the book of Hebrews and the Fourth Gospel may have evoked such a

title as, Gospel according to the Hebrews during the early times. Therefore, it is not

impossible to suppose that our Fourth Gospel could have been Papias Gospel according

to the Hebrew.

Fourth, if Hodges is correct in suggesting that the above earliest witnesses (P66, 75

, N and

B) are all from an Egyptian origin, then it also leaves the door open for one to wonder if

they share a common (tampered) genealogy.49

For in regard to all four of these oldest

Greek witnesses, there is a serious question whether or not they have any significant

textual independence at all. That

P75

and are close relatives is well known, and the

affinity between and has long been commonplace knowledge in text critical

handbooks. P66

as well shows many significant agreements with the other three.

It is

therefore not at all out of the question to suggest that all four may ultimately be derived

from a single parental exemplar which lies far back in the stream of

transmission.50

Accordingly, the concurrence of four early Egyptian manuscripts in

deleting the pericope has no decisive weight whatsoever, so long as their textual

independence cannot be demonstrated.51

47 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery, 321. 48 See Lincoln, The Gospel According to Saint John, 526. 49 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 323. Do note that we do not have any book by

the name of The Gospel of Hebrews today. However, just what name was accorded to the books which we refer to as

the Gospel of John and Hebrew then is not clear. These, together with 1 John are some of the few book in the NT

that do not have the authors name. 50 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 323. 51 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 324.

16

Therefore, it is probable that the Pericope Adulterae was omitted as early as first or before

the second century, and the above four evidences could have flown out from that tampered

one.

Possible Reasons for Early Tampering

Such speculation leaves out more questions than it attempts to answer. Chief amongst this

is, If such a lengthy account was omitted, then why? Third and fourth century church

fathers shed light on this question. Augustine used the text as a mirror to the society as to

how it should behave towards women, in contrast to how it actually behaves.52

In this

sense, the passage was viewed as a threat to the Patriarchal Society.

Patriarchal prejudices thus contributed to, perhaps caused, the canonical

marginality of John 7:53-8:11. Within the story, the scribes and Pharisees

attempted to marginalize the woman. The early church and the interpretive

community then attempted to marginalize not only the woman but her story

as well.53

Also, some early church fathers felt that the pericope showed Jesus leniency towards

adultery and feared that it might somehow translate into a license for wives to engage in

adulterous acts.54

To this, some critics would argue that such suggestion is unlikely, as the

passage under scrutiny does not say go and sin more. This is of course reasonable, but at

a time when such sins were punishable by death, just saying go and sin no more does

seem to show leniency and wink at adultery.

Finally, a word on Metzegers claim that the text did not receive any mention amongst the

Greek Church fathers, until the 12th

century. While this appears convincing, Metzeger

deliberately avoids Jeromes testimony, that he found the story in the gospel of John in

many Greek and Latin codices (contra Pelag. 2.17).55

Thus, such intentional oversight is

an impressive tribute to the lack of scientific objectivity.56

52 Thomas OLoughlin, A Womans Plight and the Western Fathers, in Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of the

Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11) ed. Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke, (England: Sheffield Academic

Press, 2000), 99. For a detailed discussion on the use of the pericope by the early church fathers, see O Loughlin, A

Womans Plight and the Western Fathers, 88-103 53 ODay, John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading, 640. 54 Scott, On the Trail of a Good Story. 74. Here Scott quotes Riesenfeld. For a lengthy discussion on this see Hodges

The Text, 318-332. 55 Gary M. Burge, A Specific Problem in the New Testament Text and Canon: The Woman Caught in Adultery,

Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27, no. 2 (1984): 143. 56 Hodges, The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): the Text, 332.

17

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is imperative to point out three things. First, if the internal evidences show

the Pericope Adulterae as being a core part of Johannine Gospel and the scenarios

surrounding the external evidences could allow for such a view then the passage being

excised before the 2nd

century is a highly probable thesis. Second, if those who argue for a

non-Johannine authorship of this passage cannot prove against a common genealogy of the

above four 3rd

and 4th

century manuscripts (P66, 75

, N and B) considering the fact that

there was early tampering then this passage being Johannine still remains the most likely

view.

Bibliography

Burge, Gary M. A Specific Problem in the New Testament Text and Canon: The Woman Caught in

Adultery. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 27, no. 2 (1984): 141-148.

Carpenter, J. E., The Johannine Writngs: A Study of the Apocalypse and the Fourth Gospel, Boston;

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927.

Hodges, Zane Clark. The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): The Text. Bibliotheca Sacra 136,

no. 544 (1979): 318-332.

________. The Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7:53-8:11): Exposition. Bibliotheca Sacra 137, no. 545

(1980): 41-53.

Hylen, Gail R. ODay and Susan E. John Westminister Bible Companion, Edited by Patrick D. Miller and

David L. Bartlett. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminister John Knox Press, 2006.

Johnson, Allan F. A Stylistic Trait of the Fourth Gospel in the Pericope Adulterae. Bulletin of the

Evangelical Theological Society 9, no. 2 (1966): 91-96.

Keener, Craig S. The Gospel of John: A Commentary. Vol. 1. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2003.

Kstenberger, Andreas J. John Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids,

Michigan: Baker Academic, 2004.

Lincoln, Andrew T. The Gospel According to Saint John Blacks New Testament Commentary. New York:

Hendrickson Publishers, 2005.

Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. New York: United Bible Societies,

1971.

ODay, Gail R. John 7:53-8:11: A Study in Misreading. Journal of Biblical Literature 111, no. 4 (Wint

1992): 631-640.

OLoughlin, Thomas. A Woman's Plight and the Western Fathers. In Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations

of the Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11), Edited by Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W.

Rooke. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000.

Poythress, Vern S. Testing for Johannine Authorship by Examining the Use of Conjunctions. Westminster

Theological Journal 46, no. 2 (1984): 350-369.

Scott, J. Martin C. On the Trail of a Good Story: John 7.53-8.1. In Ciphers in the Sand: Interpretations of

the Woman Taken in Adultery (John 7.53-8.11). Edited by Larry J. Kreitzer and Deborah W. Rooke.

Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

Trites, Allison A. Woman Taken in Adultery. Bibliotheca Sacra 131, no. 522 (1974): 137-146.

18

Sabbath - Opportunity for Authentic Community

Dr Murray House & Linval H. London: Biographical note: Dr Murray House lectures in the School of Arts and Theology at

Avondale, College of Higher Education, NSW. Linval London is a student studying

theology at Avondale

From the beginning, God set the Sabbath aside and founded it on the basis of community

with Himself and with others. It contained the seeds for interpersonal relationships;

between one person and another, between man and woman, and between the human being

and the environment. In honouring the Sabbath, we experience community through

genuine fellowship, mutual inclusivity, and unified purpose. The often-neglected relational

aspects of the Sabbath are foundational for authentic community.57

The Creation of Community

In the creation week God created community from chaos. As God spoke into the void, the

light was gathered with light, the waters were coalesced into their groups, and all manner

of flora and fauna were arranged in societies after their kind (Gen 1; 12, 25). Challies

states:

Seven times in the story of creation (Genesis 1) God looked at what He had

created and saw that it was good. What follows in Genesis 2 stands out in

contrast. In a perfect and sinless world, where man enjoyed perfect

community with his Creator, God, looking at His creation, said, It is not

good for the man to be alone.58

As part of the Creators perfect plan for humanity to exist in community, the

Sabbath was fashioned and made holy (Gen 2:3) in order for the isolation of

humankind to be removed from creation. The sanctification of the day did not

preclude the need for relationships, but encouraged them. The rest provided on

the day was not of a slothful type, but refreshing and renewing to both body and

spirit, a time to bond with the entirety of Gods family, both the terrestrial and the

divine.

57

Sigve K. Tonstad, The Lost Meaning of the Seventh Day, (Berrien Springs, MI, Andrews University Press, 2009) 33. 58

T. Challies, "One Another - The Bible and Community" www.Challies.com document: July 10, 2004.

19

Although the Sabbath is referred to as the day God ceased from creating (Gen 2:2) at its

core it was formed out of Gods overwhelming desire for intimate union with His creation.

God ceased from His consecutive days of creativity, stopped setting up the various eco-

systems, and started fashioning a time-period of communion. Humanity is not just invited

to witness Gods presence but to participate together in the celebration of Gods completed

community. The Sabbath was carved out of time, and because God ceased from His other

duties on that day it was hallowed and blessed (Exod 20:11). The blessing of the presence

of the Creator was an example to humankind that, once a week, relationships needed to

come first. Every six days it was necessary for the working to stop and fellowship to begin

(Lev 23:2-3).

The Sabbath after the Exodus was a sign (Exod 31:17) to all who witnessed it that

community was important and that refreshing fellowship was beneficial for the growth and

well being of Gods earthly people. Gods presence provided the day with safety,

security, and equilibrium59

- a balance of freedom and boundaries - creating a space

where humanity could feel secure in a loving relationship. Sabbath enhances the

connection, with each other and with God, through the bond of the Sabbath meeting (Isa

58:13).

The Benefits of Community

Keeping the Sabbath holy brings closeness to community through the honouring and

sharing of Sabbath celebration. Moltmann states:

For the sake of this celebration, everything, which exists, was created. In

order not to celebrate alone, God created the heavens and the earth, the

dancing stars and the swaying seas, the fields and the woods, the animals,

the plants, and last of all, human beings. They are all invited to God's

Sabbath celebration. They are all - each in its own way - God's

companions in celebration.60

The celebration of the Sabbath provides a stable foundation for community building as we

experience worship together and live with authenticity before our Lord. The Sabbath has

the potential to address any inadequacies in the relationship God desires with and for His

people. Feelings of pride, superiority, and selfishness poison the Sabbath community and

only seek to interfere with our fellowship on this day of holy convocation (Lev 23:3).

59

J.H. Walton, The NIV Application Commentary: Genesis. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 146. 60

J. Moltmann, "The Sabbath: the feast of creation." Journal of Family Ministry 14, no. 4 (2000): 38.

20

Stanley Grenz states, sins such as these lead to a disruption of community61

and only

highlight our human failure to live in community with God, each other and the natural

environment.62

The Process of Building Community

For fellowship to be other than a ruse, persons need to be willing to lower their defences

and share what they are truly feeling. This can be a risky endeavour, as ridicule or

indifference may greet them, but risk is necessary for authentic community to form and for

honest fellowship to exist. God took a risk when creating man in giving him free choice,

but that is what correct community demands (Joshua 24:15). Hybels states,

Its a great temptation for small groups of people to slide into a state where they

are not quite telling each other the truth and they are not quite celebrating each

other. Instead they tolerate each other, they accommodate each other, and they

settle for sitting on unspoken matters that separate them. "63

Without vulnerability authentic community fails. Persons must know they are valued by

others to feel part of a community. Sabbath is about coming together, putting aside

divisive variances and, instead, celebrating the distinctive differences God has created (Isa

56:7). In it various races, genders, ages and characters all finding unity in the love and

adoration of God (Exod 20:8-11). True Sabbath fellowship breaks through the falsehood of

individualism, reassembles the atomized64

society and opens a door to a wonderful

mosaic of community. Unity is possible within the divine fellowship of love and

acceptance.

The Sabbath is also a time of emptying - not of the day, but of the believers heart. True

openness between individuals is vital for community development. It is a time of reflection

on the personal journey of the individual and a moment of communal reflection of what

has happened during the interval to bring the community together. Sabbath time, as shown

in the ancient world, was a time of putting aside your personal pride and humbling

yourself before God. This was vividly symbolized by the action of bringing a sacrifice to

the temple as a sign of personal sin (Lev 4:27-29) and the admission of personal

responsibility for breaking fellowship with God during the week. The admission of sin

61

J. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1994), 187. 62

Ibid. 63

Hybels, Bill. Axiom: Powerful Leadership Proverbs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008. 64

D. Elazar, "Why Public Standards of Sabbath Observance" www.jcpa.org document: < http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles/sabbobs.htm>1992.

21

facilitated the emptying of pride and self importance. In todays society we do not have a

visible sacrifice on the Sabbath day, but instead we offer the sacrifice of our lives to God

(Rom 12:1). The solution to the problems we face as individuals is often found when we

cease trying to fix ourselves and start taking a look at the world around us and noticing

what we can do. In 2004 Lee Levett-Olson quoted from renowned social psychologist

Erich Fromm concerning the vision of a Sabbath community that provides:

Security in the sense that the basic material conditions for a dignified life are not

threatened; Justice in the sense that nobody can be an end for the purpose of

another, and freedom in the sense that each [person] has the possibility to be an

active and responsible member of society.65

Authentic community, as experienced through the Sabbath, encourages a focus upon others

to discover the true condition of those who associate with us. Just as God ceased from His

activity to enjoy fellowship with His creation, we then should follow the pattern set by

the Creator66

and enter into a closer relationship with Him67

through the door to

community opened by Him. God exists at the centre of the relational sphere of the

Sabbath. As worshippers come closer to Him they also come in contact with one another,

facilitating opportunities to share and support each other in the unified goal of oneness

with God.

The Return to Community

The result of living the Sabbath is authentic community. Authentic community exists when

members of the community are in complete empathy with one another, are sincere in their

joint desires, and are seeking after the good of the whole. The church in Acts was just such

a community, as they shared a single-minded devotion68

and an openhearted attitude,

where no pretence and performance in the way the believers behaved.69

This was a

community which could share freely, encourage consistently, and love unconditionally.

The early church met daily (Acts 2:46) to foster this fellowship, but then came together on

the Sabbath in unified worship to God and continued edification of each other in the house

of the Lord (Acts 13:42-44).

65

Levett-Olson, Lee, Building a Sabbath Community October 2009. 66

J. McKeown, The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary: Genesis. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008), 28. 67

Ibid. 68

A. Fernando, The NIV Application Commentary: Acts. (Grand Rapids, MI : Zondervan, 1998), 123. 69

Ibid.

22

Since we are living, free-thinking organisms there is certain to be some differences of

opinion, but true community welcomes these discussions, is not afraid of new ideas, and

respects others with differing viewpoints. Brueggemann states, The trick of community is

to hold together real differences of interest in the midst of treasuring a passionate

commitment to belong faithfully to one another.70

The harmony found in Sabbath

community is not in the sameness of the members ideas, but in the unified ideals of the

community. The sense of a unified purpose and goal brings people together in the worship

of God and the encouragement of each other. A Sabbath community could then be defined

as a group of people, depending on each other and on God, sharing the same sanctified

time as the creator of the universe, and interacting with God, and each other, through

various means.

Thus, the Sabbath reveals itself as not just a time of holy living, but also a weekly season

of growth in the field of fellowship and community. The day is not exclusive to the

hallowed, but rather, provides a mutually inclusive realm where worship of the of the

divine can co-exist beside the enrichment of humankinds greatest need; the need to belong,

to rest in the comfort of acceptance. On the Sabbath, the society of man and the sacred

communion with God come together and each realm is enriched and emboldened by the

experience.

The Sabbath is a day of relational development, providing a time of free flowing

communication without distractions to hinder understanding. It is a time of reflection on

the relationship choices you have made and rejoicing in the community you have achieved.

The Sabbath enhances our community, unites us in a common goal, and brings us closer to

each other in a way that no other time period is able to do.

In these times when true community has been replaced by social networking sites and

acceptance comes packaged with conformity, the Sabbath stands as a reminder that we all

do belong, despite our differences. The day God set aside as a monument of creation is

also a day to throw off the shackles of sameness, and unify in the worship of our God who

fashioned variety. It is an experience which houses blessings for the participant, and for

the One on the throne of the universe. The Sabbath requires us to be honest with each other

70

W. Brueggemann, Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes.

(Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 37.

23

and to share of ourselves with our fellow humanity. Finally, it enables us to honour the

Lord in a spirit of authentic community. We have opportunity to experience community as

it was intended by the Godhead from the beginning.

24

Traditional Foods, Nutrition and Disease

Dr Warren A. Shipton: Asia-Pacific International University & James Cook University Biographical note: Associate Professor Warren A. Shipton has worked in PNG on a food

security project with the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. He is

currently associated with Asia-Pacific International University and James Cook University

(adjunct). He has published extensively in agriculture and biomedical science.

Abstract: Non-communicable diseases are increasing worldwide. Adoption of

Western-style foods and eating habits primarily are responsible for this upsurge. In

this environment, interest in traditional food systems and the nutritional value of

components are being explored. Avoidance of protein-energy, vitamin and

micronutrient malnutrition are the principal health concerns. The area invites

detailed documentation and research in Papua New Guinea to reduce infant deaths

and stunting of children in particular. Indigenous groups have generated food

systems, safe methods of food preservation and preparation. Failure to follow these

or understand the basis for their success may increase health risks. This does not

imply that traditional methods are risk-free as has been demonstrated with sago

haemolytic disease. Cooperative efforts to improve community health have given

positive results elsewhere and there is every reason to think that similar results might

be achieved in Papua New Guinea by understanding and fine-tuning traditional food

systems.

Introduction

In recent years there has been considerable interest in Mediterranean and Asian diets in

Western countries. This is on account of the massive increase in life-style diseases such as

heart-associated disease, cancer and diabetes. These diets are characterised by the

consumption of vegetables, fruit, moderate to sparse use of meat, and limited intake of

refined foods and the use of other specialized components. This ensures that the foods

consumed are high in dietary fibre, relatively low in rapidly accessible energy sources

(simple sugars), low in protein and saturated fats, and high in antioxidants. These are not

the only dietary schemes that will deliver good health outcomes. For example, those

people groups taking in high levels of saturated plant or animal fats, such as those living in

the Pacific Islands and Alaska, respectively, still retain healthy outcomes, as long as they

remain physically active and do not take on Western eating habits of consuming highly

refined foods, large portion size, and high levels of meat and milk.

Studies sponsored by the Food and Agricultural Organization and carried out among

indigenous groups at locations around the world have highlighted the wisdom of retaining

knowledge and practice of utilizing traditional foods. This is not to give carte blanche

25

approval to traditional food systems. For example, the Karen people of Thailand have a

repertoire of 387 traditional food species/varieties and 66 animal species/varieties that they

use. Some of these are cultivated, but many are gathered in the wild. The children in the

villages showed significant chronic and acute malnutrition problems (20% stunted, 14%

underweight). There were dietary deficiencies in vitamins A and C and fat and low iron

intake. It was found that the available food resources would satisfy most of their needs if

utilized sensibly. Most issues could be remedied by education and working on cultural

understandings through the village leaders. 71

In addition to information contained in the cultural-influenced dietary system adopted,

additional sources of wisdom have been accumulated. The first is the method of treating

food so as to deliver a safe product, the second relates to food storage and finally a method

of preparing food for consumption so as to minimise illness. In order to illustrate these

sources of wisdom, I will mention cassava (Manihot esculenta) preparation. Cassava

contains two toxic cyanogenic glycosides, which must be removed. Different ethnic groups

follow their preferred methods of detoxification. For example, in Nigeria some people

groups place the roots in running streams for 35 days and subsequent wash and sieve

tissues. This largely removes toxins from the bitter varieties. Other groups slice, grate or

pound the roots so that cell rupture occurs leading to the hydrolysis of the toxic glycosides.

The grated cassava then is allowed to ferment for some days, which further detoxifies it.

These methods are effective in reducing hydrogen cyanide content but do not eliminate it.

The cassava is subsequently heated until it reaches the desired consistency to become gari.

This is thoroughly sundried before storage. All the steps in the process function to reduce

cyanogens, but some steps such as boiling, blanching and drying allow up to 50 percent of

cyogens to be retained.72

Most instances of cassava poisoning occur when there is

inadequate water or intensive commercialization leads to insufficient processing of bitter

cassava. A condition known as konzo is associated with such food, which is manifest as a

71

Sinee Chotiboriboon, Sopa Tamachotipong, Solot Sirisai et al. 2009. Thailand: food system and nutritional

status of indigenous children in a Karen community, pp. 159183. In: Indigenous Peoples Food Systems:

The Many Dimensions of Culture, Diversity and Environment for Nutrition and Health, eds Harriet V.

Kuhnlein, Bill Erasmus & Dina Spigelski. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 72

Emmanuel, O. Etejere & Ramakrishna B. Bhat. 1985. Traditional preparation and uses of cassava in

Nigeria. Economic Botany 39(2):157164; T. Agbor-Egbe & I. Lape Mbome. 2006. The effects of

processing techniques in reducing cyanogens levels during the production of some Cameroonian cassava

foods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19:354363; Bala Nambisan. 2011. Strategies for

elimination of cyanogens from cassava for reducing toxicity and improving food safety. Food and Chemical

Toxicology 49(3):590693.

26

motor-neuron disorder and in impaired visual acuity.73

When sweat cassava is grown, it

may be necessary only to roast or boil the roots to render it safe for use. Different ethnic

groups have devised various ways of preparing cassava safely. The material may be

utilized immediately or after storage of the sun-dried product. In some of the South Pacific

islands cassava is grated, wrapped in leaves and baked in an oven. It may be eaten

immediately and is safe.74

Market outlets of dried cassava may be sources of additional hazards, as illustrated by

work in southern Nigeria. Market surveys indicated that samples had unacceptable levels

(up to 5.7 g/kg) and prevalence of aflatoxins generated by contaminating fungi and could

carry food-borne disease pathogens such of Staphylococcus aureus (35 cfu/g) and

coliforms.75

While the numbers of pathogens encountered in this study were not significant

microbiologically, they indicate the potential for contamination. Aflatoxins (B and G) are

the most potent group of fungal-generated toxins (generally associated with species of

Aspergillus) formed generally in food post-harvest as a consequence of poor storage

conditions. They are category I carcinogens. The highest levels of toxins detected in

Nigeria would be of regulatory significance in some countries. Prolonged exposure to

these toxins predisposes to cancer development.76

Further studies in Nigeria have shown

that other foodstuffs can carry damaging levels of aflatoxins.77

Food-borne disease organisms are a major problem world-wide. These organisms are more

significant in the developing in contrast to the developed world. The number of annual

diarrhoeal episodes is staggering and over three million deaths are estimated to occur

globally. The combined effects of malnutrition and diarrhoeal disease deliver an estimated

73

Donald G. Barceloux. 2012. Medical Toxicology of Natural Substances: Foods, Fungi, Medicinal Herbs,

Plants, and Venomous Animals. United States: Wiley Publishers. 74

P. A. Lancaster, J. S. Ingram, M. Y. Lim et al. 1982. Traditional cassava-based foods: survey of processing

techniques. Economic Botany 36(1):1245. 75

I. S. Ogiebor, M. J. Ikenebomeh & A. O. Ekundayo. 2007. The bioload and aflatoxins content of market

garri from some selected states in southern Nigeria: public health significance. African Health Science

7(4):223227. 76

W. A. Shipton. 2014. The Biology of Fungi Impacting Human Health. Singapore: Partridge, pp. 27, 45. 77

Olusegun Atanda, Hussaini A. Makun, Isaac M. Ogara, Mojisola Edema et al. 2013. Fungal and

mycotoxin contamination of Nigerian foods and feeds. In: Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing

Countries, ed. Hussaini Anthony Makun. Rijeka, Croatia: Intech, pp. 338. Online:

http://www.ngmycotoxin.org/Sci%20Papers/Makuns%20Book.pdf

27

15 million deaths in children under five every year. Contamination of food is a major

cause of such diseases.78

Disease expression and nutrition

Receiving a balanced nutrition is one of the important factors to consider in any population

attempting to achieve and maintain good health. Proteins are one of the key nutrients

requiring attention as nine amino acids essential for the optimal functioning of the human

body cannot be manufactured by it. The necessary amino acids can be supplied from either

plant or animal sources.79

The incidence of selected diseases is influenced by dietary status. This has been illustrated

among children with intake of high levels of dietary cyanide in Mozambique. The

incidence of paralysis (indicated by the onset of konzo) among them was associated with

high cyanide exposure at the same time as dietary sulphur intake was low. Cassava is

energy rich, and protein and sulphur poor. The relationship between sulphur intake and

disease is not entirely surprising as the detoxification of cyanide after ingestion is

dependent on a biochemical pathway that include a sulphur-containing enzyme, which

necessitate the presence of sulphur containing amino acids in the diet. The cassava roots

implicated in the Mozambique episodes were consumed without the usual post-harvest

processing detoxification steps being implemented during a period of drought and when

protein rich foods (beans and fish) were in short supply.80

Similar observations have been

made in Zaire where inhabitants made a shortcut (one day soaking in water compared to

the usual three) to the traditional preparation method to facilitate rapid sales of the finished

product. This resulted in high cyanide levels in the product and the subsequent onset of

motor-neuron disease in consumers. Affected populations also displayed low sulphur

intake levels.81

Protein deficiency (particularly methionine) and intake of selected vitamins

may predispose to the development of these disease symptoms.82

78

WHO food safety. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/fermentation.pdf 79

Warren A. Shipton. 2009. Health IQ. Muak Lek, Thailand: Institute Press, pp. 1520. 80

Julie Cliff, Johannes Mrtensson, Per Lundqvist et al. 1985. Association of high cyanide and low sulphur

intake in cassava-induced spastic paraparesis. Lancet 326(8466):12112013. 81

Thorkild Tylleskr, Mayambu Banea, Nkiabungu Bikangi et al. 1992. Cassava cyanogens and konzo, an

upper motoneuron disease found in Africa. Lancet 339(8787):2082011. 82

G. Speijers. Cyanogenic glycosides. IPCS Inchem. Online:

http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je18.htm; Hiplito Nzwalo & Julie Cliff. 2011. Konzo:

from poverty, cassava, and cyanogens intake to toxico-nutritional neurological disease. PloS Neglected

Tropical Diseases 5(6): e1051. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.000105

28

Nutritional excess may predispose to disease

I will take an example dealing with the predisposing effect of protein excess on liver

cancer following exposure to fungal toxins (aflatoxins). This example will serve

additionally to show some of the ill effects of altering traditional food intake patterns

without informed understanding.

In an early attempts to bridge the protein deficit in childrens diets in developing countries,

a group working in the Philippines targeted peanuts as a readily available source rich in

protein that might be popularized. An initial emphasis was to identify safe sources of

peanuts with acceptable low levels of aflatoxins. This research was carried out in the early

days of aflatoxin investigations. It soon was discovered that children were more

susceptible than adults to aflatoxins in that they developed liver cancer more readily.

Children were dying before their tenth birthday from liver cancer, but the most puzzling

aspect of the investigations was that those children from families with the richest protein

diets were the most likely to develop liver cancer.83

It was shown experimentally in rats

that a low protein diet decreased the binding of aflatoxin metabolites to DNA. When

protein levels in a diet were reduced, the number of cancer foci capable of developing was

reduced substantially. However, subsequent elevation of protein intake led to a remarkable

increase in the development of cancer foci. Further work established that dietary protein up

to about 10 percent did not increase foci development in rats, which was the level of

protein necessary to satisfy the protein requirements for body growth. When, however,

high protein levels (20%) were fed, there was a clear dose response in cancer development

to increased aflatoxin dose.84

In animal experiments, it was established that not all dietary protein was equally effective

in promoting cancer formation. Animal-based protein was more tumour-generating than

plant-based proteins, with casein protein being the most deleterious. A wide ranging study

of human health in China showed that the diseases of affluence (some types of cancer,

83

T. Colin Campbell & Thomas M. Campbell. 2006. The China Study. Dallas, Texas: Benbella Books, pp.

3438. 84

G. E. Dunaif & T. C. Campbell. 1987. Dietary protein level and aflatoxin B1induced preneoplastic

hepatic lesions in the rat. Journal of Nutrition 117(7):12981302.

29

diabetes, coronary heart disease) have associated dietary risk factors. In fact, there were

compelling links between dietary practice and disease incidence.85

Sago consumption and disease in Papua New Guinea (PNG)

Sago consumption is well established in the lowlands of PNG. Sago starch is extracted

from the pith of the palm (Metroxylon sagu) using traditional methods, which involve

fragmenting the pith, then washing the starch out with water. The starch is stored wet

(commonly in palm-leaf bundles or in clay pots filled with water) where it ferments. The

fermented product is prepared for eating using simple methods. Sago starch is often the

staple carbohydrate. It is low in protein. Sago haemolytic disease has been associated with

eating stale sago starch. It is manifestation within 1224 hours of consumption as fever,

vomiting, jaundice and haematuria (blood in the urine), with death following quickly in

some individuals.86

The disease is most frequently encountered in the Western Province

with cases occasionally observed in the East Sepik and Madang Provinces. People from

Irian Jaya also are known to seek medical aid in the Western Province for the disease.

Cultural practices differed remarkably between the Sepik and the Western Provinces. In

the former the usual practice is to store sago under water in unglazed clay pots whereas in

the Western Province the practice is to store sago in palm leaf bundles in contact with the

air. This means that fungi can colonize such leaf-encased bundles. Early studies pointed to

fungal contamination as a possible cause of the condition. Exploration along these lines

was encouraged by the knowledge that some mycotoxins do possess haemolytic activity.87

During preparation there is ample opportunity for sago starch to become contaminated

with microorganisms from the soil, vegetation and air; some human pathogens also find

their way into the product.88

Fungal threads (hyphae) grow through sago stored in leaf-

encased bundles so that in month-old sago the outer layers are heavily colonized. In sago

preserved in jars filled with water (Sepik region) fungal growth essentially does not occur.

85

Campbell & Campbell, 2006, op. cit., pp. 5462, 109182. 86

T. Taufa, 1974. Sago haemolytic disease. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 17:227228. 87

Andrew R. Greenhill, 2006. Food safety and security of sago starch in rural Papua New Guinea. PhD

thesis, James Cook University, Townsville. 88

A. R. Greenhill, W. A. Shipton, B. J. Blaney et al. 2010. Hazards and critical control points for traditional

sago starch production in Papua New Guinea: implications for food safety education. Food Control

21(5):657662.

30

Extensive analysis of sago samples by the author and his colleagues for well recognized

fungal toxins (mycotoxins) failed to show systemic contamination, but there was a

demonstrated potential for the production of toxins. However, further investigation showed

that 55 percent of filamentous fungi from sago starch possessed haemolytic activity.

Potentially incriminating haemolytic components were isolated but these did not resemble

agents found by others.89

Further work completed by Professor Ng and associates showed

that the most likely cause of the disease is the release of quantities of long chain fatty acids

(C16C18) from digested fungal hyphae. These fatty acids when released into the blood

stream under low albumin conditions lead to rapid haemolysis of red blood cells.90

These

acids are normal constituents of the diet or are essential fatty acids (linoleic) and do not

normally exert ill effects as nutritional elements.91

This means that the disease is likely to

be seen only among individuals with sub-optimal protein intake. In this respect the disease

shows similarities to that caused by some other microorganisms (e.g., Schistosoma).92

Free fatty acids are known to cause detergent-like haemolysis of red blood cells if not

bound to albumin.93

It is hypothesised that sago haemolytic disease may result from red

cell breakdown under conditions where the free fatty acids/albumin ratio temporarily

exceeds a critical threshold when protein intake is very low. The fatty acids are postulated

to come from the breakdown in the body of abundant fungal elements found in mouldy

sago.

Low albumin serum levels (hypoalbuminemia) are caused by certain disease states (e.g.,

kidney disease, liver disease), excessive bowel loss of proteins and infections to name

several. It is also well known that low protein calorie malnutrition leads to low albumin

levels, which is an imperfect indicator of nutritional status.94

89

Warren A. Shipton. 2014. The Biology of Fungi Impacting Human Health. Singapore: Partridge. 90

A. R. Greenhill, A. Pue, W. A. Shipton et al. 2011. Sago haemolytic disease: a foodborne toxicoses with

complex aetiology in Papua New Guinea. Australian Society for Microbiology Conference, Hobart,

Australia, July 48, 2011. Online: http://www.asm2011.org/abstract/25.asp (02/08/2012). 91

T. K. Ng, K. C. Hayes, G. F. DeWitt et al. 1992. Dietary palmitic and oleic acids exert similar effects on

serum cholesterol and lipoprotein profiles in normocholesterolemic men and women. Journal of the

American College of Nutrition 11(4):383390. 92

H. Asahi, A. Moribayashi, F. Sendo et al. 1984. Hemolytic factors in Schistosoma japonicum eggs.

Infection and Immunity 46(2):514518. 93

I. Tizard, K. H. Nielsen, J. R. Seed et al. 1978. Biologically active products from African trypanosomes.

Microbiological Reviews 42(4):661681. 94

C. W. Bales, & C. S. Ritchie, Eds. 2004. Handbook of Clinical Nutrition and Aging. Totowa, New Jersey:

Humana Press; E. Slattery, & S. Patchett, 2011. Albumin as a marker of nutrition: a common pitfall. Annals

of Surgery 254(4):667678.

31

The studies illustrated further that sago starch could carry high loads of bacteria, some of

which are capable of causing food-poisoning and diarrhoeal disease. The traditional

method of harvesting ensured a heavy load of microbial contamination, particularly where

wash water comes from contaminated sources containing animal and human faeces.95

These findings illustrated the need to supplement traditional knowledge with scientific

information so that optimal health outcomes might be achieved.

Traditional and introduced food resources in Papua New Guinea

A recent (20052010) PNG government initiative has been to encourage traditional

agricultural enterprises. Rural people (85% of population) continue to rely heavily on such

crops to supply their dietary needs. There was an expressed need to substitute some of the

imported foods (rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and temperate fruit, vegetables and meats)

with those capable of being produced locally. Nutritional problems highlighted were

protein malnutrition and deficiencies in iron and iodine, but on the other hand over

nutrition and poor food choices were noted with other groups leading to the emergence of

non-communicable, preventable diseases. The need to popularize high protein crops was

mentioned but was not specifically addressed, although some indigenous under-utilized

sources were noted.96

When speaking of traditional crops, we can perhaps include those introduced into PNG

several centuries to several thousand years ago, such as the sweet potato, yam, winged

bean, cucumber and pao nut. Others such as citrus, pawpaw, pumpkin, peanut and maize

have been present for over a hundred years in some areas. An extensive list of plants has

been introduced and has adapted successfully to local conditions.97

There is an enormous range of edible plant species available in PNG (around 400). The

most significant staple is sweet potato, with sago, cassava, banana, yam and taro being the

other common energy foods. Their significance varies across provinces and over time. The

95

Greenhill, 2006, op. cit. 96

Alan Quartermain. 2006. Underutilised Species: Policies and Strategies. Information Bulletin No. 15. Lae,

Papua New Guinea: National Agricultural Research Institute. 97

R. Michael.Bourke. 2009. History of agriculture in Papua New Guinea, pp. 1026. In: Food and

Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, eds R. Michael Bourke and Tracy Harwood. Canberra: Australian

National University Press.

32

most important animal foods are fish, shellfish, pigs, chickens and cattle, with other

animals contributing variously in different locations.98

Populations that depend heavily on carbohydrate staples risk protein deficiency. This has

been shown among Kenyan and Nigerian children consuming cassava and in PNG among

sago eaters. Such populations tend to have higher numbers of children with stunted growth

than populations with dietary protein adequacy.99

Similarly, a 2005 national survey

showed that around a third of children in PNG were stunted and some 17 percent of these

severely stunted. Anaemia was an issue in just under 50 percent of all children measured

and vitamin A deficiency was shown to be moderately evident.100

The incidence of child

deaths and stunting in PNG is high by world standards and is associated with inadequate

protein and often energy intake too.101

The prevention of infant mortality and stunting in children involves a multipronged

approach. Increasing either animal and/or plant protein is just one avenue for advance.

There are over 40 species of plants in PNG yielding edible nuts and thirteen of these

species are significant.102

Increasing their availability and popularizing their use would

help overcome the general problem of protein insufficiency, as would the stimulation of

animal husbandry. There is a role for academic institutions in the country to undertake the

appropriate experimental work and provide information in a popular, usable form.

Significance of nutritional adequacy for the developing child

The early, balanced development of the body is significant to later health outcomes and

performance. Food quantity and quality are both important to physical growth and mental

development. The relationship between physical growth and mental development is

complex as a variety of socioeconomic factors operate to confound nutritional

inadequacies. Irrespective of these complex interactions, one outcome is certain and that is

98

R. Michael Bourke, John Gibson, Alan Quartermain et al. 2009. Food production, consumption and

imports, pp. 130192. In: Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea, op. cit. 99

Kevin Stephenson, Rachel Amthor, Sally Mallowa et al. 2010. Consuming cassava as a staple food places

children 25 years old at risk for inadequate protein intake, an observational study in Kenya and Nigeria.

Nutrition Journal 2010 9:9. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-9-9 100

Bryant Allen. 2009. Nutritional surveys, pp. 463468. In: Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea,

op. cit. 101

Handan Wand, Namarola Lote, Irene Semos et al. 2012. Investigating the spatial variations of high

prevalences of severe malnutrition among children in Papua New Guinea: results from geoadditive models.

BMC Research Notes 2012, May 11. doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-228. 102

R. Michael Bourke & Bryant Allen. Village food production systems, 193269. In: Food and Agriculture

in Papua New Guinea, op. cit.

33

that the effects of reduced growth and intellectual development are long lasting. Growth

retardation predisposes infants to higher levels of mortality and morbidity and to reduced

cognitive development and neurologic deficits. They are more susceptible to infectious

diseases, particularly acute diarrhoeal diseases and pneumonia. In adult life they have an

increased risk of a variety of diseasese.g., cardiovascular, renal and lung diseases.103

Satisfactory brain development early in life is vitally important to subsequent well-being

and performance. It is influenced by both sociological and biological factors. The

biological factors of most significance for optimum performance include adequate

nutrition, iron sufficiency, absence of environmental toxins and avoidance of infections.

Ensuring that children have the best opportunities for realizing their potential is no easy

task for it involves the elimination of poverty, which is inextricably involved with

improvement to the educa