PhDr. Dagmar Špildová

ENGLISH FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Slovenská technická univerzita v Bratislave 2011

2

3

ÚVOD Učebnica je určená pre poslucháčov Stavebnej fakulty STU, ktorí maturovali na strednej škole z anglického jazyka a teda dosiahli minimálne úroveň B1 podľa Európskeho referenčného rámca. V súčasnosti je potrebné, aby študenti jednak vedeli pracovať s odbornou literatúrou v angličtine a využívať ju pre vzdelávacie účely počas štúdia a aj následne v praxi a tiež boli schopní v rámci výmenných študijných pobytov zvládnuť časť štúdia na zahraničnej vysokej škole. Táto učebnica je prepracovanou verziou pôvodnej učebnice English in Civil Engineering, ktorej som autorkou spolu s bývalou kolegyňou. Pokrýva najbežnejšiu slovnú zásobu zo všetkých hlavných odborov stavebného inžinierstva. Obsahuje 20 lekcií, pričom úvodné lekcie prinášajú slová a výrazy, ktoré sa týkajú všetkých odborov a postupne sa prechádza k špecifickejšej problematike a slovnej zásobe s ňou spojenej. Odborné texty v jednotlivých lekciách boli adaptované z odbornej knižnej literatúry ako aj z internetových stránok a sú jazykovo upravené tak, aby zodpovedali potrebám študentov. Cvičenia v jednotlivých lekciách vychádzajú z nastolenej odbornej problematiky, sú zamerané na rozvíjanie slovnej zásoby a na precvičenie tých gramatických a syntaktických javov, ktoré sú typické pre odbornú literatúru. Študenti si postupne osvoja odborné výrazy a naučia sa ich aktívne používať, pričom zároveň využívajú aj znalosti nadobudnuté na odborných predmetoch. Cieľom tejto učebnice a celej výučby je, aby študenti bez väčších problémov porozumeli odbornej literatúre v anglickom jazyku, vedeli si z textov vybrať kľúčové informácie a vyjadriť sa k odbornej problematike a prezentovať svoje poznatky z danej oblasti. Aby študenti mohli na cvičení pružne pracovať, v každej lekcii je krátky slovník zväčša odborných výrazov. Na konci učebnice sa ešte nachádza súhrnný odborný anglicko-slovenský slovník. Ďakujem všetkým, ktorí poskytnutím odbornej literatúry, svojimi odbornými pripomienkami alebo akýmkoľvek iným spôsobom prispeli ku kvalite tejto učebnice. Mojím cieľom bolo vytvoriť učebnicu, ktorá bude tvoriť základ odbornej angličtiny pre študentov Stavebnej fakulty a bude pre nich praktickou pomôckou.

4

Contents UNIT 1 Introduction to University and Civil Engineering Studies 3 UNIT 2 Numbers and Shapes 14 UNIT 3 Properties of Materials 23 UNIT 4 Building Materials 30 UNIT 5 Natural Building Materials 37 UNIT 6 Foundations 43 UNIT 7 Planning and Building a House 50 UNIT 8 Roofs 55 UNIT 9 Green Roofs 61 UNIT 10 High-Rises, Skyscrapers and Towers 66 UNIT 11 Container Houses 71 UNIT 12 Road and Highway Building 75 UNIT 13 Bridges 82 UNIT 14 Tunnels 88 UNIT 15 Fundamentals of Urban Drainage 94 UNIT 16 Wastewater Treatment 100 UNIT 17 Dams 106 UNIT 18 Environmental Issues and Engineering 112 UNIT 19 Alternative Sources of Energy 121 UNIT 20 Green Buildings 127 Vocabulary 132 Bibliography 152

5

6

UNIT 1

Introduction to University and Civil Engineering Studies

Part 1 A. Introductory questions At what age do students graduate from secondary school? How many subjects did you take your school-leaving exam in? Which subjects were compulsory and which were optional? Did you choose your school yourself or were you influenced by someone? Was the Faculty of Civil Engineering your first choice? Why did you decide to study civil engineering? B. Match the words with their meanings. 1. university a) A teacher at a university or college

2. degree b) A student who is studying for a first degree

3. tuition c) A talk to a group of people about a particular subject

4. undergraduate An educa d) An educational institution where students study for degrees and where academic research is done

5. research e) Money that you pay to take lessons

6. lecturer f) The detailed study of something in order to discover new facts

7. lecture g) The qualification you get at the end of university

If you want to go to university, you must pass a school-leaving examination that you take in four different subjects. Subjects like the Slovak language and literature and a foreign language are compulsory; the other two subjects are optional. You can choose from a list of subjects being taught at your secondary school. You must do well in order to get a place at university. As there are too many students interested in studying at certain university faculties, they have to take an entrance exam to get admitted to them. The ones who are accepted to university can enrol at the beginning of the academic year. C. Replace the underlined words from the text with the appropriate meanings

(1-7) below.

7

1. elective 5. high school 2. secure 6. enter 3. register 7. obligatory 4. do

D. Read the paragraph again and decide if the sentences (1-4) below are true

(T) or false (F).

1. You can go to university after completing secondary school. 2. A foreign language is a compulsory subject for the school-leaving exam. 3. There are no optional subjects in the school-leaving examination. 4. You can go to any university without sitting for an entrance exam.

If you get a place at university, the tuition is free, and some students also receive a scholarship. Students at university are called undergraduates while they are studying for their first degree. Most university courses take three years; some courses take four years. When you finish the course and pass the examinations, you will receive a bachelor’s degree. This is the first part of your studies. After completing the bachelor’s studies, students can continue studying to achieve a master’s degree, which normally takes two years. They are then called postgraduates. The second part of your studies is aimed at developing special skills in the chosen specialization and is finished by writing a thesis. Its successful completion results in the award of a Diploma. Successful Masters of Science (M.Sc.) can enter doctoral study either full-time (3 years) or part-time (5years) to achieve a Ph.D. degree. E. Find the correct ending to each sentence.

1. Some students receive a) a letter of application. b) a scholarship. c) a degree.

2. Master’s programmes normally last a) two years. b) three years. c) five years.

3. Students studying for their second degree are called a) undergraduates. b) postgraduates. c) masters.

4. You can enter doctoral study after completing a) secondary school. b) Bachelor’s studies. c) Master’s studies.

5. University study has a) three stages. b) two stages. c) four stages.

What do I want to study? If you are not sure what you would like to study, ask yourself what you want to do with your life. What are you good at? What do you enjoy doing? It is quite hard to make such a decision at the age of 18 or 19, as the decision may really affect your life for a very long time.

8

Do you like defining or solving practical or technical problems? Are you good at mathematics and descriptive geometry or physics? If so, then it is a good idea to think about engineering. Discuss the above topics in pairs. What is engineering? Engineering is the science of designing things such as roads, railways, bridges, or machines. This is accomplished through knowledge, mathematics and practical experience applied to the design of useful objects or processes. Engineering is everywhere. Almost everything we use in modern life is made by engineers. Who is an engineer? An engineer is either a) someone who designs or builds things such as roads, railways, bridges or

machines; b) someone who controls the engines on a ship or aircraft; c) someone who repairs machines or electrical equipment; or d) someone who designs and repairs computer programs. As you can see from the above, the word “engineer” is used in two ways in English. One usage refers to a professional engineer who has a university degree, e.g., a civil engineer; the other refers to a person who operates and maintains an engine or machine, e.g., a lift-maintenance engineer. Engineers in this sense are essentially technicians rather than professional engineers. F. Complete the sentences in the paragraph with the following words. engineers, solution, scientist, implementation, fields, specialties, question, observation, information Engineering is concerned with the ______1______ of a solution to a practical problem. A ____2______ may ask “why?” and start researching to find the answer to a _____3_____. In contrast, ______4______ want to know how to solve a problem and how to implement that ______5______. Many early branches of engineering, however, were not based on science but on empirical ______6_______, that is, information that depended on ______7_______ and experience rather than theoretical knowledge. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering ___8____. In fact engineering was once divided into only two fields – military and civil. All the engineering ______9______ have derived from civil engineering. G. Making a decision

Are you good at drawing patterns or pictures? Can you visualise 3D objects in your mind? If you want to be an architect, a construction designer or surveyor, the Faculty of Civil Engineering might be the right place for you to study. Are you interested in land and water resources, and/or the environment? Again, the Faculty of Civil Engineering can meet your needs. Even students who are maths or computer geeks can find their place at the Faculty of Civil Engineering.

9

Part 2

Studies at the Faculty of Civil Engineering The Faculty of Civil Engineering is the largest engineering faculty at the Slovak University of Technology. There are 22 vocational and theoretical departments and laboratories, the Institute of Forensic Engineering, a Computing Centre, a Library and an Information Centre. Presently, it has eight Bachelor’s study programs from which students can choose: Building Structures and Architecture Graduates from this program can find employment in design, architectural and static studios dealing with dwellings, civic, industrial and agricultural structures, investment organisations, research establishments and business management. They are also qualified in advanced planning concepts with reference to the technical aspects of architecture. Civil and Transportation Engineering Structural engineering and transportation engineering graduates are qualified to perform static design and organise and manage civil engineering work such as the construction of bridges, high-rise buildings, industrial structures, foundations and underground structures. They are further qualified for the planning, management, implementation, maintenance and reconstruction of transportation-related structures, e.g., roads, motorways, airports, railways and buildings. They can also work in the related fields of urban network planning, transportation infrastructures and traffic engineering. Water Resources Management and Hydraulic Structures Graduates acquire skills which are applicable to multidisciplinary areas such as hydraulic engineering, reservoir design, restoration of rivers, water resources management, hydro-electric plants, water transport, drinking water supplies, waste water and sludge treatment, integrated water quality management, etc. Geodesy and Cartography Graduates from this program are qualified specialists in GIS, photogrammetry, remote sensing, cadastre creation and design, land surveying, engineering geodesy, underground surveying, topographical and subject cartography, cartographic design, and the land consolidation industry. Building Technology and Management After completion of the above program graduates can find employment in the preparation, realization, reconstruction and utilization of building constructions as assistants for construction managers, or site engineers, construction quality managers, and operation or maintenance managers. Environmental Engineering The program aims at the training of specialists in environmental structures, environmental engineering of internal and external environments, waste management, landscapes and urban areas, transport management and the longevity of structures. Graduates are suitable for positions in the fields of environmental politics, local administration, environmental protection or water management. They can also work as landscape planning designers, environmental project managers, etc.

10

Mathematical and Computational Modelling Graduates will understand modern methods of applied mathematics (numerical, statistical, graphic and visualization methods and software); they will be able to work with a computer (programming languages, operating systems, computer networks and internet applications) as well as apply mathematical and computer modelling in science and technology. They will find employment in civil, electrical and mechanical engineering as well as bioengineering, geodesy, informatics, and computer graphics. Graduates will be able to apply their knowledge in economic and financial applications, software development, or the computer analysis of engineering tasks. Civil Engineering – English language B.Sc. and M.Sc. programs are also available for foreign students. All in all, a degree from the Faculty provides a passport to a rewarding professional career in civil engineering, architecture, geodesy and cartography, and other fields. A. Decide if the sentences below are true (T) or false (F).

1. I am interested in designing bridges, so I should choose the Building Structures and Architecture study program.

2. I want to be a surveyor, so I should study Geodesy and Cartography. 3. An engineer always has a university education. 4. If you are a computer geek, you can find your place at the Faculty of Civil

Engineering. 5. Graduates from the Faculty may be involved in the management of utilizing

energy effectively. 6. After completing your studies in the Environmental Engineering program, you

may find employment in local administration. 7. There are very limited job opportunities for the graduates of the Faculty of Civil

Engineering. 8. The Faculty of Civil Engineering is the largest engineering faculty at the

Slovak University of Technology. B. Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences.

1. Graduates who complete the Building Technology and Management programme …

2. Graduates of the Geodesy and Cartography program… 3. Graduates of the Building Structures and Architecture program can use their

skills in … 4. You will understand programming languages, computer networks and

operating system after you complete the programme of … 5. You are interested in landscape planning, water management and waste

management, … 6. Transportation engineers are qualified to perform … 7. If I want to deal with water resources management, the drinking water supply

and water quality management, I’d rather …

a. so you have to choose the Environmental Engineering program. b. Mathematical and Computational Modelling.

11

c. the planning, management, maintenance and reconstruction of transportation-related structures.

d. can find employment in the preparation, realization, reconstruction and utilization of building constructions.

e. design, architectural and static studios dealing with dwellings and civic, industrial and agricultural structures.

f. can work at the National Cadastre Bureau. g. study Water Resources Management and Hydraulic Structures.

C. Answer the following questions.

1. How many bachelor’s study programmes are there at the Faculty of Civil

Engineering? 2. Can you find a job position in the field of architecture after you complete one

of the study programmes? Which one? 3. Are underground structures included in any of the Faculty’s study programs? 4. Is there a wide range of job opportunities after you complete the Mathematical

and Computational Modelling study program? Give a few examples. 5. What differences can you see in the study programs of Water Resources

Management and Hydraulic Structures, and Environmental Engineering? 6. Do you think that after graduating from the Geodesy and Cartography

program, you will work outdoors or mainly in an office?

12

Vocabulary accomplish, v.

vykonať, uskutočniť, dosiahnuť, zrealizovať

budget rozpočet Building Structures and Architecture

Pozemné stavby a architektúra

Building Technology and Management

Technológie a manažérstvo stavieb

bursar kvestor cadastre kataster Civil and Transportation Engineering

Inžinierske konštrukcie a dopravné stavby

compulsory, a. povinný, nutný, nevyhnutný control, v. riadiť, kontrolovať dean dekan degree akademická hodnosť, stupeň, miera department katedra, oddelenie, ministerstvo (USA) differ, v. líšiť sa, rozlišovať dwelling obydlie, príbytok, bytová jednotka elective voliteľný, výberový enroll, AmE., enrol, BrE. prihlásiť sa, zapísať sa, prijať do entry exam vstupná skúška environmental, a. týkajúci sa životného prostredia Environmental Engineering Inžinierstvo životného prostredia equipment vybavenie, zariadenie, výstroj establish, v. založiť, zriadiť, uviesť do chodu facility zariadenie faculty fakulta flow tok, prúd found, v. založiť, zriadiť, položiť základy foundations (pl.) základy geek počítačový fanatik, čudák Geodesy and Cartography Geodézia a kartografia graduate, v. absolvovať, vyštudovať Institute of Forensic Engineering

Ústav súdneho znalectva

head predstavený, vedúci, hlava head, v. viesť, byť na čele implementation vykonanie, uskutočnenie, realizácia intend, v. zamýšľať, mať v úmysle land consolidation pozemkové úpravy landscape krajina, krajinka longevity dlhovekosť, dĺžka života maintain, v. udržiavať maintenance údržba mankind ľudstvo Mathematical and Computational Modeling

Matematicko-počítačové modelovanie

obligatory povinný, záväzný

13

observation pozorovanie optional voliteľný, nepovinný, fakultatívny (s možným

výberom) pass an exam, v. zložiť skúšku pattern vzor, model, schéma, vzorka photogrammetry fotogrametria purpose účel, cieľ, zámer rector rektor reflect, v. odrážať, vyjadrovať, zobrazovať,

odzrkadľovať remote, v. diaľkový, vzdialený, odľahlý rename, v. premenovať requirement požiadavka research výskum restoration obnova, obnovenie, znovuzavedenie rewarding, a. prospešný, užitočný, výnosný sanitary engineering zdravotné inžinierstvo scholarship štipendium secretary tajomník, tajomníčka, sekretárka sensing snímanie sewer kanál, stoka, odvodňovacia priekopa site miesto, stavebná plocha, stavebná parcelasludge usadený kal, bahno solution riešenie, výsledok, roztok special purpose facility účelové zariadenie subdivision sekcia supply zásobovanie, dodávka, prísun support, v. podporovať, pomáhať surveying mapovanie, vymeriavanie, topografické

meranie surveyor zememerač, expert, znalec traffic verejná doprava, premávka treasurer pokladní, minister financií treatment zaobchádzanie, liečenie tuition školné, výučba, učenie, vyučovanie undergraduate univerzitný študent, vysokoškolák (pred

získaním titulu) university univerzita vice-dean prodekan vice-rector prorektor waste odpad Water Resources Management and Hydraulic Structures

Vodné hospodárstvo a vodné stavby

14

UNIT 2

Numbers and Shapes No matter what you do with your life, you will need numbers to cope with situations encountered in everyday life. In the past, the ancient Chinese recorded numbers by tying knots on a string; other civilisations drew pictures or slashes in the dirt, made marks on stones or pieces of clay, or made notches on a stick to represent numbers. Luckily, with the development of the modern world, a numeration system was created. We have to distinguish the difference between numbers that are mathematical quantities and numerals – the symbols we use to represent numbers. There are different types of numerals, e.g., Hindu-Arabic or Roman, and there are different types of numbers, e.g., prime numbers, odd numbers, whole numbers, etc. In mathematics we use Arabic numerals, but in the past Roman numerals were used for dates or eras. Hindu-Arabic numerals are combination of 10 digits: 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 0. The Hindu numeral system is a pure place-value system and that is why you need a zero. Only the Hindus, within the context of Indo-European civilizations, have consistently used a zero. The Arabs, however, played an essential part in the dissemination of this numeral system. Roman figures are actually a legacy of the Etruscan period. The Roman numeration is based on a biquinary (5) system. The Romans used an additive and subtractive system. A. Match the Arabic and Roman numerals.

DCCC 40 LX 1 V 100 D 50 M 500 I 60 C 10 L 5 XL 800 X 1000

15

B. Numbers, arithmetic operations and how we read them

Odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 Even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8 Prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7 Common fractions ¼ ½ ¾ one-quarter, one-half, three fourths (quarters) Decimal fractions 11.8 eleven point eight (decimal fractions are separated

by a point and not comma) Powers 42 73 84 four squared, seven cubed, eight to the fourth power Roots 2√9 3√27 the square root of nine, the cube root of twenty seven Percentages 28% twenty-eight per cent Parameters 30 m x 20 m thirty meters by twenty meters Ratio/proportion 2 : 3 two to three Long integers 2,582,934 two million, five hundred eighty-two thousand, nine

hundred thirty four

Temperature 31°C thirty-one degrees Celsius/Centigrade Area 80 m2 eighty square meters Volume/capacity 53 m3 fifty-three cubic meters Velocity 130 km/h one-hundred and thirty kilometres per hour Acceleration 10 cm/s2 ten centimetres per second squared Density 3.86 kg/m3 three point eight six kilograms per cubic meter Note: In English, you use a point (.) not a comma (,) when writing decimal numbers. You say the numbers after the point separately, for example, when you say 48.52, you read forty-eight point five two.

C. Match the numbers in the box with the words below.

♦ 50 m x 20 m ♦ 3² ♦ - 5ºC ♦ ¼ ♦ 9³ ♦ 42.9% ♦ 3,295 ♦ 2/3 ♦ ²√ 16 ♦ 12.62

a) minus five degrees Celsius f) forty-two point nine percent b) fifty meters by twenty meters g) two thirds c) twelve point six two h) the square root of sixteen d) three squared i) one quarter e) three thousand two hundred and ninety-five j) nine cubed

D. Here is some interesting information from the Guinness Book of Records. Read the text aloud.

According to the Guinness Book of Records the tallest man in the world is Vimal Singh, who is 2.72 m tall, and the shortest man is Younis Edwan, who is only 0.65 m. The heaviest man in the world is Morgan Reid with a weight of 635 kg, and the heaviest woman is Avinash Persaud, who weighs 725 kg. The oldest person in the world was Jeanne Calment, who died when she was 122 years and 164 days old. The oldest living person in the world is a Japanese woman, who is 114+ (as of February 2010). She was born on 10 May 1895. As for structures, the tallest structures are dozens of radio and television broadcasting towers that are around 600 m. The three tallest buildings in the world are the 828 m tall Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates, the Taipei 101 in Taiwan, which is 509 m tall, and the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia at 452 m. The longest bridge is the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, which was built in1956 in the USA. It is 38,344 m long, and the longest cross-sea bridge of 32,500 m was built in China in the year 2005. The longest tunnel is the Seikan Tunnel in

16

Japan, which is 53,850 m long, and the tunnel with the longest underwater section is the Channel Tunnel linking England and France since 1994. It is 49,940 m long.

E. Let’s find out how good you are at geography. Match the subjects with their names and parameters.

the highest waterfalls Mount Everest 219,000 m3/s the tallest monument the Amazon 6,695 km the longest river Angel Falls 8,848 m the highest mountain the Great Pyramid of Giza 138.8 m the largest average discharge

the Nile 979 m

F. There are four basic arithmetic and other operations. Try to read them correctly.

+ addition 3 + 5 = 8 (three plus five equals/is eight) - subtraction 12 – 2 = 10 (twelve minus two equals/is ten) x multiplication 4 x 3 = 12 (four times/multiplied by three equals twelve) : division 16 : 8 = 2 (sixteen divided by eight equals/is two) a ≠ b a is not equal to b x > y x is greater than y α < β Alpha is less than Beta

G. Read the following numbers and expressions.

32º C 67.92 123 – 21 = 102 2, 567 250 m3 x2 > y2 3/5 √25 3 : 1 5.2 kg/m3 a2 + b2 = c2 - 12°C 550 : 22 = 25 18 x 56 70 km/h 32 x 23 = 736 4,821,578 98% 5 kg/m3 40 m x 20 m H. Follow the directions.

1. Write any number below 10. 2. Multiply by 2. 3. Add 4. 4. Multiply by 5. 5. Add 12. 6. Multiply by 10. 7. Subtract 320. 8. Take away the last two numbers. 9. What do you have?

Mathematics and descriptive geometry are an integral part of civil engineering studies. Designers draw shapes and patterns to create a project; other civil engineering specialists calculate the correct proportions of the designed structure.

17

There are various shapes of lines, two-dimensional (2D) figures and three-dimensional (3D) figures. lines: straight, curved, bent, horizontal, vertical, parallel, tapering,

perpendicular 2D figures: square, rectangle, triangle, circle, semi-circle, pentagon, hexagon,

octagon, trapezoid, trapezium, rhombus 3D figures: cube, prism, sphere, hemisphere, pyramid, cone, cylinder A rectangle is a two-dimensional figure with two opposite sides that are parallel and the adjacent ones are perpendicular. A rectangle has four right angles. Something with the shape of a rectangle is rectangular, e.g., a long rectangular table. If we want to calculate the perimeter or area of a rectangle, we need to know how long and how wide the sides are. If we have the length and width of the rectangle, we can start calculating. A circle is a round shape consisting of a curved line that completely encloses a space and is the same distance from the centre at every point. Something in the shape of a circle is circular. A circle is cut in half by its diameter. Its two halves can be called semi-circles. The radius of a circle is the distance from its centre to the circumference. A cube is an object like a box with six square sides that are all the same size. Cubic units are used for measuring volume. A sphere is a round object like a ball. A cube and sphere are both three-dimensional objects. A cylinder is a three-dimensional object. Its cross-section is circular in shape, and its longitudinal section is rectangular in shape. In other words the cross-section of a cylinder is shaped like a circle, and the longitudinal section is shaped like a rectangle. The cross-section of a cone is also circular in shape, but the longitudinal section is shaped like a triangle. I. Read the nouns and adjectives correctly.

NOUN ADJECTIVE NOUN ADJECTIVE square square cube cubic rectangle rectangular prism prismatic triangle triangular sphere spherical circle circular hemisphere hemispherical semi-circle semi-circular pyramid pyramidal pentagon pentagonal cone conical octagon octagonal cylinder cylindrical trapezoid trapezoidal ellipsoid ellipsoidal rhombus rhombic spiral spiral

J. Complete the sentences with the correct words.

1. A tennis court is shaped like a ______________.

18

2. If we have the length and width of a room, we can calculate its ____________ or ______________.

3. The Great Wall of China is over 2,000 km ______________. 4. The first Egyptian _______________ is over 140 m high. 5. A two-dimensional figure that has three sides and three angles smaller than

90° is a _______________. 6. Volcanoes are shaped like a ______________. 7. A bar chart is _____________, and a pie chart is ______________ in shape. 8. The bottom and top of a _____________ are circular in shape. 9. A shape with five sides, usually of equal length and angles greater than 90°, is

called a ______________. 10. The two halves of a circle can be called ______________.

K. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the Slovak Radio building shaped like? 2. What are some shapes of swimming pools? 3. What is the cross-section of a pyramid in shape? 4. What is the longitudinal section of a triangular prism in shape? 5. What are the formulae for calculating the circumference of a circle and its

surface area? 6. What is the standard floor-to-ceiling height in residential buildings? 7. What is the most common width of a doorway? 8. What is the standard doorway height?

L. Give a description of the following shapes.

M. Using geometrical figures and shapes, describe the following objects:

a tent, a chimney, a roof, a football pitch, a tennis ball, the room you are in, a window, a door, a table

19

Vocabulary

addition sčítanie adjacent vedľajší, priľahlý adjust upraviť, prispôsobiť angle uhol approximately približne average priemer, priemerný bent naklonený, zakrivený broadcast rozhlasový bulb žiarovka calculate vypočítať charge elektrický náboj circle kruh circumference obvod clay íl, hlina coincide, v. zhodovať sa, udiať sa

v rovnakom čase common fractions zlomky concrete betón cone kužeľ cross-section priečny rez cube kocka curved (line) krivka, oblúkový cylinder valec debt dlh decimal fraction desatinné čísla density hustota diagonal priečny, diagonálny diameter priemer dirt hlina, prach, špina discharge prietok, vytekanie distinguish, v. rozlíšiť, odlíšiť, rozoznať division delenie dozen tucet, dvanásť draw, v. kresliť electric current elektrický prúd ellipsoid elipsoid emit vydávať, vyžarovať enclose, v. obklopiť, ohradiť, oplotiť,

priložiť encounter, v. stretnúť sa, naraziť na čo

(náhodne) equal, v. rovnať sa even number párne číslo figure obrazec, tvar, cifra football pitch futbalové ihrisko formula vzorec fraction zlomok growth rast

20

heat teplo hemisphere pologuľa illumination osvetlenie, intenzita osvetlenia inclined šikmý, klopený integer celé číslo knot uzol, slučka length dĺžka line čiara longitudinal section pozdĺžny rez mass hmotnosť measure, v. merať multiplication násobenie notch zárez, vrub numeral číslica, cifra oblique šikmý, naklonený octagon osemuholník odd number nepárne číslo pattern vzor, vzorec, model pentagon päťuholník perimeter obvod perpendicular kolmý power, (mat.) mocnina prime number prvočíslo prism hranol property vlastnosť, majetok proportion časť, podiel, percento pyramid ihlan quantity množstvo, počet, kvantita radius, pl. radii polomer reach dosiahnuť record, v. zapísať, zaznamenať, nahrať si rectangle obdĺžnik reinforced vystužený remarkable pozoruhodný rhombus kosoštvorec root (mat.) odmocina semi-circle polkruh shape tvar shrink, shrank, shrunk zmenšiť sa, scvrknúť sa slab doska slash rez, zárez, lomeno sloping zvažujúci sa sphere guľa spiral špirála square štvorec stick palica, palička, klátik straight priamy, rovný subtraction odčítanie surface area obsah, plocha tapering zbiehajúci sa do špičky, hrotu tower veža

21

trapezoid lichobežník triangle trojuholník triangular prism trojhran volcano vulkán, sopka volume objem width šírka

22

UNIT 3

Properties of Materials Materials we can see around us and those used in civil engineering have various properties. The word “property” can be used in many different ways. We are going to use it with the meaning of a quality or feature of something. All the things we can see around us are made of some kind of material or, in most cases, of a combination of various materials. A. Match the object with the best possible material it can be made of. There

are a few possibilities for some of the objects.

Object Material

1. car a) plastic 2. window b) wood 3. electrical wire c) glass 4. bottle d) silver 5. cutlery e) concrete 6. telephone f) metal 7. table g) copper 8. pre-made building

blocks

We use particular materials to produce certain objects because of their properties. How do we find out what the properties of some materials are? The answer is very simple. We can see the materials or touch them; we can try lifting them or applying force to them. The materials will perform in a certain way. When we touch the material, we can feel if it is smooth or rough. Some vandals take a nail or other sharp object and scratch walls or elevator booths to find out if the material they are made of is soft or hard. We need a crane to lift a concrete block as it is really heavy, but things we can lift with our hands are obviously light. We use concrete blocks for building constructions because they are rigid. But car wheels should be flexible; therefore, we use rubber for their production. We also have to mention plasticity and elasticity. A rubber band is elastic, and modelling clay is a plastic material. They behave differently when we apply force to them. We want to see through windows, so we use glass to make them. Glass is transparent, but brittle, so it can be easily broken. Glass is not tough at all. Plastics are tough, but they are usually either translucent or opaque, so we cannot see clearly through objects made from them. Another important property in the building industry is combustibility. Materials can be combustible or non-combustible. We can also say that materials are flammable or non-flammable. Fire-resistant material will not burn in the process of combustion and that is the reason why fire-resistant doors in office or residential buildings are made of non-combustible materials. Unfortunately, most of the materials we have in our households or offices are combustible; in the

23

case of a fire, we can hardly save anything but our lives. Other important properties are corrosion resistance, which means that materials are resistant against rust, and conductivity, which means that materials are good or poor conductors of electric current or heat. For building structures it is important to know if the material is permeable or impermeable, as builders don’t want moisture or water vapour to pass inside the building. B. Match the adjectives with their meanings.

1. combustible a) not easily broken or made weaker

2. transparent b) hard and can easily break into pieces

3. elastic c) easy to press or shape, pleasant to touch, not rough or stiff

4. rough d) can be shaped into any shape and will keep that shape

5. rigid e) clear and thin enough to see things through

6. translucent f) able to stretch or bend and then return to its original shape

7. tough g) stiff, hard, and difficult to bend or move

8. soft h) clear enough for light to pass through but not completely clear

9. brittle i) a surface which is not smooth

10. plastic j) able to burn easily

C. What are the opposite meanings of these adjectives?

flexible ______________ soft ______________ rough ______________ brittle ______________ transparent ______________ heavy ______________ combustible ______________ permeable ______________

D. Choose the right answers.

1. Why is glass used for windowpanes? a) Because it is brittle. b) Because it is transparent. c) Because it is waterproof.

2. Why do we use chalk to write on a blackboard?

24

a) Because it is white. b) Because it is brittle. c) Because it is soft.

3. Why do we need a special drill to make holes in a concrete wall? a) Because concrete is hard. b) Because concrete is heavy. c) Because concrete is rigid.

4. What kind of material should a fireproof door be made of? a) Combustible material. b) Non-combustible material. c) Plastic material.

5. Why do builders need cranes to lift concrete panels? a) Because concrete panels are square in shape. b) Because concrete panels are rigid. c) Because concrete panels are heavy.

6. Why will a glass break into pieces when we drop it? a) Because it is brittle. b) Because it is smooth. c) Because it is tough.

7. Why is aluminium used to construct aircraft? a) Because aluminium is soft. b) Because aluminium is easy to shape. c) Because aluminium is light.

E. Choose the correct properties of the following materials

glass: a) rigid b) permeable c) brittle wood: a) combustible b) brittle c) transparent lead: a) light b) hard c) heavy concrete: a) flexible b) rigid c) combustible chalk: a) rigid b) soft c) flexible

F. You can form nouns from the adjectives that describe the properties of

building materials.

Adjective Noun elastic soft fragile transparent flexible brittle rough plastic combustible tough rigid strong thick

25

permeable weak dense hard smooth

G. Make sentences about four properties of materials from this table.

Steel Concrete Glass wool Brick

has the property of

good sound insulation good thermal insulation high compressive strength high tensile strength

This means

it can resist high compressive forces it can resist high tensile forces it does not transmit heat easily it does not transmit sound easily

H. Answer the following questions:

1. Why is glass used for windowpanes? 2. Why is glass wool used in roof structures to keep heat in the attic? 3. Why is some steel covered with a thin layer of zinc? 4. Why is concrete used for the columns of a building structure? 5. Why is steel used in concrete as reinforcement?

I. Complete the sentences with the correct properties:

1. Various coatings are applied to protect iron from chemical reaction. This means that iron becomes ______________.

2. A wooden house burnt down, but the windows remained undamaged, i.e., wood is __________ and glass is ____________.

3. We need a special drill to make a hole in a concrete wall. This means concrete is ___________.

4. Electric repairmen use leather gloves, because leather is __________. 5. Concrete panels are lifted by a crane, which means that a concrete panel is

_________. 6. Vertical blinds are used in modern offices to prevent sunrays from penetrating

into the room, i.e., blinds are _____________. J. What are the properties of the following materials?

concrete, wood, rubber, glass, stone, plastics, lead, clay, chalk, sandpaper. K. What are these materials used for in construction?

Wood Strengths: cheap, lightweight, moderately strong in compression and tension Weaknesses: rots, swells and burns easily Use:

26

Plastics Strengths: flexible, lightweight, long-lasting, strong in compression and tension Weaknesses: expensive Use: Aluminium (with ingredients of magnesium and copper) Strengths: lightweight, doesn’t rust, strong in compression and tension Weaknesses: expensive Use: Brick Strengths: cheap, strong in compression Weaknesses: heavy, weak in tension Use: Concrete Strengths: cheap, fireproof, weatherproof, moulds to any shape, strong in

compression Weaknesses: Cracks with temperature changes, weak in tension Use: Reinforced concrete Strengths: low cost, fireproof and weatherproof, moulds to any shape, strong in

compression and tension Weaknesses: can crack as it cools and hardens Use: Iron Strengths: moulds to any shape, strong in compression Weaknesses: weaker than steel in tension, breaks without warning Use: Steel Strengths: one of the strongest materials used in construction, strong in

compression and tension Weaknesses: rusts, loses strength in extremely high temperatures Use:

L. List materials that possess the following properties.

lightweight – strong in compression – rusts – cheap – fireproof – strong in compression and tension – weak in tension – expensive – breaks under tension – swells and rots – can crack when cool and hard – cracks with temperature changes – loses strength in extremely high temperatures – doesn’t rust – heavy –

27

Vocabulary

aluminum hliník apply, v. použiť, aplikovať, požiadať, týkať sa brittle krehký chalk krieda column stĺp combustible horľavý compressive stlačujúci, tlakový concrete betón copper meď corrosion korózia, hrdzavenie crane žeriav cutlery príbor drill vŕtačka elastic pružný, elastický feature črta, znak fire resistant ohňovzdorný flammable, inflammable zápalný, horľavý, zapaľujúci sa flexible pružný force sila fragile krehký, slabý, nepevný hard tvrdý heavy ťažký hole diera insulation izolácia layer vrstva lead olovo leather koža lift, v. zdvihnúť, zodvihnúť light ľahký moisture vlhkosť (zo zrazenej pary) opaque nepriehľadný, nepriesvitný particular konkrétny, jednotlivý, špecifický penetrate vniknúť perform vykonať, uskutočniť, účinkovať permeable priepustný plastic plastický property vlastnosť, charakter; vlastníctvo,

majetok residential obytný, bytový resistant odolný, vzdorný, vzdorujúci rigid tuhý, pevný, nepoddajný roof strecha rough drsný rubber guma rust hrdza sheet plech, plát, fólia, plachta, hárok smooth hladký soft mäkký

28

strength sila, pevnosť tensile ťahový, ťažný tough tuhý, tvrdý, pevný translucent priesvitný transmit prenášať, prepúšťať transparent priehľadný vapour / vapor para, výpar, opar water-proof vodotesný windowpane okenná tabuľa windshield, windscreen predné okno motorového vozidla wire drôt, vedenie (elektrické) wood drevo

29

UNIT 4

Building Materials

What are building materials? They are materials which are used for construction purposes. The history of building materials extends back to the time when prehistoric man abandoned his caves and started building shelters. Just about every type of available material has been used at one time or another for creating various human homes. Living spaces and their related structures have been created using myriad materials, from mud to metal, and from plastic to grass. What we can see around us are various structures, in most cases, blocks of flats or detached houses that have been built of concrete panels or bricks. We also might have seen wooden cottages in villages and countryside. But are bricks, concrete and wood the only building materials currently used for building purposes? What about countries located in hot climates? There people use cane, palm leaves or brush, vines and bamboo for building shelters. In tropical areas people build brush structures which are made entirely from plant parts. However, these materials have a relatively short life span because they deteriorate rapidly and are highly combustible. On the contrary, in the Arctic the Inuit used ice for igloos, which are shelters built of blocks of snow, generally in the form of a dome. Ice blocks have also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists. Apart from extremely hot or extremely cold locations, when we talk about traditional building materials we can agree that natural materials such as mud, rocks and small plants are used as the most basic building materials, aside from tents made of flexible materials such as cloth or leather. People all over the world have used these three materials together to create homes to suit their local weather conditions. In general, stone and brush are used as basic structural components in these buildings, while mud is used to fill in the space between them.

A. Complete the definitions with the highlighted words in the text. Use the

singular form where necessary. 1. A _________ is a rectangular block used for building walls and other

structures. 2. A _________ is a shelter made of cloth and supported with poles and ropes. 3. A _________ is a large hole in the side of a hill or under the ground. 4. ___________ means to become worse. 5. An __________ is a building made of snow or ice. 6. A ___________ is a place where people are protected from bad weather or

from danger. 7. A __________ is a small house, usually in a village or the countryside. 8. __________ is soft and wet earth.

B. Decide if the sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

30

1. The Inuit build their shelters of mud. 2. Ice hotels are built to be tourist attractions. 3. Building materials like plants are rather vulnerable. 4. Cloth or leather is not used anymore for building human shelters. 5. We can see many structures built of natural materials around us. 6. Mud belongs among traditional building materials.

C. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate words from the text. Prehistoric man left ___________ and started building ___________. The structures around us are built of ___________, __________ or __________. In tropical areas people use__________, ___________, or ___________ to build their homes. In the Arctic the Inuit build __________. In some other parts of the world people live in __________, which are made of cloth or leather. __________, ___________ and _________ ________ are natural building materials.

D. Choose the correct option.

1. Brush structures are permanent/combustible/uncomfortable. 2. Igloos are structures built of wood/mud/snow. 3. Prehistoric man abandoned his caves/houses/tents. 4. The structures around us are made of cane/concrete blocks/mud. 5. Tents are made of bricks/leaves/leather. 6. Cottages have been built in the countryside/in cities/in suburbs. 7. In tropical areas people traditionally use sand/plants/bricks for building

shelters. 8. There have been very few/ myriad /not many materials used to create

human homes. Progress in science and technology and the invention of new substances have significantly influenced the use of building materials. The most widely used building materials throughout the world are bricks and stone, mortar and concrete, wood, metal, glass and plastics. Brick is an artificial stone made by forming clay into rectangular blocks which are hardened, either by burning in a kiln or sometimes, in warm countries, by sun-drying. The colour of the finished bricks depends on the mineral content of the bricks and the temperature at which they are burned. For example, pink bricks are the result of high iron content; white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content. Most bricks burn to various shades of red. In the United Kingdom, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, many houses there were built almost entirely from red bricks. Although they are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are lined with a layer of bricks for aesthetic appeal. Besides their use for building structures, bricks bound together by mortar form pavements or pedestrian precincts and are also used for decorative purposes. Mortar is a material used in masonry to fill the gaps between blocks in construction. Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water, and is applied as a paste, which then sets hard.

31

The most widely used building material is concrete. In its simplest form it is a mixture of cement paste and aggregates. The paste, composed of Portland cement and water, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates. Stone chips, gravel or crushed rock are called coarse aggregates; sand is a fine aggregate, and cement is a binding material. After mixing, the cement hydrates and hardens into a stone-like material. Concrete has a high compressive strength, but a rather low tensile strength; therefore, it is strengthened using steel rods or bars and is then called reinforced concrete. The strength and properties of concrete depend on various factors, such as the quality of the binding material and aggregates; the size, grading and proportioning of the ingredients, the water-cement ratio, the method of mixing and placing, the site’s condition, the temperature, and the method of curing, i.e. supplying water to the concrete after casting. Concrete is extensively used in the construction of buildings, skyscrapers, bridges, dams and other water structures, road pavements and runways, and other structures. Besides the above materials, metal, glass and plastic belong among materials that have been widely used in the construction of buildings. Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building. Modern glass “curtain walls” can be used to cover the entire facade of a building. E. Decide if the sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. Brick is a natural stone cut into rectangular blocks. 2. Bricks can also be sun-dried. 3. Bricks are always red. 4. Bricks are bound together by mortar. 5. Mortar contains sand. 6. Cement or lime makes mortar set hard. 7. Sand is a binding material in concrete. 8. Concrete has the property of high tensile strength.

F. Find the correct ending for the following sentences.

1. The invention of new substances has significantly influenced

a) the use of new machinery b) the use of building materials c) the process of building houses

2. Brick is an artificial stone made by forming a) concrete b) mortar c) clay

3. The colour of finished bricks depends on a) the mineral content of the bricks b) the type of kiln they are burnt in c) the climate they are used in

4. Pink bricks contain higher amounts of a) lime b) iron c) lead

5. Bricks

32

a) have been used in construction for centuries b) were used in construction in the last century c) have rarely been used

6. Bricks are bound together by a) cement b) concrete c) mortar

7. Bricks can be used for building a) airport runways b) water structures c) pavements

8. Mortar is a mixture of a) concrete, sand and binder b) sand, cement and water c) lime, water and gravel

9. Concrete is a mixture of a) cement, water and lime b) cement, water, sand and aggregates c) fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water

10. Concrete has the property of a) high tensile strength b) high compressive strength c) both high tensile and compressive strength

Since the invention of Portland cement in the early 1800s, concrete has remained relatively unchanged. Producers have always tinkered with the mix to find the right proportions of concrete’s basic ingredients, but the formula has never varied much. However, the manufacturing of Portland cement is responsible for about 5 percent of human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide, which is extremely unfriendly environmentally. In making concrete Portland cement and water form a paste in which a series of reactions occur that harden the paste and lock the aggregates within it. These reactions use up water and produce heat. Therefore, curing is important. The strengthening process can continue for years, but most of it occurs in the first few days and weeks. Some researchers want to eliminate Portland cement entirely and replace it with other cements to produce zero-carbon concrete. The cement industry, particularly in the United States and Europe, has reduced carbon dioxide emissions through the use of more efficient kilns and processes. There are companies that have started developing cements and can make concrete that absorbs carbon dioxide. Concrete is made and used just about everywhere, with China responsible for half of the world’s production. Concrete can be modified by adding other materials and chemicals. Some chemicals make wet concrete flow better into a form’s nooks without separating; others prevent the cement particles from flocking together, so the amount of water can be reduced, which means that less cement is needed as well. Chemicals can be added to slow the reactions to provide more time to work with the wet concrete, and other can speed the reactions up if the concrete needs to reach a certain strength in a short time. Engineers are also paying attention to the internal structure of the concrete to improve its strength and reduce permeability. G. Answer the following questions or complete the tasks.

33

1. Describe the process of the production of concrete. 2. Why is the production of concrete an environmental problem? 3. Have there been substantial changes in manufacturing concrete? 4. Which substance in concrete is responsible for the emission of carbon

dioxide? 5. How long does the process of strengthening take? 6. What has the cement industry in the US and Europe done to reduce carbon

dioxide emissions? 7. What properties of concrete can be achieved by adding other materials or

chemicals?

34

Vocabulary

abandon, v. opustiť, zanechať, vzdať sa čoho acid kyselina admixture prísada, prímes aggregate plnivo, kamenivo, štrkopiesok appeal výzva, naliehavá žiadosť artificial umelý, neprirodzený attain, v. dosiahnuť, dostať sa (kam) available dostupný, k dispozícii bamboo bambus bar žrď, tyč, závora bind, v. spájať, zviazať, spojiť maltou, tmeliť block of flats činžiak, obytný dom brick tehla brush krovinatý porast building material stavebný materiál cane trstina, rákosie cast, v. liať, odliať cave jaskyňa chip úlomok, črepina cloth látka, tkanina; utierka coarse aggregate hrubé kamenivo, plnivo coat, v. pokryť, potiahnuť, obaliť compound zlúčenina, zmes, zloženina compressive strength pevnosť v tlaku cottage domček, chalupa crush, v. rozdrviť, rozbiť, zničiť crushed rock drvené kamenivo cure, v. vytvrďovať, ošetrovať (betón), vulkanizovať currently teraz, v súčasnej dobe dam hrádza, priehrada detached house samostatne stojaci dom deteriorate zhoršiť sa, skaziť sa dome kupola, klenba, dóm (zast.) dry-dock suchý dok entirely úplne, celkom extend, v. tiahnuť sa, trvať, predĺžiť flock, v. zhromažďovať sa, zbiehať sa gap medzera, pauza grading nivelizácia, vyrovnávanie, stupňovanie gravel štrk (ťažený) grind, ground, ground, v. mlieť, zomlieť harden, v. stvrdnúť, stuhnúť hydration hydratácia igloo iglu kiln vypaľovacia pec, sušiaca pec layer vrstva leather koža life span životnosť

35

lightweight concrete ľahčený betón lime, limestone vápno, vápenec masonry murivo, kladenie muriva, murárska práca mortar malta, omietka mud blato, bahno myriad nespočetne nook kút, kútik palm palma paste kaša, pasta pavement dlažba, chodník pedestrian precinct pešia zóna plant rastlina; podnik, závod plastering omietanie, omietka, malta, sadrovanie purpose účel rapidly rýchlo, prudko ratio pomer, percento reinforced concrete vystužený betón rod prút, tyč runway rozjazdová / pristávacia dráha set hard stvrdnúť severe tvrdý, namáhavý, náročný shade odtieň, tieň shelter prístrešok shrinkage zmršťovanie, strata objemu significantly významne site miesto, plocha skyscraper mrakodrap span rozpätie, rozsah strengthen, v. zosilniť substance látka, hmota, materiál tensile strength pevnosť v ťahu tent stan vine vínna réva

36

UNIT 5

Natural Building Materials A. Guess if the sentences are true or false. Then read the text and find out if

you guessed correctly.

1. Modern eco-buildings harness energy using solar panels, wind turbines or heat pumps.

2. Collecting rainwater is exceptional. 3. It is easier to build with bricks and concrete slabs. 4. Rock structures do not demand hard work. 5. Straw bale houses are highly combustible. 6. Bamboo can be used for bridge constructions. 7. Wood might shrink or expand over time. 8. Earth structures are used by half of the world‘s population.

Construction of residential and office buildings comes at a tremendous expense to the planet. The use of traditional wood, steel and concrete frames consumes a huge amount of energy, and cement production results in water and air pollution and industrial waste that is usually not recycled. It is time to look at new possibilities that would be in harmony with the environment. Modern eco-buildings work with the climate. They are super insulated and capture solar energy, either passively using large glazed areas or actively with solar panels. Sometimes they even harness wind energy or have ground source heat pumps. Collecting rainwater is also not exceptional. One way of constructing environmentally-friendly houses is using natural building materials that are renewable and locally available as opposed to industrial or man-made products. Many of them are available throughout the world, so the costs and pollution associated with transportation goes down.

B. Answer the following questions.

1. Why is the use of traditional wood, steel and concrete frames in construction a problem?

2. What are the typical features of modern eco-buildings? 3. Give three reasons that make using natural building materials environmentally

friendly. It is much easier to build with perfectly shaped bricks or slabs of concrete, but it is possible to build beautiful houses with locally available stone. The stone can be mortared with earthen plasters such as sand and clay or lime. Stone walls have very good thermal mass, which means that they absorb the outside temperature, hold it in and then radiate it through the home. Stone structures are extremely durable but very labour intensive.

37

Another solution is using straw bales for building houses. They can act as actual structural building blocks or the fill for insulation in a traditional post-and-beam structure, where the frame supports the house. After the bales are stacked, the walls are plastered. Despite what people think, the thick walls provide excellent thermal and sound insulation. Moreover, since they are tightly packed, they are also fire resistant. In Asia and South America houses are frequently made out of wood. Bamboo is an extremely strong wood which grows very fast; it is also extremely flexible and durable. Besides being used for construction of scaffolds it is used for highway or bridge construction in Asia. In Europe and the United States it is popular for decorative purposes, e.g., bamboo floors. However, bamboo has to be chemically treated to make it waterproof and insect-resistant. Cordwood building uses wood that is cut into short lengths, about the size of firewood, which might otherwise go to waste. The pieces of cordwood are placed into mortar so that the length of the log determines the length of the wall. The ends of the log stick out of the mortar on both sides. The mortars that are commonly used include mixes of cement, lime, clay, sand or sawdust. Cordwood is a natural building material that offers both good insulation and good thermal mass. The logs provide insulation that keeps heat in the building, while the mortar provides the ability to store and release heat into the building. The wood might expand or shrink over time and crack the mortar, but you can remedy this problem through caulking. Over one-third of the world's population lives in earthen structures. For many people, wood is neither affordable nor available, so builders use soil. A rammed earth house is built by packing down a mixture of soils into a temporary wall form that gives the mixture its shape. The form is usually wooden, and it must be strong enough to withstand the compression of the ramming. Ramming can either be done by hand or by machine, and once it's completed, the forms can be removed, leaving an earthen wall about 46 cm to 61 cm thick. Walls can be plastered with stucco or left bare; bare walls usually are internally stabilized with a small percentage of cement. When properly constructed, rammed earth walls are extremely durable and provide energy savings because of their thermal mass. A building material that is a combination of earth and straw is cob. Cob is a material used in the form of lumps and provides the opportunity for structural creativity. It enables curvy shapes and sculptural forms and requires a minimal amount of tools or construction experience. When the cob dries, it's like concrete, thanks to the reinforcement of the straw; however, the cob must dry before placing the next layer of cob lumps. Cob walls cannot be built very high, but when completed, cob walls, like all earthen methods, provide thermal mass which cools homes in the summer and warms them in the winter.

One of the oldest forms of building with earth is adobe. It is made by pouring a mix of clay, sand, water and sometimes straw into a form, most commonly a brick mold. The forms are left to dry in the sun, and then the forms are removed. This curing process can take some time, and it requires a continuously dry climate so that the bricks can

38

solidify without getting wet. As the bricks dry, they shrink, so they should be inspected for cracking. Adjusting the ratio of clay and straw can help prevent cracking. Adobe bricks are stacked just like conventional masonry and typically connected with a mud mortar. However, adobe walls are vulnerable to moisture and usually need large roof overhangs and elevated foundations in wet climates. In addition, adobe buildings are not a good idea in earthquakeprone areas, although concrete can be added to the bricks to stabilize them. The above list of natural building materials and the ways they can be used in the building industry shows that it is possible to use renewable and recyclable materials and harm this planet less.

C. Choose the correct option.

1. Rock structures are a) durable and easy to build b) durable but very labour intensive c) unstable and hard to build

2. Straw bales are a) fire-resistant b) highly combustible c) poor thermal insulators

3. Bamboo a) grows fast b) grows slowly c) is naturally waterproof

4. Cordwood is used a) as firewood b) with mortar as a building material c) as a wooden frame

5. Ramming can be done a) only by hand b) only by machine c) by hand or by machine

6. Cob is a mixture of a) cement and stone b) earth and straw c) earth and wood

7. Adobe bricks are a) transported to kilns to dry b) cured by pouring water on them c) left to dry in the sun

39

D. Fill in the following table.

Material Method of utilization Properties

Positive Negative rocks

straw bales

bamboo

cordwood

rammed earth

cob

adobe

E. Match the opposites.

1. fire-resistant a) rigid 2. tightly b) expand 3. flexible c) permeable 4. waterproof d) unfinished 5. shrink e) combustible 6. completed f) covered 7. bare g) loosely

Modifiers Adjectives modify or describe nouns or pronouns, giving more information about them. They are used to describe colour, material, shape, size, amount, price, quality, origin, temperature, age, direction, etc. In most technical texts their use is

40

mandatory, giving the noun its real meaning, e.g., solar panel, thermal insulation. We sometimes use compound adjectives. A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives work together to modify the same noun. These terms should be hyphenated to avoid confusion or ambiguity, e.g., long-term, air-conditioned, etc. In technical writing nouns are often used to modify other nouns and are called attributive nouns. The modifier often indicates origin or purpose. A fixed expression, which is made up of more than one word and functions as a noun, is a compound noun, e.g., a credit card, light bulb, etc. Modifiers are often hyphenated, but when the meaning is obvious, use of the hyphen is unnecessary. F. Find at least 5 examples of adjective-noun expressions and noun + noun

expressions in the text. G. Fill in each of the blanks to form as many compound adjectives as possible.

__________________ - proof __________________ - resistant __________________ - made __________________ - free __________________ - intensive

41

Vocabulary adobe nepálená tehla bamboo bambus bare holý, obnažený beam nosník, trám brick tehla caulk, v. utesniť, upchať clay hlina, íl cob linená mazanica, lepenica compression stlačenie, tlak concrete frame betónová konštrukcia, skelet cordwood rovnané polenové drevo, siahovnica crack, v. prasknúť, popraskať durable trvanlivý glazed zasklený harness ovládnuť, spútať, využiť heat pump tepelné čerpadlo lime vápno log brvno, kmeň lump kus, hruda, kocka mortar malta mud blato, bahno overhang previs, výčnelok plaster omietka post stĺp, podpera prone náchylný, majúci sklony rammed earth zarazená, natlačená zemina renewable obnoviteľný resistant odolný rock skala, kameň sawdust piliny scaffold lešenie shrink, v. zmrštiť sa, zmenšiť sa slab doska, tabuľa stack, v. navŕšiť, nakladať na kopu stick out vyčnievať, trčať straw bale balík slamy stucco štuka, štuková omietka

42

UNIT 6

Foundations A. Answer the following questions.

1. What structures require foundations? 2. What is the purpose of a foundation? 3. Do small structures such as wooden sheds need foundations?

Foundations are designed by a geotechnical engineer to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement; structurally, they are designed by structural engineers. The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing capacity. A foundation is a structure that transfers the loads of a superstructure to the earth. It supports and anchors a building or other structure. Geotechnical engineers investigate the soil and bedrock on and below a site to determine its engineering properties and how they will interact with the proposed construction. Geotechnical engineers then determine and design the types of foundations for structures such as high-rise buildings, bridges, and medium-to-large commercial buildings; they also work on smaller structures. Most foundations extend underground, and the foundations of large buildings often penetrate to the bedrock. The foundations built for above-ground structures include flat foundations (e.g., footings) and deep foundations (e.g., driven piles). A flat foundation is a type of foundation which is embedded in the soil near the surface. However, it has to extend below the frost line, which is also called the frost depth. The frost line is the maximum depth at which soil is expected to freeze. Flat foundations include spread footings, foundation strips, foundation frames and mat-slab foundations. Spread footings transfer the load of columns/pillars/piers into the subsoil. Spread footings are made of concrete or reinforced concrete. Foundation strips are constructed along the entire length of a wall. Hence, the load of the structure is “spread” over a larger area. Foundation strips are placed below the frost line (where applicable). Reinforcing steel is used to give strength to concrete under tension. These foundations are common in residential constructions, which include basements, and in many commercial structures. Mat-slab foundations are used to distribute heavy column and wall loads across an entire building area and to lower the contact pressure compared to conventional spread footings and foundation strips. It is basically a concrete slab the same size as the building. It is reinforced and distributes the load of the building evenly over the given area. Mat-slab foundations can be constructed near a ground surface or at the bottom of basements. In high-rise buildings, mat-slab foundations can be several meters thick, with extensive reinforcing to ensure a relatively uniform load transfer.

43

A deep foundation is embedded much deeper into ground to a stronger layer of soil. The reasons geotechnical engineers would recommend a deep foundation include: unusually large design loads, poor soil at a shallow depth, or site constraints such as property lines or the underground water level. There are different types of deep foundations including piles, drilled shafts, caissons and underground walls. Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete and pre-tensioned concrete. Deep foundations can be installed by driving them into the ground or drilling a shaft and filling it with concrete. A pile is a post-like foundation member that transfers the load of the building to a lower load-bearing soil strata by skin friction and supporting the foot. The most frequently used piles are screwed and bored, driven cast in situ, prefabricated, jet grouted and root piles. A beam is placed under each load-bearing wall, and the ends of the beam are then supported on piles. Piles can be made from steel, pressure-treated wood or concrete. Such foundations are useful for either a very heavy building or in regions where the top soil is unstable, prone to erosion, etc. The pile is driven into the earth until a stable soil layer or rock formation is reached. Another application is in places where flat foundations are impossible to construct due to topography such as very steep sloping sites. In such situations, piles are the only solution. Caissons are watertight structures used in underwater work. They consist of an airtight chamber, open at the bottom and containing air under sufficient pressure to exclude water. They are a deep foundation support, which is constructed by placing fresh concrete and reinforce steel into a drilled shaft. Caissons are capable of supporting high, concentrated loads and are typically used to set piers for bridges, underpasses and structural supports, as well as slide prevention applications. They are viewed as a reliable, versatile, and economical foundation support solution. Underground walls, also called foundation walls, can be seen in accessible basements. They transfer the load of a building to the foundation. Such walls are usually made of poured concrete, but more commonly, of hollow concrete blocks – there are several types of technological processes. Sometimes brick or stone is also used. The concrete walls are reinforced with steel against the tensile stresses generated due to the top loading of the structure above and the push of the surrounding earth. When steel is used in hollow concrete blocks, concrete must be poured to hold the steel in place.

B. In each sentence cross out the italicized verbs that do not fit the sentence.

1. Most foundations extend / expend / stretch underground, and the foundations of large buildings often go through / penetrate/ permeate to the bedrock.

2. A foundation submits / holds up / supports and anchors the structure. 3. Foundations are painted / drawn / designed to have an adequate load

capacity. 4. A foundation is a structure that transfers / transports / transmits the loads of a

superstructure. 5. A deep foundation is given / embodied / embedded into the ground to a

stronger layer of soil. 6. Geotechnical engineers investigate / invest / extract the soil and bedrock on a

site.

44

7. Mat-slab foundations are used to dissipate / deliver / distribute heavy column and wall loads across an entire building area.

8. A pile is deepen / driven / drilled into the earth until a stable soil layer or rock formation is reached.

9. Concrete walls are reinforced with steel against the tensile stresses generalized / concentrated / generated due to the top loading of the structure above and the push / move / pull of the surrounding earth.

C. Say if the following sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. A geotechnical engineer determines the type of foundation to be used for a

certain type of structure. 2. Water does not freeze below the frost line. 3. Flat foundations are embedded above the frost line. 4. Mat-slab foundations belong among types of deep foundations. 5. Geotechnical engineers would recommend a deep foundation for structures

with very large design loads. 6. A pile is a post-like foundation member that transfers the load of a building to

a lower load-bearing soil layer. 7. Piles are driven into the ground. 8. Single storey houses usually rest on pile foundations. 9. A caisson is a hollow structure used for underwater work. 10. Reinforced steel is used to give strength to concrete in compression.

D. Complete the sentences correctly.

1. Foundations are designed

a) to prevent settlement of a structure b) to withstand a certain weight of a structure c) to strengthen a building site

2. A foundation is a structure that transfers loads

a) to the top of a structure b) to a basement c) to the earth

3. a) A geographical engineer

b) A geotechnical engineer c) A geodesist

investigates the soil to determine the type of foundation for a proposed structure.

4. Flat foundations

a) have to extend below the frost line b) don’t have to extend below the frost line c) mustn’t extend below the frost line

5. Flat foundations include

a) foundation strips and mat-slab foundations b) foundation strips, foundation frames and mat-slab foundations c) piers, piles and caissons

45

6. Piles are

a) anchored to the ground b) connected with grade beams c) driven into the ground

7. Underground walls

a) can never be extended above the ground b) transfer the load of the building to the foundation c) are always made of bricks

8. Caissons are

a) airtight structures b) watertight structures c) air-conditioned structures

E. Cross the odd word out.

1. strong deep low shallow 2. elevation depth height altitude 3. interior rapid exterior outside 4. retaining watertight impermeable waterproof 5. damage repair break harm 6. caisson drilled shaft pile foundation strip 7. timber steel sand concrete 8. strong solid weak sturdy 9. damp arid sodden moist 10. beam post column pier

An elevated building foundation (EBF) is a kind of seismic vibration control technology which remains an integral part of a building superstructure. It is designed to shield the building’s superstructure against potentially destructive components of anticipated earthquakes, including both lateral and vertical shaking. EBF comprises a massive horizontal plate raised above the level of the ground and underpinned by multiple abutments; those abutments are resting on individual footings at the level of the ground and the top surface of plate is bearing a protected building superstructure. It is important to choose proper building materials, dimensions, and configuration of EBF for a particular construction site and local soil conditions. As a result any transmission of seismic wave energy into a building superstructure furnished with EBF will be considerably decreased and will enhance the seismic performance of the structure

F. Answer the following questions.

1. Have you ever experienced an earthquake? 2. Have you visited a country that suffers from frequent earthquakes? 3. Have you ever seen a structure collapse as a result of an earthquake? 4. Which structural elements are important for the safety of a building? 5. Which elements are the most important: design, material or workmanship?

46

6. Which structures are most vulnerable in an earthquake – high-rise buildings, low-rise masonry buildings, bridges, tunnels, etc.?

47

Vocabulary abutment opora, podperný pilier access prístup, vstup airtight vzduchotesný altitude nadmorská výška, výška (smerom hore) anchor, v. ukotviť, pripevniť, upevniť arid suchý, vyprahnutý, aridný basement suterén, základ, podstavec, spodok bear, v. uniesť, udržať, podopierať bearing capacity únosnosť bedrock podložie, skalný podklad bridge most caisson kesón comprise, v. obsahovať, zahŕňať, skladať sa constraint obmedzenie dam priehrada depth hĺbka diffraction ohyb, difrakcia drilled shaft vŕtaná šachta, jama elevation zdvih, zdvíhanie, výška embed, v. vryť sa, vtlačiť sa encompass, v. pokrývať, zahŕňať, obklopiť, obohnať enhance, v. pozdvihnúť, zdokonaliť, zlepšiť, zväčšiť exclude, v. vylúčiť, vyradiť extend, v. rozšíriť, zväčšiť, roztiahnuť flood záplava, povodeň, potopa footing základ, základová pätka foundation základ frost line nezámrzná vrstva furnish, v. zariadiť, vybaviť, poskytnúť grade stupeň, stúpanie, svah, nivelizácia, sklon grade beam prefabrikovaný základový pás heat loss tepelná strata high-rise building výšková budova impedance impedancia, zabránenie in situ na (pôvodnom) mieste investigate, v. skúmať, pátrať, vyšetrovať jet grouted injektovaný prúdom load náklad, záťaž, zaťaženie mat-slab foundation základová doska pad podložka, plocha, chránič, vypchávka penetrate, v. preniknúť, vniknúť, preraziť pier pilier, stĺp pile pilóta pile cap hlavica pilótového základu pillar pilier, opora, stĺp post stĺp, kôl, pilier pressure tlak, nátlak pre-tensioned concrete predpätý betón

48

propagate, v. šíriť, rozširovať sa reinforcing vystuženie, posilnenie retaining wall oporná stena, oporný múr root pile koreňová pilóta, mikropilóta settlement sadanie, usadzovanie, osídľovanie, shallow foundation plytký základ shed kôlňa, prístrešok, búda site miesto, plocha, stavenisko skin friction trenie na plášti (pilóty), povrchové trenie slab doska, tabuľa slope svah sodden nasiaknutý, premočený, mokrý spread footing základová pätka, plošný základ strata (pl.) vrstvy (geol.) strip pruh, pás sturdy robustný, masívny sufficient dostatočný, postačujúci superstructure nadzemná časť (budovy), horná konštrukcia thaw, v. rozmrznúť, roztopiť sa transfer, v. preniesť, presunúť,prepraviť underground podzemný, pod zemou underpin, v. podoprieť, podmurovať, posilniť utility lines Inžinierske siete, sieť technických zariadení watertight vodotesný

49

UNIT 7

Planning and Building a House A. Planning and building a house is a well-known procedure, so read the text

and try to figure out the meaning of the unclear words connected with the topic.

There has recently been a boom in the building industry. Large investors and small private owners build new houses; in cities high-rise residential buildings are built; in the suburbs of the cities and villages, detached houses or bungalows are built. At the moment most cities in Slovakia look like a large building site. Cranes, piles of bricks, panels and other building materials are all over the place and often obstruct traffic. The procedure for building a house is quite a complex one. Investors usually have an idea about the kind of house they want to build to meet their needs or that reflect current trends. First of all, they need a plot of land; then they should contact an architect, who will design the house. The architect, in cooperation with designers, draws preliminary plans to show the size of the house, the interior arrangement of the rooms and where all the fittings must go in the house. The architect can also give the client a rough estimate of the cost. The architect should cooperate with a surveyor, who will measure the plot of land or site. Together they will make a plan, and the investor should then apply for a planning permit to the local building authority. After receiving a permit for the construction the architect works out what will be needed to build the house and how much it will cost. At this stage the architect or the client himself should find a building contractor, also known as a builder. Several building contractors can be invited to submit their tenders. The client will choose the contractor offering the best quality for a reasonable price. The architect usually assists his client to draw up a contract with the building contractor. The builder is the one who manages the whole process of constructing a house. He has to hire independent crews known as subcontractors to perform various types of work, and he regularly submits their bills to the client. At the very beginning the workmen on the building site mark the shape of the house with wooden pegs and tape. Everything is then ready for digging up the topsoil to prepare the site for laying the foundation. After the foundation is laid and set, the workmen put a waterproof layer on top of it to prevent moisture in the ground from passing to the rest of the house. Then the bricklayers can start building the walls. To make the walls stronger the bricks must overlap each other. This is called binding/bonding. When the vertical walls are built, the carpenters can begin their work. A carpenter is a man who does the rough woodwork on a house, e.g., he installs the beams and joists that hold the ceiling up. In most cases the walls of the house are too high for the bricklayers, carpenters and plasterers to reach, so a scaffold has to be made. A scaffold is a platform of planks for the workmen to stand on. It is held up by a framework of steel tubes. After that the tiler can fix the roof tiles

50

onto the roof so that they overlap each other. When the roof is completed, the guttering and drainpipes are installed. They collect the rainwater that runs from the roof, and take it into the drains. A special crew then installs the windows. Once the house is covered with the roof and the windows are installed, many different workmen come and finish the house. Plumbers install water pipes to carry clean water into the house. They also lay pipes to carry waste water away to sewers. At the same time electricians can start their work as well. They fasten wires on the walls and put in all the lights and plug-sockets according to a special plan made by the draftsman. They have to observe special safety precautions. When all the wires and pipes are in place, the house is ready for the plasterers. They cover the walls and ceilings with plaster to form a hard and smooth surface and leave it to the painters and decorators to give the interior of the house its final appearance. After the interior of the house is completed, the façade is constructed. When the house is completed, the client can occupy it. Construction contracts generally provide for various defects liability periods of six, twelve or eighteen months from completion. During this period the contractor must correct any defects that appear in the fabric of the building. B. Substitute the underlined words with their synonyms or the words with

similar meaning from the list. Put them in the proper grammatical form. builder, hinder, price, layout, process, sudden increase, complicated, agreement, authorization, present, initial, design

There has recently been a boom1 in the building industry. At the moment most cities in Slovakia look like a large building site. Cranes, piles of bricks and panels and other building materials are all over the place and often obstruct2 traffic. The procedure3 for building a house is quite a complex4 one. Investors usually have an idea about the kind of house they want to build to meet the current5 trends. The architect, in cooperation with designers, draws preliminary 6plans to show the size of the house, the interior arrangement7 of the rooms and where all the fittings must go in the house. The architect can also give a client a rough estimate of the cost8. He will make a plan9 and the client should then apply for a planning permit10 to a local building authority. The architect or the client himself should find a building contractor11. The architect usually assists his client to draw up a contract12 with the building contractor. C. Are these sentences true or false?

1) A bungalow is a single-storey house. 2) The architect measures a plot of land and the site. 3) The builder manages the house construction process. 4) All the bills are paid by the building contractor. 5) A carpenter is a person, who builds or repairs wooden structures. 6) Electricians have to observe special safety precautions. 7) Workmen put a waterproof layer on top of a foundation.

51

D. Match the words with their meanings.

1. peg a) the open pieces of pipe that are fixed along the edge of a

roof to carry rainwater away

2. drainpipe b) a block used for building walls and other structures

3. window ledge c) a very tall machine used for lifting or moving heavy objects

4. guttering d) an underground pipe or passage that carries sewage

5. brick e) a pipe on the side of a building that carries rainwater down from the roof to the ground

6. crane f) a small object used for marking the position of something

7. sewer g) a shelf under a window, a windowsill

E. Match the jobs in column A with the job descriptions in column B A B 1) architect

a) A person or a company that builds or repairs buildings

2) carpenter

b) Covers a roof, floor, etc. with tiles

3) electrician

c) Installs and repairs pipes and water systems

4) builder

d) Paints houses, rooms, etc. and puts paper on the walls

5) tiler

e) Measures and records the details of an area of land

6) bricklayer

f) Deals with or repairs electrical equipment

7) surveyor

g) Makes and repairs wooden objects, does rough woodwork

8) painter

h) Builds walls, buildings

9) workman

i) Covers walls and ceiling with plaster

10) plumber

j) Designs buildings

11) plasterer

k) Does physical work such as building, repairing things, etc.

52

F. Discussion

Would you like to live in a high-rise residential building in a city center or a detached house somewhere in a suburb or village? Why? Is building houses an interesting job? Why? Why not? Do you think it is hard to be a site manager? Would you like to do any of the above-mentioned jobs? Which of the jobs are skilled manual jobs and which one is an unskilled manual job? Which jobs require a university education?

53

Vocabulary binding/bonding väzba bricklayer murár carpenter tesár ceiling strop crane žeriav defect liability period lehota povinnosti nahradiť škodu detached house samostatne stojaci dom (rodinný) designer projektant drainpipe odkvapová rúra fittings armatúra, inštalácie guttering strešný žľab joist nosník, podlahový nosník lay the foundation položiť základy moisture vlhkosť obstruct prekážať, stáť v ceste overlap prekrývať peg kolík plank doska, fošňa planning permit stavebné povolenie plaster omietka plot of land parcela plug-socket zástrčka plumber inštalatér preliminary plan predbežný plán residential obytný rough estimate hrubý odhad safety precautions bezpečnostné opatrenia scaffold lešenie sewage odpadová voda, kanalizačné splašky sewer kanál, kanalizačná rúra site miesto výstavby, stavenisko submit tender predložiť konkurznú ponuku surveyor zememerač, geodet tiler obkladač tinsmith klampiar topsoil vrchná vrstva pôdy waterproof layer vodovzdorná vrstva

54

UNIT 8

Roofs A. Study the definitions of some words that appear in the text.

shingle a thin piece of wood, slate, metal or the like, usually oblong, laid in overlapping rows to cover the roofs

pitched roof a roof sloping downward in two parts at an angle from a central ridge, so as to leave a gable at each end

beam a horizontal bearing member, as a joist or lintel

girder a large beam, made of steel, reinforced concrete, or timber, for supporting masonry, joists, etc.

truss a wooden or metal frame of a triangular shape that supports a structure such as a roof or bridge

rafter a large piece of wood that supports a sloping roof

sheathing a hard substance that covers or protects something

ridge the horizontal line in which the tops of the rafters of a roof meet

gable the portion of the front or side of a building enclosed by or masking the end of a pitched roof

B. Read the text and find the meaning of the highlighted word in the

vocabulary. A roof covers the top part of a building and protects it from the effects of weather, mainly rain, but it also protects the building from heat, sunlight, cold or wind. The characteristics of a roof depend upon the purpose of the building it covers, the available roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and concepts of architectural design and practice. There are three elements to consider in a roof design: the available material, construction of the building and durability. The material of a roof may vary from wooden shingles or the bark of certain trees to slate, sheet metal and pre-cast concrete or ceramic tiles. Ceramic tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support, how the space underneath it is bridged and whether or not the roof is pitched. The pitch is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point. Most roofs are sloped or pitched. The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often the least accessible part of a building for purposes of repair and renewal, while its damage or destruction can have serious effects.

55

Over the centuries, roof-building techniques have been refined to yield roofs of considerable strength and durability. A wide variety of materials have been developed, and homeowners have a vast selection of materials, colors, prices, and other choices. A contemporary roof, regardless of the shape or surface material, consists of a large number of components: wood framing, sheathing, underlayment, flashing, gutters, and, of course, the shingles or other finished surface. The supporting structure of a roof usually comprises beams that are long and made of strong, fairly rigid material such as timber, cast iron or steel. Steel girders became the major structural support for large roofs. Nearly all roofs are framed using one of two methods: standard “stick” framing or newer “truss” framing. Stick-framed roofs utilize individual rafters that span from the top of the exterior walls to the ridge. Truss-framed roofs are built from triangular-shaped, pre-made truss units. Stick framing Truss framing

(ehow.com)

Gable and hip roofs may be built primarily of trusses; other roof shapes, particularly those with dormers, attic rooms, or attic storage areas are stick built. Stick framing creates a triangle between the rafters and ceiling joists. A collar beam adds strength at the middle. Truss construction is just as strong but is lighter weight and uses smaller sizes of lumber than stick framing. Because trusses are carefully engineered units that shouldn’t be cut, they are not a good choice for roofs that may be modified at a later date. Because they have several intermediate support members, they don’t allow for the use of attic space. A roof deck is made up of sheathing and, in most cases, an underlayment that’s called roofing felt. The type of deck used depends on the finished roof material. Most call for solid plywood or oriented strand board (OSB) panel sheathing; wood shingles and some tile or metal roofs call for spaced board sheathing. OSB is manufactured from waterproof heat-cured adhesives and rectangularly shaped wood strands that are arranged in cross-oriented layers, similar to plywood. Plywood is a laminated product made up of numerous thin strips of wood laid in alternating directions and bonded with glue into strong, stable sheets.

56

Roofing felt is sandwiched between the sheathing and the surface material on most roofs. This heavy, fibrous black paper saturated with asphalt helps repel any water that might find its way past the roofing material. Roof surface material must be able to withstand wind, rain, snow, hail, and the sun. There are a variety of roof types. Some of them are simpler in design and construction such as shed roofs or common gable, hipped or pyramidal roofs. Others are more complex such as cross-gabled, cross-hipped, gambrel or mansard roofs. Residential buildings in cities usually have a flat roof with a top floor penthouse apartment. C. Complete the sentences 1 – 10 with their parts from a) to j).

1. A roof covers the top part of a building ….. 2. The elements to consider in a roof design …. 3. Ceramic tiles have been predominant …. 4. The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support, …. 5. The supporting structure of a roof usually comprises …. 6. Stick-framed roofs utilize individual rafters that …. 7. Truss-framed roofs are built …. 8. Gable and hip roofs …. 9. Roofs with dormers, attic rooms, or attic storage areas …. 10. A roof deck is made ….

a) up of sheathing and an underlayment that is called roofing felt. b) may be built primarily of trusses. c) how the space underneath it is bridged and whether or not the roof is pitched. d) are the available material, construction of the building and durability. e) roofing material for centuries. f) and protects it from the effects of weather. g) span from the top of the exterior walls to the ridge. h) beams that are long and made of strong, fairly rigid material. i) from triangular-shaped, pre-made truss units. j) are stick built.

D. Say if the sentences are true or false. 1. It is important to consider what material is available before a roof is designed. 2. Local traditions play no role in the concepts of architectural design of a roof. 3. Most roofs are flat. 4. Damage or destruction of the roof can have serious effects. 5. All roofs are made of red baked tiles. 6. Truss-framed roofs are built of triangular-shaped units. 7. Stick-framed roofs allow the use of attic space. 8. Roofing felt is a sound insulation layer of the roof.

E. Say how the following roof types differ in construction. What type of

buildings are they suitable or typically used for?

57

F. Fill in the missing verb or noun form.

Verb Noun

cover ___________ __________ protection __________ roof design ___________ __________ practice __________ bridge __________ slope renew ___________ destruct ___________ __________ damage select ___________ __________ span

G. Fill in the missing noun form.

Adjective Noun

strong ______________ rigid ______________ simple ______________ fibrous ______________ triangular ______________ long ______________ durable ______________ variable ______________ various ______________

58

H. Using the following points write a short outline about roofs.

1. Roof characteristics 2. Materials used in roof construction 3. Method of construction 4. Roof cover 5. Roof types

59

Vocabulary bark kôra (stromu) beam trám, nosník cast iron liatina, liate železo chord pás (nosníka), priehradový prút, rozpätie oblúku collar beam hrada, rozpera, hambálok cross gable roof priečna sedlová strecha cross hipped roof priečna valbová strecha deck krytie dormer strešné okno, vikier fibrous vláknitý, vláknový flashing krytie trhlín, lemovanie, tesnenie (z plechu) flat roof plochá strecha gable štít, štítová stena gable roof sedlová strecha gambrel roof podlomenicová strecha, manzardová (U.S.) girder nosník, tram, hrada gusset výstužný, rohový plech, styčný plech gutter odkvapový žľab, odkvapová rúra hip/hipped roof valbová strecha joist stropný trám / nosník, stropnica lumber rezivo, stavebné drevo mansard roof manzardová strecha pitch stupeň, úroveň pitched roof šikmá, sklonená strecha plywood preglejková sendvičová doska pyramidal roof stanová / pyramídová strecha rafter krokva, trám v krove repel (v.) odraziť, zabrániť ridge hrebeň (strechy) roofing felt strešná lepenka, plsť saltbox roof strecha s nesúmerným pozdĺžnym štítom sandwich, v. stlačiť medzi dvoma vrstvami sheathing obloženie, obklad, plášť (krycí materiál) shed roof pílová / shedová strecha shingle šindeľ (na strechu) slate bridlica spaced board sheathing strešné laty s medzerami strand vlákno stick framing rámová konštrukcia z tyčí a klád stud výčnelok, výstupok tile škridla, škridlica timber stavebné drevo, rezivo truss priehradový nosník, priehradový tram truss framing väzníková rámová konštrukcia underlayment podložka, podklad, výstuž web member stojina yield v. ustúpiť čomu, byť nahradený / vystriedaný čím

60

UNIT 9

Green Roofs A. Topic introduction. Find answers to the following questions.

1. Do you think it is possible to plant vegetation on rooftops? 2. Can green roofs make any difference to the environment? 3. Are they financially efficient?

B. Read the article. A green roof is the roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and soil, or a growing medium planted over a waterproof membrane. They are also referred to as eco-roofs, vegetated roofs or living roofs. Modern green roof technology began in the early 1970s in Germany when the first complete green roof systems were developed and marketed on a bigger scale. The first approach was to offer a reliable technology providing sophisticated irrigation and reliable protection against root ingress for rooftop gardens. Green roofs can be categorized as extensive, semi-intensive and intensive, depending on the depth of the planting medium and the amount of maintenance they need. Extensive green roofs are 80 – 150 mm deep, designed to be self-sustaining and should require only a minimum of maintenance. They are ideal for the growth of drought-tolerant plants that do not need irrigation. The soil depth of semi-intensive green roofs should be between 150 mm to 300 mm for planting shrubs, perennials, herbs and grasses. Whether irrigation is necessary or not depends on the regional climate and the kind of plants that are used. Intensive green roofs are more park-like with easy access and require a reasonable depth of soil to grow large plants, trees or traditional lawns. They are considered “intensive” because they need a lot of maintenance such as irrigation, feeding and weeding. Green roofs are beneficial to the environment in several ways. They reduce the level of carbon dioxide and smog in the atmosphere as well as the urban heat island1 effect by cooling and humidifying the surrounding air. Green roofs can reduce the risk of flooding in towns and cities by lowering the amount of rain water run-off and delaying the time at which run-off occurs. As a result, they prevent combined sewer overflow. They insulate buildings and keep the temperature within a building cooler in the summer months and warmer in the winter, making the building more energy efficient. Their sound-absorbing and insulating properties can help make buildings and their surrounding quieter. Vegetation on a roof increases the life expectancy of rooftop waterproofing due to protection from ultraviolet rays and any mechanical

1 An urban heat island is a metropolitan area that is considerably warmer than the surrounding areas, which is caused by

various factors such as increasing heat, which is released from fuel combustion and humans, and as a result of the configuration of roads, pavements, parking lots and buildings in cities.

61

impact. Besides improving air quality and neutralizing the acid rain effect, they also provide a habitat for birds, butterflies and other insects. They can be a partial compensation for landscape lost to building development. And for us humans, green roofs provide attractive views from other buildings. A green roof can be much more than just a lawn on a building, and the concept is much older than many people realize. Creative green roof designs date back to the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the original ancient wonders of the world. In Scandinavia green roofs are nothing new, and green roofed architecture dates back centuries. Residential and farm structures used simple grass-covered green roofs primarily to absorb rainfall and provide thermal protection. More contemporary green roof strategies are applied in Japan. One Japanese green roof sits on a massive building containing offices, retail space, a theater and a museum. The roof itself features over 30,000 plants from over 70 different species and brings usable green space to a dense urban core. One of the great examples of contemporary green roof architecture is the Hundertwasser- designed building, the Waldspirale2 (wooded spiral), which features over 100 apartments and wraps around a shared landscaped courtyard space with an actual flowing stream. The largest green roof in Canada is on the Vancouver Convention & Exhibition Center, which opened to public on April 4, 2009. It features a number of native plants and an apiary. Green roofs are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, although they are not as common as in Europe. A number of European countries have very active associations promoting green roofs including Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Italy, Austria, Hungary, Sweden and the UK. C. Decide if the sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. A green roof is a roof that is painted green. 2. Green roofs are also called living roofs. 3. Extensive green roofs do not need much irrigation. 4. Intensive green roofs do not need much maintenance. 5. Green roofs diminish the risk of flooding in urban areas. 6. Vegetation on a roof damages the rooftop and decreases its life expectancy. 7. Green roof design dates back to ancient times. 8. Green roofs are more widespread in Europe than in the US.

D. Put the following words in the correct order to make sentences.

1. also / as / roofs / to / Green / referred / living / roofs / are 2. green / were / systems / The / complete /early / Germany / in / in / first

/developed / roof / seventies / the 3. Extensive / plants / growth / ideal / -tolerant / for / are / the / green / drought /

roofs / of 4. beneficial / several / Green / in / environment / are / to / the / roofs / ways 5. Japan / More / roof / applied / in / contemporary / green / are / strategies 6. help / buildings / -absorbing / can / properties / insulating / make / quieter /

Sound / and

2 The Waldspirale is the name of a residential building complex in Darmstadt, Germany built in the 1990s. Its diagonal roof is planted with grass, shrubs, flowers and trees.

62

7. rooftop / Vegetation / increases / on / life / a / roof / expectancy / of /a 8. roofs / The / is / concept / green / older / most / realize / people / of / than

E. Match the opposite meanings of the words.

1. depth a) sparse 2. extensive b) unfavorable 3. humidify c) increase 4. efficient d) intensive 5. improve e) rural 6. contemporary f) rare 7. retail g) dry out 8. dense h) old 9. urban i) worsen 10. common j) height 11. diminish k) wasteful 12. beneficial l) wholesale

F. Choose the correct option.

1. Modern green roof technology began in a) the late sixties b) the late seventies c) the early seventies

2. Green roofs can be categorized depending on

a) roof accessibility b) depth of planting medium c) depth of planting medium and maintenance needed

3. Intensive green roofs need

a) intensive maintenance b) intensive sunshine c) intensive rain

4. Green roofs

a) damage rooftop waterproofing b) protect rooftop waterproofing from ultraviolet rays c) protect rooftop waterproofing from water

5. An urban heat island is

a) an island on the lake in the city b) an area in a city that is warmer than the surrounding areas c) a place where people can sunbathe

6. Green roofs can

a) diminish the risk of flooding b) increase the risk of flooding c) prevent flooding

63

7. Green roof design a) is a completely new idea b) dates back to ancient times c) belongs among the wonders of the world

8. Green roof design is widely used

a) in European countries, the US, Canada and Japan b) all over the world c) in the countries with frequent rainfall

64

Vocabulary access prístup, vstup ancient starý, starodávny, staroveký apiary včelín combined sewer združený stokový kanál core jadro, stredná časť dense hustý, sýty depth hĺbka drought sucho, obdobie sucha feature, v. vystupovať, figurovať flooding záplava, povodeň flowing stream tok, prúd growth rast, nárast, vzrast habitat prirodzené prostredie, domov (zvieraťa) heat teplo, horko humidify zvlhčiť impact účinok, vplyv, dopad ingress vstup, prístup, priesak (vody) irrigation zavlažovanie, zavodňovanie landscape krajina lawn trávnik life expectancy priemerná dĺžka života, životnosť maintenance údržba overflow pretekať, vyliať sa, zaplaviť perennial trvalka planting medium prostredie pre výsadbu ray lúč retail maloobchod, maloobchodný roof strecha root koreň run-off odtok, príval dažďovej vody scale veľkosť, rozsah, miera self-sustaining sebestačný shrub krík, krovie, krovina species druh, trieda (živočíchov) waterproof nepremokavý, vodotesný weeding plieť, zbaviť buriny

65

UNIT 10

High-Rises, Skyscrapers and Towers A. Answer the questions.

1. Name some skyscrapers or towers that are landmarks in their cities. 2. Why have high-rises and skyscrapers been so popular recently? 3. What building materials are high-rises and skyscrapers built of? 4. Give a few examples of high-rise buildings in Bratislava. 5. Do you know which structure was considered the first “skyscraper” in

Bratislava?

The history of tall buildings dates back thousands of years. From ancient times architects and engineers tried to reach the sky. First they started building towers. They were made of heavy stone and had thick sturdy walls. The rooms were dark and cramped as too many windows would have weakened the structures. Good examples of such structures are the San Gimignano towers in Italy. Since the middle of the 19th century high-rise buildings have been dominant landmarks in towns and cities, and are visible from long distances. There are a few reasons for building high-rises. Firstly, it is the need to express economic and corporate power and domination in impressive visual terms. Secondly, people needed to effectively utilize expensive land and finally, connections to the infrastructure were improved by concentrating many people in a small area. Public institutions can be united under a single roof, and the distances between them are minimized. A good example of such an urban architectural philosophy is Manhattan in New York. B. Replace the highlighted words with their equivalents or words with similar

meaning.

city, company, authority, touch, idea, municipal, attractions, made use of, gloomy, communications

C. Answer the following questions.

1. What were the first tall structures? 2. Why were rooms in ancient towers dark and cramped? 3. What are the main reasons for building high-rises?

There are a few definitions of a high-rise. It is a multistorey building with at least 12 floors or 35 meters in height. The average height of a level is around 4 meters. Buildings lower than 35 meters are called low-rise buildings. To be considered a low-rise building, an edifice must have at least one floor above the ground. A high-rise is tall enough to require the use of a system of mechanical vertical transportation such as elevators. The invention of the elevator was essential. Some structural engineers

66

define a high-rise as any vertical construction for which wind is a more significant load factor than an earthquake or weight. However, this criterion also fits some other tall structures such as towers. The construction of high-rises was enabled by the invention and development of new building materials and technologies. A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building which is taller than 150 m. Most cities define the term empirically; even a building of 80 meters may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings and skyscrapers are reinforced concrete and steel. Most skyscrapers have a steel frame, while residential tower blocks (blocks of flats) are usually constructed out of concrete. D. Match the words to their meanings.

a building, especially one of large size and imposing appearance - protrude

the boundary line between earth and the sky - elevator

the weight supported by a structure - earthquake

to stick out from somewhere - empirical

capable of being inhabited - reinforce

a building or structure tall in proportion to its lateral dimensions - load

sudden movement of the earth’s crust - edifice

a moving platform or cage for carrying passengers or freight from one level to another

- tower

provable or verifiable by experience and experiment - skyline

to make a part of building or structure stronger - inhabitable

E. Choose the best answer.

1. A high-rise building is a) a building with 35 floors; b) a building of at least 12 m; c) a building 35 m

in height

2. A low-rise building is a) lower than 12 m; b) lower than 35 m; c) a single floor building

3. What enabled the construction of skyscrapers? a) the invention of concrete; b) the invention of steel; c) the invention of a

crane

4. Why did people start building skyscrapers? a) they wanted to live closer to the sky; b) they wanted to have a nice view; c) they needed to effectively utilize expensive land

5. A high-rise is a construction for which a) wind is a significant load factor; b) weight is the only significant load factor; c) an earthquake is the most significant load factor

67

The first skyscraper to use structural steel in its frame was the Home Insurance Building, built in Chicago in 1885. It was a 10-floor building (with two more floors added later), which was demolished in 1931. The tallest commercial building in the world constructed of load-bearing masonry is the Monadnock Building. The seventeen-story building is 60 meters tall. The northern half (1889-1891) of the Monadnock represents the last Chicago skyscraper built using load-bearing wall construction; in order for the structure to support its own weight, the walls at the base of the structure are 1.83m thick. The building was so heavy that it sank into the ground after it was built, requiring steps to be installed at the entrances and the walls curved in slightly at the second floor. The southern half of the building (1891-1893) was built using the more technologically advanced steel frame construction, which allowed for narrower piers and wider windows. The radical difference in construction between the two halves marks the building’s place in architectural history at the end of one building tradition and the beginning of another. Today, however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built almost entirely of reinforced concrete. A skyscraper taller than 300 meters is referred to as supertall. Skyscrapers are sometimes also called towers, e.g. the Twin Towers, the Petronas Towers, etc. Towers are tall human-made structures that are almost always taller than they are wide. They are generally built to take advantage of their height and can stand alone or as part of a larger structure. They are often used as tourist attractions. In history the tower has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields. Simple towers like lighthouses, bell towers, clock towers, signal towers and minarets were used to communicate information over greater distances. In recent years, radio masts and cell phone towers facilitate communication by expanding the range of transmitters. A tower can also be used to store items or liquids by using gravity to move objects or substances downwards, e.g., a storage silo or a water tower. Towers can also be used to support bridges, especially suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges, or railroad bridges. F. Match the synonyms.

demolish skeleton base pole entrance talk curved investigate frame knock down mast bent survey matter communicate make possible facilitate entry substance foundation

G. Say how the words differ in their meanings.

1. a capital / a town / a city / a metropolis / a suburb / a neighborhood

68

2. a high-rise building / a skyscraper / a tower / a penthouse H. Read the following information and make a table with the list of the world’s

tallest skyscrapers giving their name, city, height, number of floors and year of completion.

Officially, there are 200 high-rise buildings and skyscrapers which are taller than 237m or 50 floors, see www.emporis.com – World’s Tallest Skyscrapers. Most of them were built in the late 1990s and 2000s. At the moment the tallest skyscraper in the world is Burj Khalifa (originally called Burj Dubai) with its 818 m and 162 floors, which was completed in 2009. Taipei 101 in Taiwan takes the second place on the list. Its height is 509 m, and its name indicates the number of its floors – 101. It was completed in 2004. The third tallest skyscraper in the world is the Shanghai World Financial Center, which is 492 m high, has 101 floors and was completed in 2008. The Petronas Towers with their height of 452 m and 88 floors takes fourth place. Completed in 1998 (some resources state the year of completion as 1996), they took over first place from the Sears Tower (since July 15, 2009 the Willis Tower) in Chicago after 24 years of domination as the tallest skyscraper in the world. The Sears Tower was completed in 1974. It is 442 m tall and has 108 floors. One of the oldest skyscrapers is the Empire State Building in New York City. It was the tallest building in the world from 1931 to 1974. With its 381 m and 102 floors, it takes the fourteenth place on the list. The oldest one on the list is the Chrysler Building, NYC, which was completed in 1930. This skyscraper is 319 m high, has 77 floors and dominated as the tallest building in the world for just a few months as the Empire State Building was completed a few months later. I. Discuss in groups.

1. Do you think it is a good idea to build high-rises and skyscrapers? 2. Give the pros and cons of skyscrapers. 3. Would you like to live or work in a skyscraper? Why, or why not?

Give your reasons. 4. What conditions and requirements should a skyscraper meet for living or

working in it? 5. If you could build a skyscraper in Bratislava, which location would you choose

and what parameters of the skyscraper would you suggest?

69

Vocabulary

bell tower zvonica cable-stayed bridge závesný most corporate podnikový, firemný, spoločný cramped stiesnený, prepchatý earthquake zemetrasenie edifice budova, stavba (veľká, impozantná) elevator výťah facilitate uľahčiť, napomáhať habitable = inhabitable obývateľný landmark výrazný bod v krajine lighthouse maják liquid tekutina, kvapalina load zaťaženie, bremeno, náklad load-bearing masonry podporný múr low-rise building nízkopodlažná budova mast stožiar, anténa pier pilier, stĺp protrude vyčnievať, vystupovať, prečnievať reinforced concrete vystužený betón, železobetón residential tower block obytná budova, činžiak sink (sank, sunk) klesnúť, poklesnúť, ponoriť sa skyline silueta, panorama, obzor steel frame oceľový rám, oceľový skelet sturdy robustný, masívny substance látka, hmota, materiál support podopierať, podpera suspension bridge visutý most take over prevziať, zabrať utilize použiť, využiť weight tiaž, váha

70

UNIT 11

Container Houses A. Before you read the text, discuss the following:

1. What kind of temporary shelters are there? 2. What circumstances make people use temporary shelters? 3. Do you find the use of shipping containers for building shelters a good idea?

We have seen them on trains, on the back of trucks, but mainly at ports piled onto cargo ships. There are more than 20 million steel shipping containers scattered around the world. As there is a shortage of affordable housing, some innovative architects came up with the idea of converting steel shipping containers to houses. They are strong, safe, comfortable and eco-friendly and can be built in just 90 days, which is 40% faster than traditional houses. They are affordable, save time and money and can be transported anywhere. Containers might be the answer to the problems of today characterized by overpopulation, migration and natural catastrophes that leave thousands of people homeless. Container homes are a fast, green, economical and surprisingly flexible alternative to traditional houses. Steel shipping containers used for offices, stores, restaurants and private residences are portable and durable. They are made to survive rough treatment and resist salt corrosion. Although they need better thermal insulation than brick houses, the walls are surprisingly soundproof. A container-based house sits on a traditional concrete block foundation. The units have to be modified if we want to use them for housing. Side panels are removed to create an open interior space. The vertical steel support beams are left in place for load-bearing purposes. Openings are cut into the outer walls for doors and windows. Isolative ceramic coating is sprayed on both sides of steel walls to provide thermal insulation. The units are then lifted by a crane onto the foundation, hooked into place and welded down to be fixed completely to the foundation. Attaching them to an embedded steel reinforcement and welding them in place ensures they will be immovable. Adjacent units are welded to each other above and below. A conventional hipped roof can be placed to shelter the big steel box structure within two or three hours. A trussed roof is fastened with metal straps that are welded to the steel sides and wrapped around the rafters at 1.22 meter intervals. Each individual rafter is tied to the steel roof by clips to protect the roof from uplift. Once insulated, the existing container walls are faced with drywall for finishing, when transforms the ugly corrugated steel interior and prepares it for paint or wallpaper. Drywall is also used for the interior partition walls. Windows and doors are installed into pre-cut openings with the minimal use of wood framing. After the doors are hung and the roof shingled, the house is ready for furnishing. The exterior walls are often clad with fiber-cement siding.

71

In many ways steel shipping containers are an ideal building material. They are designed to carry heavy loads, can be easily transported and are relatively cheap. The price of one container is $1,200 – 1,500. Their fire and safety ratings will impress insurance companies and code officials. In hurricane-prone areas the container house offers tremendous sustainability and strength. The largest complex in the world constructed of shipping containers is Keetwonen in Amsterdam. It was built in 2005 to provide temporary housing for students. The life expectancy of this complex of buildings is until 2016. The most famous example of shipping container architecture might be the Container City by the Trinity Buoy Wharf on the Thames, which was completed in 2000. Another example of a shipping container structure is the Freitag Shop in Zurich. It is a 26-meter-tall structure made of 17 containers. The first four floors of the building serve as the store’s display space. The other containers are used for storage and for a staircase that takes visitors to a viewing platform at the very top of the building. In New Zealand they are used as holiday homes that are affordable and can be transported anywhere. All of this proves that living in a steel box can be stylish and environmentally friendly. B. Fill in the missing words. Choose from the following list.

strong, removed, durable, sits, hipped, loads, modified, portable, cheap, rough, scattered, comfortable 1. About 20 million steel shipping containers are _________ around the world. 2. Steel shipping containers are _________ and made to survive ________

treatment. 3. They are designed to carry heavy ________. 4. Steel shipping containers are __________ and relatively ________. 5. A container-based house _________ on a traditional concrete block

foundation. 6. The units have to be _________, and the side panels have to be _________

to create an open interior space. 7. A conventional _________ roof covers the steel box structure.

C. Complete the chart with the matching synonyms from the pool. .

quick long-lasting adaptable permanent provisional fixed rapid natural interim variable prompt transportable within your means movable short-term reasonably priced recyclable inexpensive adjustable stable steady ecological resilient transferable

fast green affordable portable durable flexible immovable temporary

72

D. Choose the best answer. 1. Steel shipping containers are

a) immovable b) transportable c) permanent 2. Container-based houses need

a) waterproof insulation b) sound insulation c) thermal insulation

3. A container house rests on a) a traditional concrete block b) the soil c) a wooden board

4. A conventional hipped roof a) can be placed on a container structure b) must be placed on a container structure c) must not be placed on a container structure

5. Steel shipping containers are a) very expensive b) affordable c) free of charge

6. Container houses can be used a) for military purposes only b) as a permanent housing c) as a temporary housing

E. Make sentences matching parts of sentences in column A with parts of

sentences in column B.

A B 1. A container based house sits drywall for finishing.

2. The units have to be modified with metal straps.

3. The units are often lifted for interior partition walls.

4. A trussed roof is fastened on a traditional concrete block foundation.

5. Container walls are faced with impress insurance companies.

6. Drywall is also used offers tremendous sustainability and strength.

7. The fire safety rating will if we want to use them for housing.

8. In hurricane-prone areas the container house

by crane onto the foundation.

F. Read the text again and write a paragraph of about 500 words promoting

container houses in a magazine.

73

Vocabulary adjacent vedľajší, priľahlý affordable cenovo dostupný beam trám, nosník clad obložený, krytý clip sponka, svorka coating náter, povlak compliant poddajný, podriaďujúci sa corrugated steel vlnitá oceľ drywall montovaná stena, suchá stena embed, v. zakotviť, vtlačiť fiber-cement siding vlákno-cementové oplášťovanie foundation základy framing rámovanie hipped roof valbová strecha hook into, v. pripevniť, zahákovať interim dočasný, provizórny load-bearing nosný, únosný partition wall priečka, deliaca stena prone to náchylný, majúci sklony rafter krokva reinforcement výstuž, vystuženie, spevnenie remove, v. odstrániť resilient odolný, pevný scatter, v. rozptýliť, roztrúsiť shingle šindeľ soundproof zvukotesný steady stabilný, stály strap remeň, pás, objímka, slučka sustainability udržateľnosť trussed roof strecha s priehradovou konštrukciou wallpaper tapeta weld, v. zvárať, zvarovať wrap obal, plášť, obaľovať

74

UNIT 12

Road and Highway Building You might have heard about a busy road, road traffic, a road accident, or road safety. “Road” is always the key word. What is a road then? A road is a strip of land connecting two or more destinations. It is almost exclusively built to enable travel by car and other wheeled vehicles; in most countries road transport is the most utilized way to move goods. A road can also be a street with buildings along one or both sides. Road building and maintenance in cities or outside them is one of the few areas of economic activity that remains dominated by the public sector (though often through private contractors). Roads are typically paid for by taxes or levies on fuel, though some public roads are funded by tolls. In order to support heavy vehicles moving at high speeds, a modern road is made up of several layers. Each layer helps the layers above it to support the weight and pressure of moving traffic. Roads that carry more traffic at higher speeds, like highways, are built to stronger standards than roads that carry less traffic, such as secondary or rural roads. The process of building a road starts by removing the vegetation and testing the soil to see if it will support the weight; and if it will not, a layer of soil is removed and replaced to form a roadbed, which is the bottom layer of the road. The number of layers in a road often depends on the intended use of the road, but generally roads have three distinct layers: the roadbed, the base course, and the wearing course. The base course rests directly on top of the roadbed and is often made up of compacted gravel with drainpipes usually installed within it to control rain and moisture drainage. A road’s top layer, which directly supports moving vehicles, is called the wearing course. It is a solid layer and is designed to be smooth and withstand erosion from traffic and weather. There are two main types of pavements used as a wearing course – bituminous (asphalt), a flexible pavement, and concrete, a rigid pavement. The former one is cheaper and easier to construct, but requires more maintenance. Most roads in our country are bituminous. Concrete pavements last for a very long time with minimal upkeep, but are more expensive and time-consuming to build.

A. Match the words with their meanings

road a) one who goes or travels on foot traffic b) available for people in general

to use; owned by the government

pedestrian c) the amount of money that you pay to use a bridge or road

transport d) a machine that you travel in or on, especially one with an engine that travels on roads

75

public e) a strip of land connecting two or more destinations

toll f) an amount of money you have to pay to the government that it uses to provide public services and pay government institutions

vehicle g) the rate at which something moves

speed h) the vehicles that are travelling in an area at a particular time

tax i) the surface of a road (AmE) pavement j) the process of moving people

or things from one place to another

B. Choose from the following expressions to complete the sentences. There

are a few expressions that need to be used more than once while others do not need to be used at all. (pavement, levy, public, cars, rigid, traffic, layers, wearing, use, highways, speeds, concrete, tax, maintenance, roadbed, tolls, transport, flexible, base, vehicles, bituminous)

1. A road is built to enable travel by _________ and other wheeled __________. 2. Road building and ____________ is covered from ___________ funds. 3. Some roads, bridges or tunnels are funded by _________. 4. The _________ on fuel is a part of the petrol price. 5. Highways are roads that carry more ___________ at higher ____________. 6. ____________ are built to stronger standards than other roads. 7. The number of ___________ in a road often depends on the intended

________ of the road. 8. The __________ course rests directly on top of the ___________ and the

road’s top layer is called the ____________ course. 9. Bituminous pavements are ____________ and concrete pavements are

__________. 10. _____________ pavements are more expensive than ____________

pavements. There are a few measures involved in building a road to make road traffic safe. Modern roads are designed to allow water to drain away from a road to its edges. Water is carried away by gutters, or it simply drains away to a naturally porous verge or into ditches. On the side of a road there may be retro reflectors on pegs, rocks or crash barriers. They will be white toward the direction of the traffic on that side of the road and red towards the other direction. There may be cat’s eyes in the road surface, which are retro reflectors that protrude slightly, but can be driven over without damage. Major roads are usually called main roads. Smaller roads are known as secondary roads. Roads are usually divided by a central band into two sections, one for traffic going one way, and the other for traffic going the other way. You can turn off a road

76

at a crossroads, which is also called a road junction. It is a place where two or more roads either meet or cross. A junction between 3 road segments (arms) is a T-junction or Y-junction. One type of junction which is very popular these days and is to be found in many places is a roundabout, which has an island in the middle. A highway, also widely known as a motorway, speedway or expressway, is a major road within a city or one that links several cities together. In America it is also called an interstate highway if it crosses a state line; in Australia, people call such a road a freeway. A full description of a highway varies by country and language, but generally it is a road which has multiple lanes of traffic in each direction, often with a physical division between the directions of the flow. Access to and from a highway is possible using a ramp or slip road, which is a short section of road which allows vehicles to enter or exit a motorway. Pedestrians are not allowed to cross a highway or walk along it. There are some other restrictions about what types of vehicles are allowed to travel on a highway and the minimum speed of traffic. When other roads cross highways, they can go under them so they form an underpass or over them using an overpass also called a flyover. If the city is very large, there is usually a complete ring road rather than a mere bypass. C. Complete the sentences correctly. Choose from the options below.

1. Water is carried away from the road by gutters … 2. Retro reflectors are white … 3. Cat’s eyes are … 4. Roads are usually divided … 5. You can turn off a road … 6. A roundabout … 7. A highway is a major road that … 8. Access to and from the highway is possible … 9. Other roads can cross highways via …

… has an island in the middle. … by a central band into two sections. … toward the direction of the traffic. … an overpass also called a flyover or an underpass. … or it simply drains away to a naturally porous verge, or ditches. … using a ramp or a slip road. … retro reflectors in the road surface that slightly protrude. … at crossroads also called a road junction. … links several cities together.

D. Match the synonyms or words of similar meaning

roundabout highway crossroads slip road motorway stream overpass traffic circle vehicle road junction flow layer ramp flyover course automobile

77

Road safety measures have to be observed by drivers as well as pedestrians. They include speed limits that change at different places and on different types of roads, various traffic signs and road markings, and traffic lights. It is important to be careful at pedestrian crossings, which are usually illuminated by flashing beacons and marked with white stripes (zebra crossings). Fastening seatbelts is compulsory in most countries in the world, and drink-driving is prohibited altogether. Parking in cities presents great problems. In most city centers parking is permitted for limited periods only, and payment is required nearly everywhere. As exhausts from motor vehicles constitute 75 per cent of all urban smog, ecologists have been calling on municipal authorities to return the streets to the people. As a result, town councils have created pedestrian precincts which are areas in the centers of towns where motor traffic is not allowed. E. Decide if the sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. Pedestrians do not have to observe traffic signs. 2. Speed limits differ according to the type of road. 3. Only drivers are obliged to fasten their seatbelts in Europe. 4. Running a red light is a serious offence. 5. You can drink beer before driving in Slovakia. 6. It is easy to find a parking place in the city centre; you can park anywhere for

free. 7. Cars and trucks produce exhausts and constitute a problem for the

environment. 8. You have to observe traffic lights but not road markings.

F. Discuss the following topics.

1. Have you got a driving license? Are you a good and safe driver? 2. What safety measures should drivers observe? Are there any safety

measures that you find pointless? 3. What are the most common traffic signs? 4. Do you find it reasonable to move goods by trucks on roads? Could you find a

more environmentally friendly solution for moving goods? 5. Which is more convenient for drivers – to pay tolls or to pay a levy on fuel or

another type of tax?

78

Vocabulary

access prístup, vstup accident nehoda, nešťastie, náhoda arm rameno, výbežok band pás, pruh, ozdobný pás base course podkladová vrstva, spodok beacon maják bend zatáčka, zákruta, ohyb, oblúk bituminous asfaltový bottom spodok, spodná časť, dno break down (ph.v.) pokaziť sa (auto, zariadenie) bypass objazd, obchvat carriageway vozovka carry, v. niesť, nosiť, priniesť, priviesť cat’s eye odrazka na vozovke compact, v. zhutniť, stlačiť, lisovať contractor dodávateľ, zmluvná strana council rada crash barrier zvodidlo crossroads, pl. križovatka damage poškodenie, škoda destination cieľ cesty, miesto určenia distinct odlišný, iný, zreteľný, výrazný ditch priekopa, jarok drain away (ph.v.) odviesť (vodu), odvodniť, odkvapkať drainpipe odkvapová rúra, dažďový zvod edge okraj, hrana, hranica exhaust výfukový plyn, odvod plynu, pary fasten, v. zapnúť, pripevniť, priviazať flash, v. blikať, blýskať sa, zablesknúť sa flow prúd, tok, prúdenie flyover nadjazd fuel palivo fund, v. financovať grade stupeň, stúpanie, svah, nivelizácia highway diaľnica illuminate, v. osvetliť, osvietiť install, v. namontovať, nainštalovať, zaviesť intend, v. mať v úmysle, hodlať, zamýšľať interstate highway medzištátna diaľničná komunikácia junction križovatka, odbočka lane dopravný, jazdný pruh, prúd lay-by odstavná plocha, zastávkový pruh level crossing úrovňová križovatka levy odvod, daň, poplatok, dávka link, v. spojiť, pripojiť main road hlavná cesta mere číry, obyčajný, jednoduchý, holý, prázdny municipal mestský, oblastný, komunálny

79

overpass nadjazd pay for (ph.v.) financovať, hradiť pedestrian crossing prechod pre chodcov pedestrian precincts pešia zóna, oblasť peg stĺpik, kolík, čap, vytyčovací bod permit, v. dovoliť, povoliť, pripustiť pressure tlak protrude, v. vyčnievať, vystupovať pull in (ph.v.) zastaviť, prísť autom na parkovacie miesto,

odpočívadlo pull off (ph.v.) odísť z okraja cesty ramp road šikmá cesta, vetva, rameno križovatky

(mimoúrovňovej) remain, v. ostať, zostávať remove, v. vyňať, vytiahnuť, presunúť replace, v. nahradiť rest, v. spočívať, podopierať, ležať, byť položený restriction obmedzenie retro reflector odrazka ring-road okružná komunikácia, okruh roadbed cestné podložie road junction cestná križovatka road marking značenie na ceste roundabout kruhový objazd rural dedinský, vidiecky safety bezpečnosť seatbelt bezpečnostný pás secondary road vedľajšia cesta slightly slabo, jemne, nepatrne slip road vetva, rameno križovatky (mimoúrovňovej) solid pevný, tuhý, tvrdý speed rýchlosť strip pruh, pás stripe pruh, pásik support podpora, opora, príspevok surface povrch tax daň toll mýto traffic premávka, pouličný ruch, doprava traffic lights dopravné svetlá traffic sign dopravná značka trunk road hlavná cesta, hlavná dopravná tepna turn off (ph.v.) zahnúť, zabočiť, odbočiť underpass podjazd upkeep údržba urban mestský, týkajúci sa mesta, urbanistický utilize, v. použiť, využiť, upotrebiť, zužitkovať vary, v. meniť, obmeňovať, pozmeňovať vehicle vozidlo verge okraj, postranný deliaci pás, obruba, medza

80

wearing course obrusná vrstva (vozovky) weight hmotnosť, váha wheel koleso withstand odolávať, znášať, vydržať

81

UNIT 13

Bridges A. Think about the following questions and try to give an answer.

1. What functions do bridges perform? 2. What do all bridges have in common? 3. What is the reason for different bridge designs?

A bridge is a structure designed to provide continuous passage over a physical obstacle such as waterways, deep valleys, or transportation routes. Bridges commonly carry highways, railroad lines, and pathways, but may also carry water, power cables, or telecommunication lines. Designs of bridges vary, depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed. Some special types of bridges are defined according to their function. In structures such as highways or railroad lines an overpass elevates one route to provide clearance to traffic on the lower level. Aqueducts also belong to bridge structures and are used for the transportation of water. A viaduct carries a railroad or highway over a land feature, such as a valley, that can obstruct passage. The earliest bridges were simple structures created by spanning a gap with timber or rope. Designs became more complex as builders developed new construction methods and discovered better materials. B. Match the highlighted words correctly with their definitions.

1. A road, pedestrian walkway, railroad, bridge, etc., crossing over some barrier,

such as another road or walkway 2. A long, high bridge-like structure that carries a water conduit or canal across a

valley or over a river 3. An object which blocks your way, so that you must try to go around it 4. The distance between two objects; the amount of clear space 5. A bridge for carrying a road, railroad, etc., over other roads or railroads 6. A course, way, or road for passage or travel 7. To block a road, passage, etc. 8. A route or course by which a person or thing passes or travels

C. Read the following text with the description of different bridge designs. Bridge designs differ in the way they support loads, especially the weight of the bridges themselves and the weight and stresses of the vehicles crossing them. There are basically eight common bridge designs which differ in appearance, construction methods and materials used, as well as in the way they deal with the forces of tension or compression they are subject to.

82

Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that rested across streams. The weight on the top of the beam pushes straight down on the piers at either end of the bridge. Beam bridges are the most commonly used bridges in highway construction. Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams that are supported on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms that extend from opposite sides of the obstacle to be crossed and meet at the center. Good examples of cantilever bridges are the Quebec Bridge, Canada, with a span of 549m, the Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland, which spans 521m, and the Minato Bridge in Osaka, Japan, with a span of 510m. Arch bridges are arch-shaped and have abutments at each end. They have great natural strength. In an arch, the force of the load is carried outward from the top to the ends of the arch, where the abutment keeps the arch ends from spreading apart. Thousands of years ago the Romans and Greeks built arches out of stone. One belonging among the oldest is the Mycenaean Arkadiko Bridge in Greece from 1300 B.C. Today, most arch bridges are made of steel or concrete. Good examples of such bridges are the Sydney Harbour Bridge, completed in 1932, which has a span of 503m, or the Apollo Bridge in Bratislava, which was opened to the public on September 5, 2005, and spans 231m.

Apollo Bridge (Arch bridge) Truss bridges are bridges composed of straight, connected elements in a triangular configuration, which may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges have simple designs and are economical to construct owing to their efficient use of materials. They can carry heavy loads and are relatively lightweight. Trusses are utilized in the construction of beam, cantilever and arch bridges. An example of a beam bridge using trusses is the Old Bridge in Bratislava.

83

Old Bridge (Truss bridge)

Suspension bridges consist of two main cables that are hung (suspended) from towers. The main cables of a suspension bridge drape over two towers with the cable ends buried in enormous concrete blocks known as anchorages. The roadway is suspended from smaller vertical cables that hang down from the main cables. In some cases, diagonal cables run from the towers to the roadway and add rigidity to the structure. The main cables support the weight of the bridge and transfer the load to the anchorages and the towers. Suspension bridges are used for the longest spans. A typical example of a suspension bridge is the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, which was completed in 1937. Today, the longest suspension bridge is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge between Honshu and Awaji Islands in Japan with a span of 1,990m. Suspension bridges can span long distances, but their design has a serious drawback. They are very flexible, and traffic loading may cause large deflections or bending in the bridge roadway. Therefore, they are rarely used for railroads, as trains are heavy and can travel fast. The cable-stayed bridge represents a variation of the suspension bridge. Cable-stayed bridges have towers which are shorter, than those of suspension bridges and the roadway is attached directly to the towers by a series of diagonal cables. They are used for intermediate-length spans. The construction of a cable-stayed bridge is faster and cheaper than suspension bridges, as less cable is required and anchorages are not necessary. A typical example of a cable-stayed bridge is the Oresund Bridge, which crosses the Oresund Strait between Malmo, Sweden, and the Danish Capital Region. Its span is 490, and its total length is 7.85 km. The New Bridge (Nový most)

84

New Bridge (Cable-stayed bridge) Movable bridges make up a class of bridges in which a portion of the bridge moves up or swings out to provide additional clearance beneath the bridge. A drawbridge is a type of movable bridge typically associated with the entrance of a castle surrounded by a moat. Movable bridges are usually found over heavily traveled waterways. There are many kinds of movable bridges; however the three most common types of movable bridges are the bascule bridge, a typical example of which is the Tower Bridge in London, the vertical-lift bridge and the swing bridge. A pontoon bridge or floating bridge is a bridge that floats on water. It is formed by fastening together sealed floating containers called pontoons and placing a roadbed on top of them. These bridges are temporary structures originally used for military purposes. When designing a bridge, engineers must consider several factors – the distance and the feature such as a river, bay or canyon to be crossed. They have to make decisions about the type of bridge, the materials of which it will be made, the type of foundations that will support the structure, and the construction method to be used. Bridges must be convenient to build, use, and maintain. As bridges are tax-payer funded projects, their appearance is important and they must be designed to endure and provide service for at least 50 to 100 years. D. Say if the sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. The main purpose of building bridges is their aesthetic appeal. 2. Arch bridges were built by the Romans and Greeks before the birth of Christ. 3. Cantilevers are horizontal beams that are supported by two piers. 4. Truss bridges can carry heavy loads and are relatively lightweight. 5. Suspension bridges are mainly used for railroads. 6. A cable-stayed bridge is a variation of a cantilever bridge. 7. Movable bridges are temporary structures.

E. Complete the sentences with the correct expression:

1) A place where something can be firmly fastened is a) a tower b) a column c) an anchorage

85

2) A bridge composed of straight, connected elements in a triangular configuration is called a) a truss bridge b) a cantilever bridge c) a cable-stayed bridge

3) Floating containers that form floating bridges are called a) decks b) chambers c) pontoons

4) a) Swing bridges b) Cable-stayed bridges c) Pontoon bridges belong among types of movable bridges.

5) a) Floating bridges b) Cable-stayed bridges c) Truss bridges represent a variant of suspension bridges. 6) a) Beam bridges b) Arch bridges c) Truss bridges can also be simple logs that rest across streams. 7) The design of a bridge depends on

a) the financial aspects only. b) the distance to be crossed and thepurpose, for which it si being built.

c) the transportation situation at the site of its construction.

86

Vocabulary abutment podpera, podperný pilier anchorage kotvenie arch bridge oblúkový most bascule bridge zdvižný most beam nosník beam bridge nosníkový most bending ohýbanie, ohyb cable-stayed bridge závesný most cantilever konzola cantilever bridge konzolový most clearance svetlá výška, voľný priechod compression tlak deflection vychýlenie, odchýlka drape visieť drawback nevýhoda, nedostatok drawbridge zdvíhací/padací most floating bridge pontónový most load zaťaženie, náklad moat vodná priekopa obstacle prekážka obstruction zatarasenie, zablokovanie overpass nadjazd passage prechod, pasáž pontoon pontón roadbed vozovka, cestné podložie route trasa span rozpätie, rozsah stream riečka, potok, prúd (vody) stress tlak, napätie, namáhanie suspension bridge visutý most swing bridge otočný most tension ťah,napätie truss priehradový nosník truss bridge priehradový most vehicle vozidlo vertical-lift bridge výsuvný most

87

UNIT 14

Tunnels A. Guess if the following statements are true or false.

1. A tunnel is a subterranean structure. 2. A tunnel is a tube that is wider than it is longer. 3. Tunnels were originally built for military and civil-defense purposes. 4. Pedestrians are not allowed to enter a tunnel. 5. It is essential to investigate the soil conditions before the tunnel project starts. 6. The method of excavation depends on the technological equipment available.

B. Read the text and check if you guessed correctly. A tunnel is an underground structure which is usually shaped like a tube. It is longer than it is wider and is open at each end. Generally, the purpose of tunnels is to enable the direct transportation of passengers and goods through a certain obstacle. They can be used for road and rail traffic as well as for pedestrians or cyclists. Some are constructed to transport water, sewage, oil and gas or carry telecommunication cables. Some tunnels were built for military and civil-defense purposes. Tunnels are dug in various types of materials, from soft clay to hard rock, and the excavation method depends on the soil conditions. It is therefore essential to investigate the soil conditions and assess the nature of the rock or the exact location of a fault zone before the tunnel project starts. There are various tunneling methods: the cut-and-cover method, the drill and blast method, or methods using a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) and a New Tunnel Boring Machine. C. Answer the following questions.

1. What kind of a structure is a tunnel? 2. What purposes do tunnels serve? 3. What does the method of excavation depend upon? 4. What are the most commonly used tunneling methods?

Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and the lining for the tunnel is built. Then the tunnel is roofed over with the earth or other fill that was originally removed. A strong overhead support system is required to carry the load of the covering material, roads, streets or other transportation systems. The usual technique for tunneling through hard rock is the drill and blast method. This method involves drilling many holes in the rock and then filling them with

88

explosives such as dynamite. The area should then be cleared, with all the workers and equipment withdrawn to a safe distance, after which the blasting material is detonated. Broken rock is removed, often on conveyor belts. The disadvantage of this method is an “overbreak”, when explosives tear away too much rock. In spite of that drill and blast is the most frequently used tunneling method. In the event of excavating through soil that is too soft or fluid and therefore needs some support, we use a tunneling shield. It serves as a temporary support structure for the tunnel while it is being excavated before the lining with concrete, cast iron or steel is completed. The shield has a sharp edge and is driven into the tunnel face by a hydraulic hammer. The entire tunneling process can be highly automated by using Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM). There are a variety of TBMs that operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft clays or sands. A TBM is a rotating cutting wheel that breaks the ground and drops it through slots in the cutting wheel for removal. Tunnel diameters can range from 1 meter to 16 meters. A TBM has the advantages of limiting the disturbance to the surrounding ground and producing a smooth tunnel wall. This significantly reduces the cost of lining the tunnel and makes TBMs suitable to use in heavily urbanized areas. The major disadvantage is the upfront cost. TBMs are expensive to construct, and can be difficult to transport. In the 1960s the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was invented and has become the predominant technique for excavating and supporting tunnels of shorter lengths and of noncircular cross-sections. Based on geotechnical measurements, an optimal cross section is computed. Using this method the excavation is carried out in a sequence of smaller sections which are supported immediately after excavation by shotcrete. Shotcrete is concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at a high velocity onto a surface which is compacting at the same time. It creates a natural load-bearing ring. D. Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.

1. The cut-and-cover method is used for the construction of a) deep tunnels b) shallow tunnels c) trenches

2. Shallow tunnels require a a) strong overhead support system b) strong bottom support system c) heavy load system

3. The drill and blast method is used for tunneling through a) clay and soft rock b) sand, gravel or silt c) hard rock

4. The drill and blast method is a) the only tunneling method b) the most frequently used tunneling method c) the least frequent tunneling method

5. Tunneling shields are used for excavating through

89

a) clay or soft rock b) sand, gravel or silt c) hard rock

6. A tunneling shield is a) a permanent support structure b) a temporary support structure c) a load bearing structure

7. TBMs produce a) uneven tunnel walls b) rough tunnel walls c) smooth tunnel walls

8. TBMs are a) cheap to construct b) expensive to construct c) difficult to construct

9. The NATM was invented for excavating a) tunnels of shorter lengths and circular cross-sections b) tunnels of shorter lengths and noncircular cross-sections c) longer tunnels with noncircular cross-sections

Despite using various sophisticated methods of tunneling and a geotechnical investigation before tunnel excavating is started, the hazards connected with this process cannot be entirely eliminated. Water can pour into tunnels not yet lined with concrete or plastic sealers. Dust from blasting is another problem. Ventilation is a major problem in all tunnels, but particularly in those used by automobile traffic. Most of them have two systems of ducts. Huge fans pump in fresh air through one of them, while polluted air is sucked out through the other. The cost of tunneling is determined by the length of the tunnel and the time needed for its construction. The use of modern and sophisticated methods might make tunneliing more economically feasible. E. In the above two paragraphs find the words that fit the following definitions.

1. something that could be dangerous or cause damage or accidents _______________

2. a substance that is painted on a surface to protect it from air, water, etc. _______________

3. the process of explosing something ________________ 4. a system that allows the movement of fresh air around a room or building

_______________ 5. a pipe or tube in a building that carries something such as air or protects wires

_______________ 6. possible or likely to succeed _______________

The longest tunnels in the world are water supply tunnels, such as the Delaware Aqueduct in the state of New York, which is 137,000 meters long, the Paijanne Water Tunnel, with its length of 120,000 meters and the Orange-Fish River Tunnel in South Africa and Bolmen Water Tunnel in Sweden, both 82,000 meters long.

90

The longest railway tunnel is the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, which is 53,850 meters long and was completed in 1988. A unique kind of tunnel with the longest underwater section is the Channel Tunnel connecting England and France. The construction started in 1988 and was completed in 1994. The longest land tunnel is the Lotschberg Base Tunnel, a railway tunnel in the Bernese Alps in Switzerland, with its 22 km single track. It was completed in 2007. Many tunnels in the world serve as a metro with a variable length from about 14,000 m up to 41,500 m. A large number of tunnels in the world are under construction, and they will be completed between 2013 and 2025. Passives are very common in scientific writing, where we are most interested in events and processes, in things that happen. We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject. Who or what causes the action is often unknown or unimportant. The passive verb forms: Present Tense: auxiliary (am/is/are) + past participle of a full verb, e.g. is transmitted, are considered Past Tense: auxiliary (was/were) + past participle of a full verb, e.g. was made, were given Future Tense: auxiliary (will be) + past participle of a full verb, e.g. will be used Modal verbs (can, may, must, should, have to) + be + past participle of a full verb, e.g. can be classified, should be added, must be done, have to be observed

F. Use the verbs in brackets and make passive sentences.

1. A tunnel is an underground structure which (shape) like a tube. 2. Tunnels (can use) for road traffic, rail traffic as well as pedestrians and cyclist. 3. Some (construct) to transport water, sewage, oil and gas. 4. In the past some (build) for military and civil-defense purposes. 5. Tunnels (dig) in various types of materials.

G. There are many passive expressions in the text. Find at least 10 sentences

where passives were used. H. Make the sentences from the text passive.

1. Since early times people have used tunnels for transporting water and goods. 2. Explosives tear away too much rock. 3. In case of excavating through soil that is too soft we use a tunneling shield. 4. A TBM breaks the ground and drops it through slots in the cutting wheel for

removal. 5. A TBM produces a smooth tunnel wall. 6. This significantly reduces the cost of lining the tunnel. 7. Shotcrete creates a natural load-bearing ring. 8. Huge fans pump fresh air through ducts.

91

I. Choose the correct preposition. 1. A tunnel is an underground structure usually shaped like a tube, which is

longer than wider and open on/at/in each end. 2. The purpose of tunnels is to enable the direct transportation of passengers

and goods through/into/across a certain obstacle. 3. This method involves drilling many holes on/for/in the rock, then filling them

in/with/by explosives such as dynamite. 4. The shield has a sharp edge and is driven into/through/to the tunnel face

with/by/to a hydraulic hammer. 5. A TBM has the advantages of limiting the disturbance for/to/of the

surrounding ground and producing a smooth tunnel wall. 6. Using this method the excavation is carried in/on/out in a sequence of smaller

sections. 7. Shotcrete is concrete conveyed in/through/with a hose. 8. It is pneumatically projected at/on/with a high velocity onto a surface

compacting in/on/at the same time. 9. Huge fans pump on/in/out fresh air through one of them, while polluted air is

sucked in/on/out through the other. 10. The cost of tunneling is determined with/by/at the length of the tunnel and the

time needed for/on/to its construction.

92

Vocabulary assess posúdiť, odhadnúť, stanoviť blast odpáliť, vybuchnúť cast iron liatina clay Íl, hlina compact natlačiť, zhutniť stlačiť conveyor belt dopravný pás cross-section priečny rez, prierez cut-and-cover vykopávka s dočasným zastropením cut-and-cover method stavba v otvorenom výkopw disturbance porucha, narušenie drill vŕtať, vyvŕtať duct šachta, prieduch edge hrana, ostrie excavate vykopať, vyhĺbiť fault chyba, zlyhanie, puklina, zlom feasible vhodný, prijateľný fill výplň, náplň; vyplniť, naplniť fluid tekutina; nestabilný, premenlivý hose hadica lining ostenie overbreak nadmerný výlom overhead horný, vrchný, stropný pneumatically pneumatický, na stlačený vzduch project projekt, plan; projektovať, premietať roof over zastrešiť sealer tesniaca hmota slot štrbina, škára, medzera tear, tore, torn trhať, odtrhnúť, roztrhnúť trench výkop, ryha upfront počiatočný, pred niečím velocity rýchlosť

93

UNIT 15

Fundamentals of Urban Drainage A. Read the explanations of these new terms and try to find the correct term in

the Slovak language. Check in a dictionary. sewage a mixture of waste from the human body and used water that is carried

away from houses by sewers, e.g., Chlorine is used to treat sewage.

sewer a pipe or passage under the ground that carries away waste material and used water from houses and factories

sewerage the system by which waste material and water are carried away in sewers and then treated to stop it from being harmful

drainage a system of pipes or passages in the ground for carrying away water or waste liquids, e.g., drainage channels

to drain to make water or liquid flow away from something, e.g., Deep ditches were dug to drain the fields.

runoff (technical) rain or other liquid that flows off the land into rivers and streams

sludge (technical) the solid substance that is left when the liquid waste from houses, factories, etc., (sewage) has been cleaned

flow a smooth steady movement or supply of liquid

treatment a process by which something is cleaned, protected, etc., e.g., the treatment of waste oils and solvents

B. Fill in the proper word. Choose from the following.

sewage (2), sewers (2x), sludge, runoff, treatment (3x), drains, wastewater

1. __________ transport _____________ from a building to _____________

facilities. 2. Most __________ are arranged so that gravity moves the ___________. 3. Storm _________ are large pipes that transport storm-water __________ from

streets to avoid their flooding. 4. ____________ is treated in a _____________ plant. 5. Chemical _____________ removes bacteria and offensive smells from the

__________ and water. C. Choose the most logical option.

1. Originally, cities had no sewers. Where did wastewater go?

a) It dried out.

94

b) Wastewater ran down the streets, which had stepping stones to keep pedestrians out of muck.

c) People swept it away. 2. Where does untreated sewage go in developed countries?

a) It is released directly to surface water. b) It is conveyed to a treatment plant. c) It is kept in enormous septic tanks and later recycled.

3. Most large cities have a) a single sewer for surface runoff, household and

commercial sewage. b) separated and combined sewers. c) open channel drainage.

D. Read the text. A complete well-functioning urban drainage (sewerage) and treatment system is the most effective solution to the sewage and urban runoff problem. Such systems allow utilization of the most modern methods for household and commercial wastewater disposal, including flushing toilets and in-sink garbage grinders. The need for cesspools, septic tanks, and other on-site sewage disposal systems is therefore eliminated. A planning report of an urban drainage system has to contain drainage area characteristics such as topography, drainage patterns, surface conditions, location of streets and existing drainage systems to which the proposed system may be connected. It also has flow rates and the quality of the receiving waters, along with future developments, which include population trends, land use, the present and projected quantity and quality of the sewage and storm-water runoff, etc., as well as the environmental policy and standards information and the financial aspects of the planned system. E. Match the underlined words from the text with their synonyms or words

with similar meaning. Change their grammatical form where necessary landscape – strategy –

overflow – removal – eradicate – tendency – municipal –

F. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the urban sewerage system a substitution for? 2. What belongs to an on-site sewage disposal system? 3. What aspects are important in planning an urban sewerage system? 4. Why are these aspects important? 5. Why do population trends have to be considered in urban drainage system

planning?

95

The main types of sewer systems are: a) separated sewers b) combined sewers c) open channel drainage. a) Separated sewers consist of storm sewer networks that mainly carry surface runoff from streets, roofs, parking lots, and other surfaces toward the nearest receiving water body or a man-made channel, and sanitary sewers that carry household and commercial sewage and industrial wastewater toward a treatment plant. b) Combined sewers are used for the collection and conveyance of both surface runoff and sanitary sewage and industrial wastes in one conduit. Combined sewer systems are common in older U.S. and European urban centers. Urban drainage by separate systems is more expensive than a combined sewer system since it uses two parallel networks of conduits. c) Open channel drainage includes swales, roadside ditches, and drainage channels. The channels should be lined either with a man-made lining (asphalt, concrete, gabions, mats) or natural grasses and sod. Grassed, maintained waterways are an excellent and cheap alternative to underground storm sewers, especially in suburban zones. They enhance the infiltration and attenuation of pollutants. G. In the text about sewer systems find the words with the following meanings:

1. a long narrow passage for water or other liquids to flow along _______________ (par. a)

2. relating to people’s health especially to the system of supplying water and dealing with human waste _____________ (par. a)

3. the process of transporting something or someone from one place to another _______________ (par. b)

4. a pipe or passage that water flows through to go from one place to another ________________ (par. b)

5. reduction of the strength, amount or size of something ______________ (par. c)

6. a long narrow hole dug along the side of a road or field, so that water can run into it ______________ (par. c)

H. Read the part about sewer systems again and explain the difference

between them. Then read about the sewer types.

Sewer types. Sewers can be divided into: a) building sewers b) lateral (branch) sewers, c) main (trunk) sewers d) interceptors and outfall (relief) sewers. a) Building sewers connect a building’s plumbing to the nearest lateral (branch)

public sewer line. The minimum recommended size of building connections is

96

100 mm for single-family homes, and the minimum slope should be 2%. The building connection should be equipped with backwater gates if there is a danger of sewer backup and basement flooding.

b) Lateral (branch) sewers are used to collect wastewater from building connections and convey it to a main sewer. A lateral sewer has no other sewer tributary except building connections. The minimum diameter of lateral (branch) sewers should be 200 mm.

c) Main (trunk) sewers accept flow from several lateral (branch) sewers and convey it to a treatment plant or to an intercepting sewer.

d) Interceptors are large sewers that were originally designed to accept dry weather flow from a number of trunk sewers and carry the flow to a treatment facility. In more recent systems large interceptors are used for storage of combined sewer overflows (in-line storage).

Common sewer materials include concrete (plain or reinforced), vitrified clay, iron and steel (cast iron, ductile iron, corrugated steel), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Small and medium-sized sewers are assembled mostly from concrete or vitrified clay pipes. In general, both materials are similarly economic and, when installed properly, infiltration should be minimal. For larger flows, cast-in-place concrete sewers are used when standard concrete pipes are not available. Practices differ for different types of sewers. I. Say if the sentence is true or false. Correct the false sentences.

1. Separated sewers consist of storm sewer networks and sanitary sewers. 2. Sanitary sewers mainly convey surface runoff. 3. Combined sewers are used for collection and conveyance of industrial wastes

and sanitary sewage in two conduits. 4. A conduit is a pipe. 5. Population trends are important for the planning of an urban drainage system. 6. Building sewers are connected directly to main sewers. 7. Main sewers convey wastewater to a treatment plant or an intercepting sewer. 8. A well-functioning urban drainage system eliminates the need for cesspools or

septic tanks. Compound Nouns A compound noun consists of two or more nouns joined together. Compound nouns occur frequently in scientific and technical writing precisely because they give them conciseness. The more technical and specialized the subject, the more frequent and more complicated the compound nouns. The most complicated compound nouns occur in newspaper headlines and technical advertisements. Compound nouns are sometimes difficult to understand. However, they are not as difficult as they look if you always follow this principle: begin at the end and then work backwards! E.g., wastewater disposal, in-sink garbage grinders, on-site sewage disposal system There are three things to notice about compound nouns: 1. Some compounds are joined by a hyphen and some are not. There are no rules

for the use of hyphens, e.g. wastewater, waste water, waste-water. 2. The first half of a compound is never plural, e.g., a student hostel, a 50-centimeter ruler.

97

3. The relationship between the two nouns forming the compound can take many different forms, e.g., an oilcan, oil exports, an oilfield, oil pollution, an oil heater, an oil expert.

1. Find the compound nouns in the text and underline them. 2. See the word explanations in the pre-reading part of this unit and the

vocabulary at the end of this unit and try to explain the meanings of the following compounds by using similar defining clauses. E.g., A sewage treatment facility is a facility for processing sewage.

storm runoff on-site sewage disposal system channel drainage backwater gate surface water sludge digestion runoff problem household wastewater plumbing wastewater disposal sewage treatment facility

3. Explain the difference in the meaning of these expressions:

channel drainage and drainage channel surface water and water surface treatment facility and facility treatment

98

Vocabulary attenuation stenšovanie, zmenšovanie, zoslabovanie backup nahromadenie backwater gate vodné vráta, spätná klapka, priepust, uzáver branch sewer vedľajší stokový kanál cast-in-place concrete sewers monolitné betónové kanály cesspool, cesspit žumpa, kalová jama conduit potrubie, rúra, kanál convey, v. dopravovať, transportovať conveyance doprava, transport drain, v. odvodňovať drainage odvodňovanie, kanalizácia drainage channel odvodňovací kanál dry weather flow bezdažďový prietok, minimálny prietok ductile iron kujné železo eradicate eliminovať, vylúčiť, odstrániť, zlikvidovať flooding zaplavenie flow prúd, tok flow rate prietok gabion drátkoštrková hať grinder drvič, šrotovník, mlynček, brúsny kotúč channel žľab, priekopa, kanál (otvorený) channel drainage odvodňovanie kanálom, žľabom in-line storage lineárna nádrž interceptor záchytná stoka lateral sewer bočná prípojka lining obklad mat izolačná krytina outfall sewer = relief sewer vypúšťací, odtokový kanál overflow prepad, odtoková komora plumbing domová inštalácia/kanalizácia, inštalácia potrubia runoff odtok sanitary sewers splašková kanalizácia septic tank septik sew, v. odvodňovať, vypúšťať sewage odpadová voda sewer stoka, kanál sewer system kanalizačná sústava sewer tributary prítok, spádová prípojka sewerage kanalizácia, splašková voda sludge kal sludge digestion vyhnívanie kalu sod drn, drnová pokrývka storm water runoff odtok prívalových vôd swale močiar, terénny žľab treatment plant čistička odpadových vôd tributary area spádová oblasť trunk sewer hlavný, kmeňový kanál vitrified clay kameninová hlina

99

UNIT 16

Wastewater Treatment A. Read the article (Part I.) briefly and underline the key words in the text.

Explain their meaning. wastewater, pollution, contamination, damage, sewage treatment plant, solid, disposal, disease-producing organisms

B. Discuss.

1. Are natural water resources safe? Can you eat fish caught in the river Danube?

2. Have you heard of a case of natural water (streams, lakes, ponds or oceans) contamination? If so, where was it? Was there any damage to the water fauna or flora?

3. Where can the leakage of chemicals be critical? What can be done to prevent it?

4. Do you think treatment plants might help prevent such cases? 5. What are the conditions of wastewater treatment if you compare developed

countries and developing ones? Read the text. Part I. All municipal sewage and wastewater must eventually find their way into water courses or other bodies of water that constitute the natural drainage of a region. This can cause damage, including contamination and pollution of water supplies, swimming and bathing beaches; shellfish contamination, killing of fish, the creation of conditions offensive to sight or smell, and impairment of the use of natural waters for recreation, agriculture, commerce, or industry. The primary objective of sewage and wastewater treatment is to prevent such damage to receiving waters. However, only conveying the wastewater to the nearest treatment plant can solve this problem. Treatment plants are an integral part of an entire sewerage system. Thus, planning, development, and operation of sewage treatment plants depend upon the character of the collecting system and upon the means for ultimate disposal of the wastewaters. In choosing the treatment process to be employed and in determining the degree of treatment, consideration must be given to the location of the plant, the nature of its present and anticipated future surroundings, the character and waste assimilative capacity of the available receiving water body, and the uses to which these waters are to be put. The engineer who designs a treatment plant should be familiar with the regional water development and wastewater disposal plans. Civil and environmental engineers must master not only the technical details but also the economic and social implications of their planning. Therefore, they have

100

to seek the most economical and objective solutions to all the problems that are presented to them. The pollution content of sewage consists of organic and inorganic compounds, which exist partially as suspended solids (settled, suspended, or floating) that move with the water and partially as dissolved solids. There are also small living organisms (e.g. bacteria) that find nourishment in the sewage’s organic matter and may cause uncontrolled decomposition of sewage, resulting in offensive odor problems and an unsightly appearance. There is also the potential for the presence of disease-producing organisms. C. Match the following phrases from the article. 1. Municipal sewage and wastewater

must find a) to the nearest plant

2. contamination and pollution b) of the available receiving water body

3. conveying the wastewater c) the most economical and objective solution

4. operation of sewage treatment plants

d) their way into water courses.

5. the character and waste assimilative capacity

e) should be familiar with wastewater disposal plans

6. The engineer who designs a treatment plant

f) of water supplies

7. engineers have to seek g) may cause uncontrolled decomposition of sewage

8. small living organisms h) depend upon the character of the collecting system

101

D. Fill in the gaps with appropriate words However, only _________ the wastewater to the nearest treatment plant can solve this problem. Treatment plants are an integral part of an entire ___________ system. Thus, planning, development, and operation of sewage ___________ plants depend upon the character of the collecting system and upon the means for ultimate __________ of the wastewaters. In choosing the treatment process to be employed and in determining the degree of treatment, consideration must be given to the _________ of the plant, the nature of its present and anticipated future surroundings, the character and waste ___________ capacity of the available receiving water body, and the uses to which these waters are to be put. The engineer who designs a treatment plant should be familiar with the regional water development and __________ disposal plans. Civil and environmental engineers must master not only the technical details but also the economic and social __________of their planning. Therefore they have to seek the most economical and __________ solution to all the problems that are presented to them. The pollution content of sewage consists of organic and inorganic ___________, which exist partially as suspended solids (settled, suspended, or floating) that move with the water and partially as __________ solids. There are also small living organisms (e.g. bacteria) that find ____________ in the sewage’s organic matter and may cause uncontrolled ____________ of sewage, resulting in __________ odor problems and an ___________ appearance. There is also the potential for the presence of disease-producing organisms.

sewerage treatment location assimilative conveying disposal implications objective wastewater compounds nourishment offensive unsightly dissolved decomposition

Part II. The removal and stabilization of sewage materials is accomplished in treatment work that can be categorized into the following groups:

1. Mechanical processes: a) Screening: Because of their size the particles will be trapped on screens or

bar racks. Sand filters work predominantly in the same fashion. b) Flotation units: As a result of their buoyancy, pollutants will rise to the surface

where they can be skimmed off, for example, as in grease traps and skimming tanks.

c) Sedimentation tanks and clarifiers: Particles sink to the bottom of the tanks because of gravity.

2. Chemical processes: chemical additives enhance the ability of particles to settle or kill microorganisms (chlorine).

102

3. Biological processes: The life processes of nature are used in sewage purification: a) naturally in the soil or ponds and lagoons b) artificially on trickling filters, activated sludge units, or septic tanks.

The efficiency of the treatment plant as well as the effects on the environment and on the surrounding residential areas must be considered. Modern treatment plants are often partially automated and equipped with a number of telemetric sensors and measuring devices. The signals reflect the operating conditions of various units and are transmitted to a centrally located control room.

E. What kind of process do the following words describe?

Screening is the process of... Floating... Skimming... Sedimentation... Purification is the act of...

F. Fill in the gaps in the following paragraph with the correct word from the

following word couples.

1power/treatment, 2current/volume, 3charge/pay, 4money/charge, 5bills/material, 6sludge/water 7sewage/stormwater, , 8fares/fees, 9consumption/waste, 10irrigation/drying out

A 1_________ plant measures the incoming 2_________ from major pipes in order to track and 3________ customers. Generally the sewage 4__________ is actually paid as a surcharge on customers’ water 5________. The difference between incoming 6_________ and outgoing 7_________ is used to establish the sewage rate 8________ as a percentage of water use. The metering also gives administrators a means to measure water 9_________ and 10_________ of lawns and other diversions to the storm sewers.

G. Answer the following questions or follow the tasks.

1. What is the primary objective of sewage and wastewater treatment? 2. What can be damaged due to untreated wastewater getting into the bodies of

water? 3. What is an integral part of a sewerage system? 4. What do civil and environmental engineers need to consider in planning the

treatment process? 5. What substances can be found in sewage? 6. How are they treated? 7. What are the categories of sewage treatment work? 8. Describe the three types of mechanical processes. 9. Is implementing treatment plants in the sewerage system obligatory in our

country? 10. Why is it important to use a wastewater treatment plant as a part of the

sewerage system?

103

Technical texts contain a number of reductions that make them more concise. Gerunds (e.g. swimming), forms of the past participle (e.g. suspended), abstract nouns (e.g. contamination) and compound nouns (e.g. treatment plant) are used for this purpose.

H. Find as many of them as possible in both parts of the text. Gerunds Past participles Abstract nouns Compound nouns

104

Vocabulary bar rack výstužová mreža body of water objekt, nádrž buoyancy vztlak, plávateľnosť clarifier klarifikátor, usadzovacia nádrž constitute, v. tvoriť, vytvoriť, utvárať contamination znečistenie, zamorenie, kontaminácia convey, v. dopraviť, prepraviť, preniesť discharge, v. vypustiť, vyliať effluent odpadová voda, odtok feasible vhodný, uskutočniteľný flotation plávanie, vznášanie sa grease mastnota, tuk impairment poškodenie, zhoršenie implication asociácia, aspekt, dôsledok leakage presakovanie, unikanie, netesnosť lift station zdvíhacia stanica municipal mestský, obecný, komunálny nourishment výživa odor/odour zápach, vôňa, aróma offensive úražlivý, útočný, pohoršujúci off-line nezapojený na ústredný počítač outlet výpust, odtok pollution znečistenie, zamorenie rack mreža screen pletivo, sito screening triedenie, preosievanie; sieťové pletivo, drôtené pletivo shellfish lastúrniky sink, sank, sunk klesnúť, ponoriť sa skim off, v. zbierať penu, odpeniť solid tuhá látka suspend, v. zadržať, prerušiť, zavesiť, visieť suspended solid nerozpustná látka trap lapač, zachytávač trickling filter biologický filter ultimate konečný, najvzdialenejší unsightly nepekný, škaredý, neestetický water course vodný tok watershed rozvodie, povodie

105

UNIT 17

Dams A. Think about the topic and answer the following questions.

1. What is the purpose of building dams? 2. What are the positive and negative effects of dams on the environment? 3. Give a few examples of dams in Slovakia or abroad.

B. Say if the sentences are true or false. Then read the text and correct the

false ones.

1. A dam is a barrier across flowing water that speeds up the flow of water. 2. Dam construction dates back to 3000 B.C. 3. In some places dams constituted the beginning of new towns or cities. 4. The best place for building a dam is a shallow part of a watercourse. 5. The seismic stability of a dam’s location is important. 6. Embankment dams are cheaper to build because they are made of concrete. 7. Arch dams are curved. 8. The only purpose for building dams is the generation of electric power.

1_______________________ A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow of water; it often creats a reservoir, lake or impoundment. 2_______________________ There are quite a few reasons for building dams. A dam can be a reservoir of the water supply for households and industry as well as for irrigation in agriculture. It also plays a role in flood control, serves to generate hydroelectric power, enhances river navigation, and creates a habitat for fish and wildlife. In some locations they are just used as a recreation area for leisure activities. 3_______________________ Dams were first built in Mesopotamia and the Middle East to control water levels in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In Jordan there are remains of the earliest known dam, the Jawa Dam, which dates back to 3000 B.C. In ancient Egypt, about 25 km south of Cairo, the Sadd el-Kafara diversion dam was built to control floods. It was built around 2650 B.C., but was destroyed by heavy rains during its construction or shortly afterwards. The Romans introduced the concept of large reservoir dams, which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements during the dry season. Examples of such dams include the Lake Homs Dam or the Harbaqa Dam, both built in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam, with a height of 50 m, was the Subiaco Dam near Rome, which was destroyed in 1305. Dams were often applied to block rivers in order to regulate the water level in the Netherlands, which is a low-lying country. Dams also prevent the sea from entering marshes. Such dams

106

characterized the beginning of new towns or cities, and the word “dam”, which has the same meaning as in English, was often part of a place name, e.g., the Dutch capital of Amsterdam (old name: Amstelredam), which began with a dam through the river Amstel in the late 12th century. Rotterdam is a city where a dam was built on the river Rotte. 4_______________________ The best place for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley, but there are a few engineering factors to be taken into account in the selection of a location such as the permeability of the surrounding rock or soil, seismic stability and possible earthquake faults, slope stability and landslides, and peak flood flows. 5________________________ Based on the building material used, dams can be classified as embankment dams or concrete dams. Considering the type of construction, there are four major classes of dams: embankment, gravity, arch and buttress. Embankment dams, which are also called earth-fill dams, are constructed of compacted earth, rock or both. They have a triangular-shaped profile and are typically used to retain water across broad rivers. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, such as gravity dams made from concrete. The material used makes them cheaper to construct; as a result, more than 80 percent of all large dams are of this type. The Aswan High Dam across the river Nile is a typical example of an embankment dam.

Gravity dams consist of thick, vertical walls of concrete built across relatively narrow river valleys with a firm bedrock. Their weight alone is great enough to resist overturning or sliding tendencies due to horizontal loads imposed by upstream water. They are expensive to build because they require a huge mass of concrete. Nevertheless, many people prefer their solid appearance to the thinner arch or buttress dam. A typical example of a solid gravity dam is the Hoover Dam or the Grand Coulee Dam. The Itaipu Dam is an example of a hollow gravity dam. A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam, i.e., an arch-gravity dam, for areas with massive amounts of water flow, but less material available for a purely gravity dam.

Arch dams are curved and limited to narrow canyons with strong rock walls that can resist the thrust of the arch at the foundation and sides of the dam. They are built of concrete, and their stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. The safety of an arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments; not only should the arch be well situated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected. There are quite a few types of arch dams, such as single arch dams, double-curvature or thin-shell dams, or multiple arch dams. They are similar types of dams that minimize the amount of concrete necessary for construction, but transmit loads to the foundation and abutments.

Buttress dams are essentially hollow gravity dams constructed of steel-reinforced concrete or timber. They may be flat or curved, and supported by a series of buttresses that brace the dam on the downstream side.

107

A cofferdam is usually a temporary barrier constructed to exclude water from an area that is normally submerged. They are commonly made of wood, concrete or steel sheet piling and are used to enable construction of the foundation of permanent dams, bridges or similar structures. When the project is completed, the cofferdam may be demolished or removed. 6___________________ When a dam is put into operation, water is released from the upstream reservoir over a spillway or through gates in a manner to satisfy the intended objectives. The operating rules for maximizing power generation, for example, include maintaining the hydraulic head. In contrast, water levels in flood control reservoirs must be periodically reduced to allow for new storage during anticipated periods of flood hazards. Operating issues, however, can easily become complex and highly politicized and may be difficult to resolve. This is particularly true for river systems containing several reservoirs, and for dams serving multiple purposes, and in cases where adverse social, ecological, and environmental impacts are significant.

C. Read the text again and choose the logical heading for each part.

1. Important factors to consider in the location of dams. 2. Definition of a dam. 3. Operating issues. 4. Classification of dams. 5. Historical outline of dam construction. 6. Purposes of building dams.

D. Reading Comprehension. Answer the following questions or fulfill the tasks.

1. Name 4 functions of dams. 2. Give 5 – 7 reasons for building dams. 3. When and where were dams first built? 4. Which place names contain the word “dam” and why? 5. What is the best place for building a dam? 6. What 4 factors should be considered in the selection of the location for a dam? 7. How can dams be classified on the basis of the material used? 8. Name 4 major classes of dams. 9. Analyze the important facts about each type of dam and fill in the table.

E. Using the information about dams complete this table.

Dam class Structural features

Material Location Positives/Negatives

Embankment

Gravity

Arch

Buttress

108

F. Fill in the gaps in the sentences using the words from the text.

remains marsh habitat irrigation buttress flood thrust abutment bedrock reservoir

1. __________ is the word for bringing water to soil through a system of pipes in order to make crops grow.

2. __________ is an artificial or natural lake where water is stored so that it can be supplied to the houses in an area.

3. __________ is the type of place that an animal normally lives in or a plant normally grows in.

4. __________ mean the part of something that is left after the rest has been finished, used, or destroyed.

5. __________ is a large amount of water that covers an area that was dry before.

6. __________ is an area of soft wet land. 7. __________ is the solid rock under the ground that supports the soil above it. 8. __________ is a quick hard push. 9. ___________ is the place where each of the parts of a canyon or the like

receives the thrust of an arch dam. 10. ___________ is any external prop or support built to steady a structure by

opposing its outward thrusts.

G. Match the attributes (adjectives or nouns) with the nouns.

environmental settlements power navigation water impacts flood barrier urban season river generation dry hazards temporary level

H. Fill in the missing prepositions.

1. A dam is a barrier ________ the flowing water. 2. There are a few reasons ________ building dams. 3. A few engineering factors should be taken ______account in the selection

____ a location. 4. It plays its role _______ flood control. 5. Dams prevent the sea ________ entering marshes. 6. Earth-fill dams are constructed _______ compacted earth, rock or both. 7. A cofferdam is usually a temporary barrier constructed _______ exclude water

________ an area that is normally submerged. 8. When a dam is put ______ operation, water is released _______ the

upstream reservoir ______ a spillway or _______ gates in a manner to satisfy intended objectives.

109

I. Discuss. What is the impact of huge dams on the environment, the economy and the population? Find some examples of dams that were or are being built in our country or somewhere else in the world. What positives or negatives were related to these structures?

110

Vocabulary

abutment opora, pätka klenby arch dam klenbová priehrada barrier prekážka, zábrana, ohradenie bedrock skalné podložie brace výstuž, vzpera; vystužiť buttress dam pilierová (gravitačná) priehrada cofferdam ochranná hrádza dam priehrada, hrádza; prehradiť embankment dam sypaná zemná priehrada enhance zdokonaliť, zlepšiť flood zplava, povodeň, potopa generate vytvárať, generovať, produkovať gravity dam gravitačná priehrada habitat prirodzené prostredie, biotop hydraulic head hydraulické vzdutie impoundment vodná zdrž, irrigation zavlažovanie marsh močiar, bažina, mokraď obstruct zatarasiť, zablokovať peak vrchol, maximum, najvyšší stupeň release uvoľniť, prepustiť, vypustiť remains (pl.) zvyšky, trosky, zrúcanina retain uchovať, zadržať, ponechať si retard spomaliť, brzdiť slide kĺzať sa, pošmyknúť sa; šmyk, pokles spillway prepad, preliv, výpustný objekt steel sheet piling oceľová hnaná výstuž, štetová stena submerge ponoriť, potopiť, zaplaviť thrust nápor, sila; vraziť, strčiť upstream horný tok rieky

111

UNIT 18

Environmental Issues and Engineering

Part 1 What is the environment? An environment represents the conditions and influences of a place in which an organism lives. The large number of different types of environments, e.g., urban environments, tropical rainforest environments, etc., makes it impossible to formulate a single definition. The relationship between living organisms and their environment forms part of the subject of ecology. All over the world, wildlife is being threatened because habitats and woodlands are being destroyed. Rainforests are being cut down so that people can use the land to grow crops. Many animal and plant species have become extinct, and many more are endangered, so they need legal protection if they are to survive. Some people believe that global warming will produce rising sea levels and climate change and that carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels are contributing to the greenhouse effect. Acid rain, which contains acid from factory smoke, causes damage to trees, rivers, and buildings. The world’s population is growing and puts pressure on the limited resources of the Earth. A. Choose the correct option.

1. Animals, birds, and plants that live in natural conditions are called:

a) habitats b) woodlands c) wildlife 2. The process in which heat is unable to escape from the atmosphere and

causes the temperature of the Earth to rise is: a) global warming b) the greenhouse effect c) acid rain

3. A forest in a tropical region of the world where it rains a lot is: a) a tropical rainforest b) woodlands c) forestry

4. The study of the environment and the way plants, animals, and humans live together and affect each other is called: a) environmentalism b) green peace c) ecology

5. The slow increase in the temperature of the Earth caused by the increased amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is: a) global warming b) the greenhouse effect c) global effect

6. The type of place that an animal normally lives in or a plant normally grows in is its: a) habitation b) habitat c) habit

7. Many animal and plant species need protection by: a) the courts and governments b) the Church c) the media

8. Something that has died out and is no longer in existence is: a) extinct b) exit c) exist

9. Something or someone that is threatened with extinction is: a) damaged b) destroyed c) endangered

112

B. Answer the following questions and discuss.

1. Which of the problems mentioned in the above text do you find the most serious?

2. Does education play any role in people’s attitude toward the environment? 3. Can an individual do anything to protect the environment? 4. What do you personally do to protect the environment?

Let us give you a few suggestions: •••• Switch the lights off when you leave the room and switch off electric

appliances whenever possible. •••• Do not waste water; let it run only when necessary. Check if your water taps

are leaking. •••• Walk to school or use public transport; it is more environmentally friendly

than going by car. •••• Reuse plastic shopping bags, and when they are too damaged, put them in

the recycling bin. •••• Use “green” products whenever it is possible. •••• Put paper, glass, cans and plastic into special bins to be recycled.

What is environmental engineering? Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the environment, provide healthful water, air and land for human habitation and other organisms, and investigate the possibilities for remediation of polluted places. As long as people have recognized that their health and well-being are related to the quality of their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to improve its quality. The Romans constructed aqueducts to prevent drought and create a clean healthful water supply for the metropolis of Rome. Bavaria in the 15th century created laws restricting the development and degradation of the alpine country that contained the region’s water supply. Modern environmental engineering began in London in the middle of the 19th century when it was realized that proper sewerage could reduce the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera or typhoid fever. The introduction of treatment of drinking water and sewage in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities. These days engineers and scientists assess the impacts of proposed projects on environmental conditions. They evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts on water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, noise impacts, visual impacts, etc. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to prevent such impacts. Engineers and scientists also work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for its end users. Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly on the land through outhouses or septic tanks, but rather deposit such waste into water and convey it from households by means of sewer systems.

113

C. Say if these sentences are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. The health and well-being of people are not related to the quality of their environment.

2. The Romans constructed aqueducts to prevent floods. 3. In the past people were interested in the quality of their environment. 4. Typhoid is a waterborne disease. 5. The impact of new projects on the environment is not taken into consideration. 6. In developed countries people discharge human waste directly on the land. 7. Human waste should be treated and detoxified before it is discharged into a

river or ocean system. D. Match the words in column A to the gaps in column B.

A B

1) potable a) ___________ is a reduction of an unpleasant, harmful or serious situation.

2) habitation b) __________ is a long period of dry weather when there is not enough water for plants and animals to live.

3) waste c) _________ is an underground pipe or passage that carries waste water and refuse.

4) pollution d) ___________ is the study of the environment and the way plants, animals, and humans live together and affect each other.

5) aqueduct e) __________ is unwanted materials or substances that are left after you have used something

6) drought f) __________ is the act of living in a place. 7) mitigation g) __________ is a structure like a bridge, used to carry a

water supply across valley. 8) sewer h) __________ water is suitable for drinking. 9) ecology i) __________ is the process of making air, water, soil, etc.

dangerously dirty and not suitable for people to use. E. Match the synonyms or words with similar meanings.

1) impact a) supply 2) assess b) release 3) clean c) occupancy 4) provide d) methods 5) habitation e) carry 6) polluted f) influence 7) measures g) uncontaminated 8) treatment h) consider 9) discharge i) handling 10) convey j) contaminated

114

Vocabulary

acid rain kyslý dážď adverse nepriaznivý, škodlivý aqueduct akvadukt assess, v. stanoviť, určiť, ohodnotiť carbon dioxide oxid uhličitý contain, v. obsahovať, zahŕňať contribute, v. prispieť, prispievať convey, v. dopraviť, prepraviť, preniesť crop plodina, úroda cut down, ph.v. zoťať, stínať; znížiť degradation rozpad, rozklad, degradácia, zníženie destroy, v. zničiť, rozbiť discharge, v. vypustiť, vyliať disposal likvidácia, odstránenie drought sucho emission emisia, vypúšťanie, vyžarovanie endanger, v. ohroziť, vystaviť nebezpečenstvu environment prostredie; životné prostredie fossil fuel fosílne palivo global warming globálne otepľovanie grade sklon, spád, svah, stupeň greenhouse effect skleníkový efekt habitat nálezisko, lokalita, prostredie habitation osídlenie, bydlisko, sídlo impact vplyv, dopad incidence výskyt incineration spaľovanie (odpadu) investigate, v. vyšetrovať, pátrať, preskúmať law právo, zákon legal právny, zákonný, legálny litter smeti, odpadky mitigation zmiernenie (následkov, bolesti) occupancy obývanie, užívanie, obsadenie outhouse vonkajší záchod, latrína potable pitný (voda) pressure tlak prevent, v. zabrániť, zamedziť, predísť realize, v. uvedomiť si, chápať; uskutočniť recognize, v. spoznať, zistiť, pripustiť, uznať remediation revitalizácia, ozdravenie resource zdroj rubbish odpad, smeti, hlušina septic tank septik, vyhnívacia nádrž sewage treatment úprava odpadovej vody sewerage kanalizácia, kanalizačné splašky sewer system kanalizačný systém species druh (živočíšny, rastlinný) supply zásoba, dodávka, prísun

115

survive, v. prežiť, zostať nažive, vydržať thoughtful ohľaduplný, pozorný, zamyslený threaten, v. ohroziť, ohrozovať, zastrašiť tropical rainforest tropický dažďový prales typhoid týfus urban mestský waterborne disease choroba prenášajúca sa vodou water treatment úprava vody wildlife divá zver, život vo voľnej prírode woodland lesnatý kraj, zalesnená oblasť

116

Part 2

Waste Management Waste management is the process of managing waste materials that are produced as a result of human activities. It involves the collection, transport, processing and/or disposal of waste materials. Waste management practices are often very different between urban and rural areas and between residential and industrial producers, even in the same local region. There are various waste management concepts. One of them is represented by the term ‘3Rs’, or ‘Reduce – Reuse – Recycle’, which practically means to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. There is a new practice of holding the producer of a product responsible to some extent for the management of waste products associated with that product, e.g., motor vehicles, large appliances, like ovens and refrigerators, tyres, electronic equipment, including computers, and mobile phones. Domestic, industrial and commercial waste is collected and then removed. The removal of waste is called waste disposal. Collection and disposal methods vary widely between different countries and regions. In large countries with a low population, solid waste is carried to landfills. Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most countries. Disposed waste should be compacted and covered to prevent problems with pests, rats and wind-blown litter. A modern and well-run landfill should include methods to prevent leakage. In smaller countries with a high population density, incineration is the most common method of disposing of waste. It is the process of destroying waste by burning it, which might be harmful for the environment if pollution control measures are not applied. A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste material as a resource to be exploited, and some developed countries have developed methods by which resources may be extracted from waste. The most environmentally friendly method of getting rid of waste is to recycle it, which means to reuse the materials that would otherwise be considered waste. The most common items recycled include glass and plastic bottles, paper in any form, aluminium cans and, more recently, obsolete computers, kitchen appliances or other electronic equipment.

A. Find words or expressions in the article which mean:

1. typical of the countryside (par. 1) 2. area in which most buildings are houses (par. 1) 3. the control and operation of a business or organization (par. 2) 4. made smaller or firmer by pressing it (par. 3) 5. the process of seeping out, escaping (par. 3) 6. no longer used because replaced by something newer and more effective

(par. 3)

B. Choose the best answer to each question.

117

1. What is waste management? a) It is the process of generating a maximum amount of waste. b) It is the process of managing waste materials by the collection, transport,

processing and disposal of waste material. c) It is the transportation of waste to landfills.

2. What are the producers of a product responsible for in terms of waste management? a) They are responsible for recycling waste associated with their

production. b) They are not responsible for anything. c) They are responsible to some extent for the management of the waste

products associated with that product. 3. What was the traditional way of managing domestic, industrial and commercial

waste? a) Domestic, industrial and commercial waste was collected and recycled,

respectively. b) Domestic, industrial and commercial waste was collected and composted,

respectively. c) Domestic, industrial and commercial waste was collected and sent to a

landfill, respectively. 4. What is the most common method of waste disposal in small and densely

populated countries? a) Incineration. b) Land fills. c) Recycling.

5. Which method is the most traditional and cheapest way of waste disposal? a) Composting. b) Land fills. c) Collecting.

6. Why should disposed waste in landfills be covered? a) To prevent people stealing any items from them. b) To prevent spreading a bad odour. c) To prevent rats, pests and wind-blown litter.

7. Why is recycling considered an efficient method of waste disposal? a) Because the waste materials may be treated as a resource to be exploited. b) Because recycling is a very cheap method of waste disposal. c) Because people cannot do anything else with waste.

C. Mark the odd word in the line. rats pests mice dogs incineration landfill covering composting furniture magazines newspapers paperboard pollution contamination prevention smog waste bin rubbish litter plastic bottles computers mobile phones refrigerators disposal removal elimination addition generate produce destroy make incinerate extinguish burn cremate

118

reduce recycle reuse reprocess

D. Read the text again and complete the sentences.

1. Waste management involves ___________, ___________, ___________ and ___________ of waste materials.

2. One concept of waste management is the concept of ‘3Rs’, which means ___________, ___________, ___________.

3. In compliance with a new practice, ____________ of a product are held responsible to some extent for the ___________ of __________ __________.

4. Managing domestic, industrial and commercial waste has traditionally consisted of ___________, followed by ___________.

5. _____________ means burying waste in a large hole in the ground. 6. A well-run ___________ can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method

of ___________ of waste materials. 7. Disposed waste should be ___________ and covered to prevent problems

with ________ and ___________ litter. 8. ____________ is the process of destroying waste by burning it. 9. The most environmentally friendly method of __________ ____ of waste is to

___________ it. 10. A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste

material as a __________ to be exploited. E. Decide which waste management practices are more preferable and why. Waste Management

Practice Pros Cons

Open dumps

Covered landfills

Incineration

Composting

Recycling

119

Vocabulary acid rain kyslý dážď adverse nepriaznivý, škodlivý appliance prístroj, spotrebič, zariadenie aqueduct akvadukt assess, v. stanoviť, určiť, ohodnotiť associate, v. spájať si čo s čím benefit úžitok, osoh, prínos blow, blew, blown fúkať, viať, duť, vháňať vzduch bury, v. zakopávať, pochovať carbon dioxide oxid uhličitý collection zhromažďovanie, zber, zbierka, zbieranie combustion spaľovanie, horenie compact, v. tlačiť, lisovať, zhutniť concept pojem, myšlienka, chápanie contain, v. obsahovať, zahŕňať contribute, v. prispieť, prispievať convey, v. dopraviť, prepraviť, preniesť crop plodina, úroda cut down, ph.v. zoťať, stínať; znížiť degradation rozpad, rozklad, degradácia, zníženie destroy, v. zničiť, rozbiť discharge, v. vypustiť, vyliať disposal likvidácia, odstránenie disposal likvidácia, odstránenie dispose, v. usporiadať, smerovať, rozmiestniť drought sucho elaborate, v. rozpracovať, rozvinúť, prepracovať emission emisia, vypúšťanie, vyžarovanie endanger, v. ohroziť, vystaviť nebezpečenstvu environment prostredie; životné prostredie extract, v. získať, vyťažiť fossil fuel fosílne palivo generate, v. vytvoriť, vyvolať, spôsobiť get rid of, ph.v. zbaviť sa čoho global warming globálne otepľovanie grade sklon, spád, svah, stupeň greenhouse effect skleníkový efekt habitat nálezisko, lokalita, prostredie habitat nálezisko, lokalita, prostredie habitation osídlenie, bydlisko, sídlo habitation osídlenie, bydlisko, sídlo hold responsible dávať zodpovednosť za čo impact vplyv, dopad incidence výskyt incineration spaľovanie (odpadu) incineration spaľovanie (odpadu) investigate, v. vyšetrovať, pátrať, preskúmať item predmet, položka, kus

120

landfill skládka (odpadu) law právo, zákon leakage únik, vytekanie, presakovanie legal právny, zákonný, legálny litter smeti, odpadky litter smeti, odpadky mitigation zmiernenie (následkov, bolesti) obsolete zastaraný, prekonaný occupancy obývanie, užívanie, obsadenie outhouse vonkajší záchod, latrína pest drobný škodca potable pitný (voda) potable pitný (voda) pressure tlak prevent, v. zabrániť, zamedziť, predísť process, v. spracovať realize, v. uvedomiť si, chápať; uskutočniť recognize, v. spoznať, zistiť, pripustiť, uznať remediation revitalizácia, ozdravenie resource zdroj rubbish odpad, smeti, hlušina rubbish odpad, smeti, hlušina seep out presakovať, prenikať, unikať septic tank septik, vyhnívacia nádrž sewage treatment úprava odpadovej vody sewer system kanalizačný systém sewerage kanalizácia, kanalizačné splašky species druh (živočíšny, rastlinný) supply zásoba, dodávka, prísun survive, v. prežiť, zostať nažive, vydržať thoughtful ohľaduplný, pozorný, zamyslený threaten, v. ohroziť, ohrozovať, zastrašiť tropical rainforest tropický dažďový prales typhoid týfus tyre, Br / tire, Am pneumatika urban mestský water treatment úprava vody waterborne disease choroba prenášajúca sa vodou wildlife divá zver, život vo voľnej prírode woodland lesnatý kraj, zalesnená oblasť

121

UNIT 19

Alternative Sources of Energy A. Answer the following questions.

1. What gives energy to our bodies? 2. What forms of energy do you know? 3. Is there enough energy around the world?

B. Match the words with the definitions.

1. alternative (adj.) a) a substance, especially gas, that goes into the air

2. energy (n.) b) regular rise and fall of the sea under the gravitational pull of the moon

3. emissions (n.pl) c) can be replaced by natural processes; it is never used up

4. generate (v.) d) different from something else, not traditional

5. tide (n.) e) to get control of something in order to use it for a particular purpose

6. harness (v.) f) produce or create something

7. renewable (adj.) g) electricity and other forms of power used for making things work

What is energy? The word is taken from the Greek “energos”, which means “active, working”. It can be characterized as the physical and mental strength that makes you able to be active, or in other words, it is the ability to do work. Energy comes in many different forms, such as kinetic, thermal, electrical and nuclear energy and surrounds us in all aspects of our life. Harnessing it is a challenge for mankind. Energy may be converted from one form to another, but it is never created or destroyed. Like the conquest of an empire, the domination of energy has demanded large amounts of time, effort, research and experimentation. The first battle was won when man tried to use animal energy to move things instead of his own muscles. In recent times, three energy generators have been used by man: electricity, steam and motors. There is a great demand for energy production. Energy consumed as ‘heat’ is mainly used to heat rooms; ‘kinetic energy’ is principally employed to operate vehicles; and ‘electrical energy’ is used to produce light and operate electronic appliances. Since the early/mid 1800s, fossil fuels such as wood, coal, petroleum or natural gas have been mainly used to produce energy, but they have resulted in environmental problems such as polluted air and global warming. Therefore, one of

122

the most important things we can do is use renewable forms of energy and support alternative energy sources. C. Replace each underlined word with one of the words from the list below.

Use it in its correct grammar form. unconventional, need, control, change, utilize, fight, dynamic, cause

1. Energy is the physical and mental strength that makes you active. 2. Harnessing the energy is the challenge for mankind. 3. Energy may be converted from one form to another. 4. Domination of energy has demanded large amount of time, effort, research

and experimentation. 5. The first battle was won when man used animal energy to move things. 6. There is a great demand for energy production. 7. Using fossil fuels to produce energy resulted in environmental problems. 8. People all over the world should support alternative energy sources.

D. Put the following words in the correct order to make sentences.

1. forms / Energy / different / many / comes / in 2. never / is / or / Energy / created / destroyed 3. People / things / move / animal / energy / used / to 4. light / produce / energy / Electric / to / used / is 5. fuels / caused / Burning / warming / of / fossil / global 6. most / is / renewable / things / One / important / the / of / of / forms / use /

energy Alternative energy refers to energy sources which are not based on the burning of fossil fuels or the splitting of atoms. The renewed interest in this field of study comes from the undesirable effects of pollution, both from burning fossil fuels and nuclear waste byproducts. Fortunately, there are many means of harnessing energy which have less damaging impacts on our environment. There are some possible alternatives, such as hydropower, solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, tidal energy, and waste utilization.

E. Try to figure out which energy sources are described in the following

paragraphs. Choose the correct option. 1. This is the most controversial source of energy, produced through controlled

reactions in the nucleus of the atoms of certain substances, such as uranium or plutonium. Although it is very clean, some people think it is too dangerous. Nevertheless, some countries, such as France, use it extensively because of its high efficiency. a) solar power b) thermal power c) nuclear power

2. This is the most traditional form of energy, which uses coal, oil or natural gas as fuel. Electricity is obtained from generators driven by steam turbines. Although very effective, it represents one of the major sources of air pollution. a) geo-thermal energy b) thermal power c) nuclear power

123

3. This is a form of hydropower that exploits the rise and fall in sea levels due to the movement of water caused by the interaction between the gravity of the Earth, Moon and Sun. This energy is essentially inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy source. Although not yet widely used, this power has great potential for future energy generation and is more predictable than other renewable forms of energy. a) hydraulic power b) solar power c) tidal power

Since ancient Egypt, people have used the energy of flowing water to operate machinery and grind grain. However, hydropower has had the greatest influence on people’s lives during the 20th century. It has played a major role in making the wonders of electricity a part of everyday life and helped spur industrial development. Hydropower continuously produces 24 percent of the world’s electricity and supplies more than 1 billion people with electric energy. Hydropower converts the energy of flowing water into electricity. It comes from damming rivers and utilizing the potential energy stored in the water. As the water stored behind a dam is released at high pressure, its kinetic energy is transferred to turbine blades and used to generate electricity. This system has enormous costs at the beginning, but has relatively low maintenance costs and provides power quite cheaply. F. Find the correct ending of the sentence.

1. A structure that uses a water wheel or turbine to drive a mechanical process such as flour or lumber production or metal shaping is called: a) a watermill b) a watergate c) a millstone

2. The waterwheel was first used: a) in the Modern Era b) in the Medieval Era c) Before Christ

3. Watermills a) do not exist anymore b) are obsolete c) are efficient energy generators

4. Hydropower covers: a) nearly one quarter of world’s electricity production

b) nearly one third of world’s electricity production c) a minor amount of world’s electricity production

Solar energy is one of the most promising sources of energy for the future. The use of solar energy can be either passive or active. If the heat from direct solar radiation is used in the appropriate construction and orientation of buildings without further technical measures, we talk about the utilization of passive solar energy. However, many technologies have been developed to make use of solar radiation. Some of these technologies, such as solar collectors, are being used to heat rooms or water, while others produce electricity. Solar energy could be used to run cars, power plants, and spacecraft. Wind power is another alternative energy source and could be used without producing byproducts that are harmful to nature. Electricity generated by wind turbines is absolutely free of emissions, although research is still needed on reducing the noise levels of the turbines. Like solar power, harnessing the wind is highly dependent upon the weather and the location. The application of wind energy

124

converters is attractive only in areas with a high average wind speed, e.g., coastal regions. However, wind turbines can spoil the view of the landscape; aesthetics are therefore another big problem in using wind power. G. Fill in the proper word or expression. Choose from the following word list.

generate, rooms, solar, operate, wind, water, sun, collectors, alternative

1. The use of _________ energy can be active or passive. 2. Solar energy uses radiation emitted by the _______. 3. Solar __________ are mainly used to heat __________ or __________. 4. Wind power is used in large scale ________ farms for national electrical grids. 5. Wind energy was originally used to _________ mechanical machinery to do

physical work, such as crushing grain or pumping water. Geothermal energy is an alternative energy source, although it is not plentiful enough to replace more than a minor amount of future energy needs. Geothermal energy is obtained from the internal heat of the planet and can be used to generate steam to run a steam turbine. This in turn generates electricity. Furthermore, geothermal energy can be used for heating houses and other buildings, the direct heating of greenhouses, or keeping roads free of snow and ice with heat pipes. Tidal energy generators are similar to the more conventional hydroelectric power dams. The tidal process utilizes the natural motion of the tides to fill reservoirs, which are then slowly discharged through electricity-producing turbines. The conversion of waste products into useful forms of energy usually requires only low additional costs, compared to other methods of disposal; the resulting energy is usually quite inexpensive and is generated in a considerable amount. For this reason, waste utilization is the second largest source of renewable energy after hydropower. However, it is important to find an environmentally acceptable technology for this energy-generating process. H. Say if the sentence is true or false. Correct the false sentences.

1) Energy can be destroyed. 2) The demand for energy around the world is rising. 3) Kinetic energy is used to produce light. 4) Thermal power plants produce nuclear waste. 5) People have used water energy since ancient times. 6) Cars could run on solar energy. 7) Wind power is independent of its location. 8) We can use tidal power in our country. 9) Waste can be used for energy generation.

I. Choose the correct option.

1) Kinetic energy is employed

to heat rooms/to operate vehicles/to produce light. 2) Burning fossil fuels

125

is an alternative energy source/is a very efficient method of energy generation/has resulted in environmental problems.

3) Waste utilization/wind power/incineration is the second largest source of renewable energy after hydroelectricity.

4) Solar power and harnessing the wind are highly dependent upon modern appliances/the weather and location/energy absorption.

5) Geothermal energy can completely replace/can replace only a minor amount/can replace a major amount of future energy needs.

6) The conversion of waste products into useful forms of energy requires low additional costs/would be very inefficient/is very expensive.

J. Match the words with the same or similar meaning.

1. produce a) change 2. energy b) influence 3. harness c) stimulate 4. convert d) release 5. waste e) velocity 6. impact f) power 7. spur g) generate 8. enormous h) garbage 9. speed i) utilize 10. discharge j) huge

K. Topics for discussion

1) What can you do to save energy? What do you personally do? 2) Can one person make a difference in a global world? How? 3) Do you think nuclear energy is clean? Is it a good alternative? 4) Which of the alternative energy sources do you find the most efficient or

practical for the future? 5) Which of the alternative energy sources discussed have been used in our

country? In which places? Have you any knowledge of other countries’ utilization of alternative sources?

126

Vocabulary

average priemer, priemerný blade lopatka (turbíny), čepeľ, plocha stebla byproduct vedľajší produkt conquest dobytie, podrobenie, získanie convert, v. premeniť, zmeniť, pretvoriť converter konvertor, transformátor, menič (prúdu) dam, v. prehradiť, zatarasiť decomposition rozkladanie, rozklad dump skládka, hromada odpadkov, smetisko emit, v. vydávať, vysielať, vyžarovať fossil fuels fosilné, pevné palivo (uhlie, ropa, zemný plyn) generate, v. vyrobiť, vyrábať, tvoriť grain Zrno, obilie, pšenica (AmE) greenhouse skleník grind, v. ground, ground zomlieť, rozdrviť harmful škodlivý harness, v. využiť, spútať, pripojiť, pripútať impact vplyv, účinok incineration spaľovanie, horenie inexhaustible nevyčerpateľný, hojný landscape krajina, krajinka, krajinomaľba mankind ľudstvo operate, v. prevádzkovať, riadiť, fungovať, pracovať plentiful bohatý, hojný, plodný, úrodný power plant elektráreň predictable predvídateľný, očakávaný radiation žiarenie refer to, v. vzťahovať sa na čo, mať súvislosť s čím release, v. pustiť, uvoľniť, vypustiť renewable obnoviteľný result in, v. viesť k čomu, dopadnúť ako scale rozsah, škála, stupeň, stupnica spacecraft, pl. spacecraft kozmická loď, raketa split, v. štiepiť, deliť spoil, v. skaziť, pokaziť, zničiť, zmariť spur, v. ponúkať, poháňať, urýchliť steam para tidal prílivový, odlivový tide, (high tide, low tide) príliv, odliv undesirable nežiaduci, neprijateľný velocity rýchlosť

127

UNIT 20

Green Buildings A. Say if the sentences are true or false.

1. Green buildings reduce negative impacts on human health. 2. The operating costs of green buildings are higher. 3. Building materials for green buildings are imported from abroad. 4. Low-energy homes have to have good thermal insulation. 5. The orientation of windows is essential in a passive house design. 6. Solar water heating increases energy loads. 7. The heat island effect is positive.

B. Read the article and find out if you guessed correctly.

When we think of a “green” home, we usually get a picture of a shining new edifice made from straw bales, adobe or an experimental material, complete with solar electric panels and a high-tech heating system. A green building is the outcome of a design which focuses on increasing the efficiency of the use of resources – energy, water and materials; at the same time reducing negative impacts on human health and the environment through the selection of better sites, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal. An effective green building will result in reduced operating costs by increasing productivity and using less energy and water; improved health of the public and occupants due to improved indoor air quality; and reduced environmental impacts by lessening, for example, storm water runoff and the heat island effect. Green building practices aim to reduce the environmental impact of buildings, as buildings account for a large amount of land use, energy and water consumption, and air and changes in the air quality. As of 2006, buildings used 40 per cent of the total energy consumed in both the US and European Union in water and electricity. A huge amount of carbon dioxide production can also be attributed to residential, industrial or commercial buildings. According to the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), reducing the amount of natural resources buildings consume and the amount of pollution they give off is seen as crucial for future sustainability. A green building brings together a vast array of practices and techniques to reduce and ultimately eliminate the impacts of buildings on the environment and human health. Green builidngs often emphasize taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic techniques and using plants and trees through green roofs and rain gardens for reduction of rainwater run-off.

128

Building materials for green buildings should be extracted and locally manufactured near the building site to minimize the energy embedded in their transportation. Building materials typically considered to be “green” include rapidly renewable plant materials such as bamboo (because bamboo grows quickly) and straw, lumber, ecological blocks, dimension stone, recycled stone, recycled metal, and other products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable. Green buildings often include measures to reduce energy use. To increase the efficiency of a building envelope, they may use high-efficiency windows and insulation in walls, ceilings, and floors. Another strategy, passive solar building design, is often implemented in low-energy homes. Designers orientate windows and walls and place awnings, porches, and trees to shade windows and roofs during the summer while maximizing solar gain in the winter. In addition, effective window placement can provide more natural light and lessen the need for electric lighting during the day. Solar water heating further reduces energy loads. Finally, on-site generation of renewable energy through solar power, wind power, hydro power or biomass can significantly reduce the environmental impact of a building. Power generation is generally the most expensive feature to add to a building. C. Choose the correct meanings of the given words.

1. edifice

a) an electric appliance b) a large building c) a type of timber

2. lumber a) trees that have been cut down to be used as wood b) a plastic material used in civil engineering c) a tool used to maintain machines

3. bamboo a) material that the cell walls of plants are made of b) a tall tropical plant with hollow stems c) strong cloth used to make tents or bags

4. ceiling a) a grey powder made from lime or clay b) a piece of equipment for producing electricity from chemicals, heat or

light c) the inner surface of the top part of a room

5. awning a) a sheet of material outside a shop, tent to keep away the sun or the rain b) a covering that can be pulled down over a window c) a circular folding frame covered with cloth to provide shade from the

sun 6. porch

a) a structure you can stand on that sticks out from the upstairs wall of a building

b) an entrance covered by a roof outside the front door of a house or a church

129

c) a small building used for storing things 7. pollution

a) the gas or steam produced when an engine is working b) a substance that makes air, water and soil dangerously dirty c) the process of making air, water and soil dangerously dirty

8. adobe a) a hard block of baked clay used for building walls, houses, etc. b) a solid mass of hard material such as wood or stone with straight sides c) earth and straw that are made into bricks for building houses

D. Match the following phrases to complete sentences.

1. The design of green buildings

a) in decreased working expenses through higher efficiency.

2. Green buildings b) using up power and water, and changes in air quality.

3. An effective green building will result

c) is considered essential for future sustainability.

4. Public and occupant health will be better

d) two-fifths of overall energy used up in the US and EU in water and power.

5. Buildings account for a huge amount of land utilization,

e) focuses on saving resources.

6. As of 2006, buildings consumed

f) lays emphasis on making use of renewable resources.

7. Reducing the amount of pollution given off

g) due to better interior air conditions.

8. Green building design often h) reduce harmful effects on health and the environment.

E. Fill in the missing form.

noun verb maintenance removal operation construct alter production pollution transport reduction orient/orientate place consume generation

130

F. Answer the following questions.

1. What should the design of a green building focus on? 2. In which way can negative impacts on human health be reduced? 3. What will an effective green building result in? 4. What is negative about traditional buildings? 5. How much energy in water and electricity did buildings use in the EU and US

in 2006? 6. Do you think that situation has improved or worsened? 7. What practices can be used to reduce the impact of buildings on the

environment? 8. What can be done to increase the efficiency of a building envelope?

131

Vocabulary adobe nepálená tehla alteration zmena, obmena, adaptácia array zZoskupenie, rad awning plátená markíza, roleta bale bal bamboo bambus consumption spotreba crucial rozhodujúci, veľmi dôležitý dimension stone tesaný kameň, kváder edifice budova, stavba (veľká) efficiency efektívnosť embed vstavať, vložiť, zapustiť envelope obvodový plášť extract vytiahnuť, vybrať, extrahovať generation výroba, vytváranie give off vydávať, vypúšťať heating kúrenie, vyhrievanie impact vplyv, dopad implement uskutočniť, previesť, realizovať lessen zmenšiť, znížiť lumber rezivo, stavebné drevo occupant obyvateľ, nájomník, užívateľ outcome výsledok, záver pollution znečistenie porch Krytý vchod, prístrešok pred

vchodom, veranda removal odstránenie, odpratanie, odvoz renewable obnoviteľný residential obytný, bytový resource zdroj runoff odtok straw slama sustainability udržateľnosť take advantage využiť to be attributed to byť pripisovaný čomu ultimately konečne, definitívne, napokon

132

GLOSSARY A abandon, v. opustiť, zanechať, vzdať sa čoho abutment opora, podperný pilier access prístup, vstup accident nehoda, nešťastie, náhoda accomplish, v. vykonať, uskutočniť, dosiahnuť, zrealizovať acid kyselina acid rain kyslý dážď addition sčítanie adjacent vedľajší, priľahlý adjust upraviť, prispôsobiť admixture prísada, prímes adobe nepálená tehla adverse nepriaznivý, škodlivý affordable cenovo dostupný aggregate plnivo, kamenivo, štrkopiesok airtight vzduchotesný alteration zmena, obmena, adaptácia altitude nadmorská výška, výška (smerom hore) aluminum hliník anchor, v. ukotviť, pripevniť, upevniť anchorage kotvenie ancient starý, starodávny, staroveký angle uhol apiary včelín appeal výzva, naliehavá žiadosť apply, v. použiť, aplikovať, požiadať, týkať sa approximately približne aqueduct akvadukt arch bridge oblúkový most arch dam klenbová priehrada arid suchý, vyprahnutý, aridný arm rameno, výbežok array zZoskupenie, rad artificial umelý, neprirodzený assess posúdiť, odhadnúť, stanoviť assess, v. stanoviť, určiť, ohodnotiť attain, v. dosiahnuť, dostať sa (kam) attenuation stenšovanie, zmenšovanie, zoslabovanie available dostupný, k dispozícii average priemer, priemerný awning plátená markíza, roleta B backup nahromadenie backwater gate vodné vráta, spätná klapka, priepust, uzáver

133

bale bal bamboo bambus band pás, pruh, ozdobný pás bar žrď, tyč, závora bar rack výstužová mreža bare holý, obnažený bark kôra (stromu) barrier prekážka, zábrana, ohradenie bascule bridge zdvižný most base course podkladová vrstva, spodok basement suterén, základ, podstavec, spodok beacon maják beam nosník, trám beam bridge nosníkový most bear, v. uniesť, udržať, podopierať bearing capacity únosnosť bedrock podložie, skalný podklad bell tower zvonica bend zatáčka, zákruta, ohyb, oblúk bending ohýbanie, ohyb bent naklonený, zakrivený bind, v. spájať, zviazať, spojiť maltou, tmeliť binding/bonding väzba bituminous asfaltový blade lopatka (turbíny), čepeľ, plocha stebla blast odpáliť, vybuchnúť block of flats činžiak, obytný dom body of water objekt, nádrž bottom spodok, spodná časť, dno brace výstuž, vzpera; vystužiť branch sewer vedľajší stokový kanál break down (ph.v.) pokaziť sa (auto, zariadenie) brick tehla bricklayer murár bridge most brittle krehký broadcast rozhlasový brush krovinatý porast budget rozpočet building material stavebný materiál Building Structures and Architecture

Pozemné stavby a architektúra

Building Technology and Management

Technológie a manažérstvo stavieb

bulb žiarovka buoyancy vztlak, plávateľnosť bursar kvestor buttress dam pilierová (gravitačná) priehrada bypass objazd, obchvat byproduct vedľajší produkt

134

C cable-stayed bridge závesný most cadastre kataster caisson kesón calculate vypočítať cane trstina, rákosie cantilever konzola cantilever bridge konzolový most carbon dioxide oxid uhličitý carpenter tesár carriageway vozovka carry, v. niesť, nosiť, priniesť, priviesť cast iron liatina, liate železo cast, v. liať, odliať cast-in-place concrete sewers monolitné betónové kanály cat’s eye odrazka na vozovke caulk, v. utesniť, upchať cave jaskyňa ceiling strop cesspool, cesspit žumpa, kalová jama chalk krieda channel žľab, priekopa, kanál (otvorený) channel drainage odvodňovanie kanálom, žľabom charge elektrický náboj chip úlomok, črepina chord pás (nosníka), priehradový prút, rozpätie oblúku circle kruh circumference obvod Civil and Transportation Engineering

Inžinierske konštrukcie a dopravné stavby

clad obložený, krytý clarifier klarifikátor, usadzovacia nádrž clay íl, hlina clearance svetlá výška, voľný priechod clip sponka, svorka cloth látka, tkanina; utierka coarse aggregate hrubé kamenivo, plnivo coat, v. pokryť, potiahnuť, obaliť coating náter, povlak cob linená mazanica, lepenica cofferdam ochranná hrádza coincide, v. zhodovať sa, udiať sa v rovnakom čase collar beam hrada column stĺp combined sewer združený stokový kanál combustible horľavý common fractions zlomky compact natlačiť, zhutniť stlačiť compact, v. zhutniť, stlačiť, lisovať

135

compliant poddajný, podriaďujúci sa compound zlúčenina, zmes, zloženina compression stlačenie, tlak compressive stlačujúci, tlakový compressive strength pevnosť v tlaku compulsory, a. povinný, nutný, nevyhnutný concrete betón concrete frame betónová konštrukcia, skelet conduit potrubie, rúra, kanál cone kužeľ conquest dobytie, podrobenie, získanie constitute, v. tvoriť, vytvoriť, utvárať constraint obmedzenie consumption spotreba contain, v. obsahovať, zahŕňať contamination znečistenie, zamorenie, kontaminácia contractor dodávateľ, zmluvná strana contribute, v. prispieť, prispievať control, v. riadiť, kontrolovať convert, v. premeniť, zmeniť, pretvoriť converter konvertor, transformátor, menič (prúdu) convey, v. dopravovať, transportovať conveyance doprava, transport conveyor belt dopravný pás copper meď cordwood rovnané polenové drevo, siahovnica core jadro, stredná časť corporate podnikový, firemný, spoločný corrosion korózia, hrdzavenie corrugated steel vlnitá oceľ cottage domček, chalupa council rada crack, v. prasknúť, popraskať cramped stiesnený, prepchatý crane žeriav crash barrier zvodidlo crop plodina, úroda cross gable roof priečna sedlová strecha cross hipped roof priečna valbová strecha crossroads, pl. križovatka cross-section priečny rez, prierez crucial rozhodujúci, veľmi dôležitý crush, v. rozdrviť, rozbiť, zničiť crushed rock drvené kamenivo cube kocka cure, v. vytvrďovať, ošetrovať (betón), vulkanizovať currently teraz, v súčasnej dobe curved (line) krivka, oblúkový cut down, ph.v. zoťať, stínať; znížiť cut-and-cover vykopávka s dočasným zastropením

136

cut-and-cover method stavba v otvorenom výkope cutlery príbor cylinder valec D dam priehrada, hrádza; prehradiť damage poškodenie, škoda dean dekan debt dlh decimal fraction desatinné čísla decomposition rozkladanie, rozklad defect liability period lehota povinnosti nahradiť škodu deflection vychýlenie, odchýlka degradation rozpad, rozklad, degradácia, zníženie degree akademická hodnosť, stupeň, miera dense hustý, sýty density hustota department katedra, oddelenie, ministerstvo (USA) depth hĺbka depth hĺbka designer projektant destination cieľ cesty, miesto určenia destroy, v. zničiť, rozbiť detached house samostatne stojaci dom (rodinný) deteriorate zhoršiť sa, skaziť sa diagonal priečny, diagonálny diameter priemer differ, v. líšiť sa, rozlišovať diffraction ohyb, difrakcia dimension stone tesaný kameň, kváder dirt hlina, prach, špina discharge prietok, vytekanie discharge, v. vypustiť, vyliať disposal likvidácia, odstránenie distinct odlišný, iný, zreteľný, výrazný distinguish, v. rozlíšiť, odlíšiť, rozoznať disturbance porucha, narušenie ditch priekopa, jarok ditch priekopa, kanál, stavebná jama division delenie dome kupola, klenba, dóm (zast.) dormer strešné okno, vikier dozen tucet, dvanásť drain away (ph.v.) odviesť (vodu), odvodniť, odkvapkať drain, v. odvodňovať drainage odvodňovanie, kanalizácia drainage channel odvodňovací kanál drainpipe odkvapová rúra, dažďový zvod drape visieť

137

draw, v. kresliť drawback nevýhoda, nedostatok drawbridge zdvíhací/padací most drill vŕtať, vyvŕtať; vŕtačka drilled shaft vŕtaná šachta, jama drought sucho, obdobie sucha dry weather flow bezdažďový prietok, minimálny prietok dry-dock suchý dok drywall montovaná stena, suchá stena duct šachta, prieduch ductile iron kujné železo dump skládka, hromada odpadkov, smetisko durable trvanlivý dwelling obydlie, príbytok, bytová jednotka E earthquake zemetrasenie edge okraj, hrana, hranica edge hrana, ostrie edifice budova, stavba (veľká, impozantná) efficiency efektívnosť effluent odpadová voda, odtok elastic pružný, elastický elective voliteľný, výberový electric current elektrický prúd elevation zdvih, zdvíhanie, výška elevator výťah ellipsoid elipsoid embankment dam sypaná zemná priehrada embed, v. zakotviť, vtlačiť emission emisia, vypúšťanie, vyžarovanie emit, v. vydávať, vysielať, vyžarovať enclose, v. obklopiť, ohradiť, oplotiť, priložiť encompass, v. pokrývať, zahŕňať, obklopiť, obohnať encounter, v. stretnúť sa, naraziť na čo (náhodne) endanger, v. ohroziť, vystaviť nebezpečenstvu enhance zdokonaliť, zlepšiť enroll, AmE., enrol, BrE. prihlásiť sa, zapísať sa, prijať do entirely úplne, celkom entry exam vstupná skúška envelope obvodový plášť environment prostredie; životné prostredie Environmental Engineering Inžinierstvo životného prostredia environmental, a. týkajúci sa životného prostredia equal, v. rovnať sa equipment vybavenie, zariadenie, výstroj eradicate eliminovať, vylúčiť, odstrániť, zlikvidovať establish, v. založiť, zriadiť, uviesť do chodu even number párne číslo

138

excavate vykopať, vyhĺbiť exclude, v. vylúčiť, vyradiť exhaust výfukový plyn, odvod plynu, pary extend, v. rozšíriť, zväčšiť, roztiahnuť extract vytiahnuť, vybrať, extrahovať F facilitate uľahčiť, napomáhať facility zariadenie faculty fakulta fasten, v. zapnúť, pripevniť, priviazať fault chyba, zlyhanie, puklina, zlom feasible vhodný, uskutočniteľný feature črta, znak feature, v. vystupovať, figurovať fiber-cement siding vlákno-cementové oplášťovanie fibrous vláknitý, vláknový figure obrazec, tvar, cifra fill výplň, náplň; vyplniť, naplniť fire resistant ohňovzdorný fittings armatúra, inštalácie flammable, inflammable zápalný, horľavý, zapaľujúci sa flash, v. blikať, blýskať sa, zablesknúť sa flashing krytie trhlín, lemovanie, tesnenie (z plechu) flat roof plochá strecha flexible pružný floating bridge pontónový most flock, v. zhromažďovať sa, zbiehať sa flood záplava, povodeň, potopa flooding záplava, povodeň flotation plávanie, vznášanie sa flow prúd, tok, prúdenie flow rate prietok flowing stream tok, prúd fluid tekutina; nestabilný, premenlivý flyover nadjazd football pitch futbalové ihrisko footing základ, základová pätka force sila formula vzorec fossil fuels fosilné, pevné palivo (uhlie, ropa, zemný plyn) found, v. založiť, zriadiť, položiť základy foundations (pl.) základy fraction zlomok fragile krehký, slabý, nepevný framing rámovanie frost line nezámrzná vrstva fuel palivo fund, v. financovať

139

furnish, v. zariadiť, vybaviť, poskytnúť G gabion drátkoštrková hať gable štít, štítová stena gable roof sedlová strecha gambrel roof podlomenicová strecha, manzardová (U.S.) gap medzera, pauza geek počítačový fanatik, čudák generate vytvárať, generovať, produkovať generate, v. vyrobiť, vyrábať, tvoriť generation výroba, vytváranie Geodesy and Cartography Geodézia a kartografia girder nosník, tram, hrada give off vydávať, vypúšťať glazed zasklený global warming globálne otepľovanie grade stupeň, stúpanie, svah, nivelizácia, sklon grade beam prefabrikovaný základový pás grading nivelizácia, vyrovnávanie, stupňovanie graduate, v. absolvovať, vyštudovať grain Zrno, obilie, pšenica (AmE) gravel štrk (ťažený) gravity dam gravitačná priehrada grease mastnota, tuk greenhouse skleník greenhouse effect skleníkový efekt grind, ground, ground, v. mlieť, zomlieť grinder drvič, šrotovník, mlynček, brúsny kotúč growth rast, nárast, vzrast gusset výstužný, rohový plech, styčný plech gutter odkvapový žľab, odkvapová rúra guttering strešný žľab H habitable = inhabitable obývateľný habitat prirodzené prostredie, domov (zvieraťa) habitat nálezisko, lokalita, prostredie habitation osídlenie, bydlisko, sídlo hard tvrdý harden, v. stvrdnúť, stuhnúť harmful škodlivý harness ovládnuť, spútať, využiť harness, v. využiť, spútať, pripojiť, pripútať head predstavený, vedúci, hlava; viesť, byť na čele heat teplo, horko heat loss tepelná strata heat pump tepelné čerpadlo

140

heating kúrenie, vyhrievanie heavy ťažký hemisphere pologuľa high-rise building výšková budova highway diaľnica hipped roof valbová strecha hole diera hook into, v. pripevniť, zahákovať hose hadica humidify zvlhčiť hydration hydratácia hydraulic head hydraulické vzdutie I igloo iglu illuminate, v. osvetliť, osvietiť illumination osvetlenie, intenzita osvetlenia impact účinok, vplyv, dopad impairment poškodenie, zhoršenie impedance Impedancia, zabránenie implement uskutočniť, previesť, realizovať implementation vykonanie, uskutočnenie, realizácia implication asociácia, aspekt, dôsledok impoundment vodná zdrž, incidence výskyt incineration spaľovanie, horenie inclined šikmý, klopený inexhaustible nevyčerpateľný, hojný ingress vstup, prístup, priesak (vody) in-line storage lineárna nádrž install, v. namontovať, nainštalovať, zaviesť Institute of Forensic Engineering

Ústav súdneho znalectva

insulation izolácia integer celé číslo intend, v. mať v úmysle, hodlať, zamýšľať interceptor záchytná stoka interim dočasný, provizórny interstate highway medzištátna diaľničná komunikácia investigate, v. vyšetrovať, pátrať, preskúmať irrigation zavlažovanie, zavodňovanie J joist nosník, podlahový nosník , stropný trám junction križovatka, odbočka junk odpad, haraburdie; zahodiť, vyhodiť, zbaviť sa

141

K

kiln vypaľovacia pec, sušiaca pec knot uzol, slučka

L land consolidation pozemkové úpravy landmark výrazný bod v krajine landscape krajina, krajinka, krajinomaľba lane dopravný, jazdný pruh, prúd lateral sewer bočná prípojka law právo, zákon lawn trávnik lay the foundation položiť základy lay-by odstavná plocha, zastávkový pruh layer vrstva lead olovo leakage presakovanie, unikanie, netesnosť leather koža legal právny, zákonný, legálny length dĺžka lessen zmenšiť, znížiť level crossing úrovňová križovatka levy odvod, daň, poplatok, dávka life expectancy priemerná dĺžka života, životnosť life span životnosť lift station zdvíhacia stanica lift, v. zdvihnúť, zodvihnúť light ľahký lighthouse maják lightweight concrete ľahčený betón lime, limestone vápno, vápenec line čiara lining Ostenie, obklad link, v. spojiť, pripojiť liquid tekutina, kvapalina litter smeti, odpadky load zaťaženie, bremeno, náklad load-bearing nosný, únosný load-bearing masonry podporný múr log brvno, kmeň longevity dlhovekosť, dĺžka života longitudinal section pozdĺžny rez low-rise building nízkopodlažná budova lumber rezivo, stavebné drevo lump kus, hruda, kocka

142

M main road hlavná cesta maintain, v. udržiavať maintenance údržba mankind ľudstvo mansard roof manzardová strecha marsh močiar, bažina, mokraď masonry murivo, kladenie muriva, murárska práca mass hmotnosť mast stožiar, anténa mat izolačná krytina Mathematical and Computational Modeling

Matematicko-počítačové modelovanie

mat-slab foundation základová doska measure, v. merať mere púhy mitigation zmiernenie (následkov, bolesti) moat vodná priekopa moisture vlhkosť (zo zrazenej pary) mortar malta, omietka muck špina, blato, neporiadok mud blato, bahno multiplication násobenie municipal mestský, oblastný, komunálny myriad nespočetne N nook kút, kútik notch zárez, vrub nourishment výživa numeral číslica, cifra O obligatory povinný, záväzný oblique šikmý, naklonený observation pozorovanie obstacle prekážka obstruct zatarasiť, zablokovať, prekážať, stáť v ceste obstruction zatarasenie, zablokovanie occupancy obývanie, užívanie, obsadenie occupant obyvateľ, nájomník, užívateľ octagon osemuholník odd number nepárne číslo odor/odour zápach, vôňa, aróma offensive úražlivý, útočný, pohoršujúci off-line nezapojený na ústredný počítač opaque nepriehľadný, nepriesvitný

143

operate, v. prevádzkovať, riadiť, fungovať, pracovať optional voliteľný, nepovinný, fakultatívny (s možným výberom) outcome výsledok, záver outfall sewer = relief sewer vypúšťací, odtokový kanál outhouse vonkajší záchod, latrína outlet výpust, odtok overbreak nadmerný výlom overflow prepad, odtoková komora; pretekať, vyliať sa, zaplaviťoverhang previs, výčnelok overhead horný, vrchný, stropný overlap prekrývať overpass nadjazd P pad podložka, plocha, chránič, vypchávka palm palma particular konkrétny, jednotlivý, špecifický partition wall priečka, deliaca stena pass an exam, v. zložiť skúšku passage prechod, pasáž paste kaša, pasta pattern vzor, model, schéma, vzorka pavement dlažba, chodník pay for (ph.v.) financovať, hradiť peak vrchol, maximum, najvyšší stupeň pedestrian crossing prechod pre chodcov pedestrian precinct pešia zóna, oblasť peg kolík peg stĺpik, kolík, čap, vytyčovací bod penetrate, v. preniknúť, vniknúť, preraziť pentagon päťuholník perennial trvalka perform vykonať, uskutočniť, účinkovať perimeter obvod permeable priepustný permit, v. dovoliť, povoliť, pripustiť perpendicular kolmý photogrammetry fotogrametria pier pilier, stĺp pile pilóta pile cap hlavica pilótového základu pillar pilier, opora, stĺp pitch stupeň, úroveň pitched roof šikmá, sklonená strecha plank doska, fošňa planning permit stavebné povolenie plant rastlina; podnik, závod planting medium prostredie pre výsadbu plaster omietka

144

plastering omietanie, omietka, malta, sadrovanie plastic plastický plentiful bohatý, hojný, plodný, úrodný plot of land parcela plug-socket zástrčka plumber inštalatér plumbing domová inštalácia/kanalizácia, inštalácia potrubia pneumatically pneumatický, na stlačený vzduch pollution znečistenie, zamorenie pontoon pontón porch Krytý vchod, prístrešok pred vchodom, veranda post stĺp, podpera potable pitný (voda) power plant elektráreň power, (mat.) mocnina predictable predvídateľný, očakávaný preliminary plan predbežný plán pressure tlak, nátlak pre-tensioned concrete predpätý betón prevent, v. zabrániť, zamedziť, predísť prime number prvočíslo prism hranol project projekt, plan; projektovať, premietať prone náchylný, majúci sklony prone to náchylný, majúci sklony propagate, v. šíriť, rozširovať sa property vlastnosť, charakter; vlastníctvo, majetok proportion časť, podiel, percento protrude vyčnievať, vystupovať, prečnievať pull in (ph.v.) zastaviť, prísť autom na parkovacie miesto, odpočívadpull off (ph.v.) odísť z okraja cesty purpose účel, cieľ, zámer pyramid ihlan pyramidal roof stanová / pyramídová strecha Q quantity množstvo, počet, kvantita R rack mreža radiation žiarenie radius, pl. radii polomer rafter krokva, trám v krove rammed earth zarazená, natlačená zemina ramp road šikmá cesta, vetva, rameno križovatky (mimoúrovňovej)rapidly rýchlo, prudko ratio pomer, percento ray lúč

145

reach dosiahnuť realize, v. uvedomiť si, chápať; uskutočniť recognize, v. spoznať, zistiť, pripustiť, uznať record, v. zapísať, zaznamenať, nahrať si rectangle obdĺžnik rector rektor refer to, v. vzťahovať sa na čo, mať súvislosť s čím reflect, v. odrážať, vyjadrovať, zobrazovať, odzrkadľovať reinforced vystužený reinforced concrete vystužený betón, železobetón reinforcement výstuž, vystuženie, spevnenie reinforcing vystuženie, posilnenie release uvoľniť, prepustiť, vypustiť release, v. pustiť, uvoľniť, vypustiť remain, v. ostať, zostávať remains (pl.) zvyšky, trosky, zrúcanina remarkable pozoruhodný remediation revitalizácia, ozdravenie remote, v. diaľkový, vzdialený, odľahlý removal odstránenie, odpratanie, odvoz remove, v. vyňať, vytiahnuť, presunúť, odstrániť rename, v. premenovať renewable obnoviteľný repel (v.) odraziť, zabrániť replace, v. nahradiť requirement požiadavka research výskum residential obytný, bytový residential tower block obytná budova, činžiak resilient odolný, pevný resistant odolný, vzdorný, vzdorujúci resource zdroj rest, v. spočívať, podopierať, ležať, byť položený restoration obnova, obnovenie, znovuzavedenie restriction obmedzenie result in, v. viesť k čomu, dopadnúť ako retail maloobchod, maloobchodný retain uchovať, zadržať, ponechať si retaining wall oporná stena, oporný múr retard spomaliť, brzdiť retro reflector odrazka rewarding, a. prospešný, užitočný, výnosný rhombus kosoštvorec ridge hrebeň (strechy) rigid tuhý, pevný, nepoddajný ring-road okružná komunikácia, okruh road junction cestná križovatka road marking značenie na ceste roadbed vozovka, cestné podložie rock skala, kameň

146

rod prút, tyč roof strecha roof over zastrešiť root koreň root (mat.) odmocina rough drsný rough estimate hrubý odhad roundabout kruhový objazd route trasa rubber guma rubbish odpad, smeti, hlušina runoff odtok, príval dažďovej vody runway rozjazdová / pristávacia dráha rural dedinský, vidiecky rust hrdza S safety bezpečnosť safety precautions bezpečnostné opatrenia saltbox roof strecha s nesúmerným pozdĺžnym štítom sandwich, v. stlačiť medzi dvoma vrstvami sanitary engineering zdravotné inžinierstvo sanitary sewers splašková kanalizácia sawdust piliny scaffold lešenie scale rozsah, škála, stupeň, stupnica scatter, v. rozptýliť, roztrúsiť scholarship štipendium screen pletivo, sito screening triedenie, preosievanie; sieťové pletivo, drôtené pletivosealer tesniaca hmota seatbelt bezpečnostný pás secondary road vedľajšia cesta secretary tajomník, tajomníčka, sekretárka self-sustaining sebestačný semi-circle polkruh sensing snímanie septic tank septik, vyhnívacia nádrž set hard stvrdnúť settlement sadanie, usadzovanie, osídľovanie, severe tvrdý, namáhavý, náročný sew, v. odvodňovať, vypúšťať sewage odpadová voda, kanalizačné splašky sewage treatment úprava odpadovej vody sewer kanál, stoka, odvodňovacia priekopa, kanalizačná rúrasewer system kanalizačná sústava sewer tributary prítok, spádová prípojka sewerage kanalizácia, splašková voda, kanalizačné splašky shade odtieň, tieň

147

shallow foundation plytký základ shape tvar sheathing obloženie, obklad, plášť (krycí materiál) shed kôlňa, prístrešok, búda shed roof pílová / shedová strecha sheet plech, plát, fólia, plachta, hárok shellfish lastúrniky shelter prístrešok shingle šindeľ (na strechu) shrink, shrank, shrunk zmenšiť sa, scvrknúť sa shrinkage zmršťovanie, strata objemu shrub krík, krovie, krovina significantly významne sink, sank, sunk klesnúť, poklesnúť, ponoriť sa site miesto, stavebná plocha, stavebná parcela, staveniskoskim off, v. zbierať penu, odpeniť skyline silueta, panorama, obzor skyscraper mrakodrap slab doska, tabuľa slab-on-grade foundation plošný základ slash rez, zárez, lomeno slate bridlica slide kĺzať sa, pošmyknúť sa; šmyk, pokles slightly slabo, jemne, nepatrne slip road vetva, rameno križovatky (mimoúrovňovej) slope svah sloping zvažujúci sa slot štrbina, škára, medzera sludge usadený kal, bahno sludge digestion vyhnívanie kalu smooth hladký sod drn, drnová pokrývka sodden nasiaknutý, premočený, mokrý soft mäkký solid pevný, tuhý, tvrdý; tuhá látka solution riešenie, výsledok, roztok soundproof zvukotesný spacecraft, pl. spacecraft kozmická loď, raketa spaced board sheathing strešné laty s medzerami span rozpätie, rozsah sparse riedky, zriedkavý, rozptýlený special purpose facility účelové zariadenie species druh, trieda (živočíchov) speed rýchlosť sphere guľa spillway prepad, preliv, výpustný objekt spiral špirála split, v. štiepiť, deliť spoil, v. skaziť, pokaziť, zničiť, zmariť spread footing základová pätka, plošný základ

148

spur, v. ponúkať, poháňať, urýchliť square štvorec stack, v. navŕšiť, nakladať na kopu steady stabilný, stály steam para steel frame oceľový rám, oceľový skelet steel sheet piling oceľová hnaná výstuž, štetová stena stick palica, palička, klátik stick framing rámová konštrukcia z tyčí a klád stick out vyčnievať, trčať storm water runoff odtok prívalových vôd straight priamy, rovný strand vlákno strap remeň, pás, objímka, slučka straw slama straw bale balík slamy stream riečka, potok, prúd (vody) strength sila, pevnosť strengthen, v. zosilniť stress tlak, napätie, namáhanie strip pruh, pás stripe pruh, pásik stucco štuka, štuková omietka stud výčnelok, výstupok sturdy robustný, masívny subdivision sekcia submerge ponoriť, potopiť, zaplaviť submit tender predložiť konkurznú ponuku substance látka, hmota, materiál subtraction odčítanie sufficient dostatočný, postačujúci superstructure nadzemná časť (budovy), horná konštrukcia supply zásobovanie, dodávka, prísun support podopierať, podpera, podpora, opora, príspevok support, v. podporovať, pomáhať surface povrch surface area obsah, plocha surveying mapovanie, vymeriavanie, topografické meranie surveyor zememerač, expert, znalec, geodet survive, v. prežiť, zostať nažive, vydržať suspend, v. zadržať, prerušiť, zavesiť, visieť suspended solid nerozpustná látka suspension bridge visutý most sustainability udržateľnosť swale močiar, terénny žľab swing bridge otočný most T take advantage využiť

149

take over prevziať, zabrať tapering zbiehajúci sa do špičky, hrotu tax daň tear, tore, torn trhať, odtrhnúť, roztrhnúť tensile ťahový, ťažný tensile strength pevnosť v ťahu tension ťah,napätie tent stan thaw, v. rozmrznúť, roztopiť sa thoughtful ohľaduplný, pozorný, zamyslený threaten, v. ohroziť, ohrozovať, zastrašiť thrust nápor, sila; vraziť, strčiť tidal prílivový, odlivový tide, (high tide, low tide) príliv, odliv tile škridla, škridlica tiler obkladač timber stavebné drevo, rezivo tinsmith klampiar to be attributed to byť pripisovaný čomu toll mýto topsoil vrchná vrstva pôdy tough tuhý, tvrdý, pevný tower veža traffic premávka, pouličný ruch, doprava traffic lights dopravné svetlá traffic sign dopravná značka transfer, v. preniesť, presunúť,prepraviť translucent priesvitný transmit prenášať, prepúšťať transparent priehľadný trap lapač, zachytávač trapezoid lichobežník treasurer pokladní, minister financií treatment zaobchádzanie, liečenie treatment plant čistička odpadových vôd trench výkop, ryha triangle trojuholník triangular prism trojhran tributary area spádová oblasť trickling filter biologický filter tropical rainforest tropický dažďový prales trunk road hlavná cesta, hlavná dopravná tepna trunk sewer hlavný, kmeňový kanál truss priehradový nosník, priehradový tram truss bridge priehradový most truss framing väzníková rámová konštrukcia trussed roof strecha s priehradovou konštrukciou tuition školné, výučba, učenie, vyučovanie turn off (ph.v.) zahnúť, zabočiť, odbočiť typhoid týfus

150

U

ultimate konečný, najvzdialenejší ultimately konečne, definitívne, napokon undergraduate univerzitný študent, vysokoškolák (pred získaním titulu)underground podzemný, pod zemou underlayment podložka, podklad, výstuž underpass podjazd underpin, v. podoprieť, podmurovať, posilniť undesirable nežiaduci, neprijateľný university univerzita unsightly nepekný, škaredý, neestetický upfront počiatočný, pred niečím upkeep údržba upstream horný tok rieky urban mestský, týkajúci sa mesta, urbanistický urban mestský utility lines Inžinierske siete, sieť technických zariadení utilize použiť, využiť utilize, v. použiť, využiť, upotrebiť, zužitkovať V vapour / vapor para, výpar, opar vary, v. meniť, obmeňovať, pozmeňovať vehicle vozidlo velocity rýchlosť verge okraj, postranný deliaci pás, obruba, medza vertical-lift bridge výsuvný most vice-dean prodekan vice-rector prorektor vine vínna réva vitrified clay kameninová hlina volcano vulkán, sopka volume objem W wallpaper tapeta waste odpad water course vodný tok Water Resources Management and Hydraulic Structures

Vodné hospodárstvo a vodné stavby

water treatment úprava vody waterborne disease choroba prenášajúca sa vodou waterproof nepremokavý, vodotesný waterproof layer vodovzdorná vrstva watershed rozvodie, povodie

151

watertight vodotesný wearing course obrusná vrstva (vozovky) web member stojina weeding plieť, zbaviť buriny weight hmotnosť, váha, tiaž weld, v. zvárať, zvarovať wheel koleso width šírka wildlife divá zver, život vo voľnej prírode windowpane okenná tabuľa windshield, windscreen predné okno motorového vozidla wire drôt, vedenie (elektrické) withstand odolávať, znášať, vydržať wood drevo woodland lesnatý kraj, zalesnená oblasť wrap zabaliť, obviazať, ovinúť; obal, plášť Y yield ustúpiť čomu, byť nahradený / vystriedaný čím

152

Bibliography ABAFFY, D., LUKÁČ, M., LIŠKA, M., Dams in Slovakia, STU Bratislava, 1995

CHANDLER, I., Repair and Renovation of Modern Buildings, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992

COE, N., Grammar Spectrum 3, Oxford University Press, 1995

CUMMING, J., Architecture and Building Construction (Nucleus, English for Science and Technology), Longman, 1994

CURTIS, W.J.R., Modern Architecture Since 1900

EHRLICH, D., REISS, M., Architecture in Detail, New York

ELMAN, J., MICHALÍČEK, V., Anglicko-český technický slovník, Sobotáles,

Praha 2003

EMERSON, B. F., Technical Writing, Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1987

GRELLET, F., Developing Reading Skills, Cambridge University Press, 1985

HABAJOVÁ, I., ŠPILDOVÁ, D., English in Civil Engineering, STU 2005

HANÁK, M. a kol., Anglicko-český architektonický a stavební slovník, nakladatelství Fraus, Plzeň 1998

IRNHOFF, K., Handbook of Urban Drainage and Wastewater Disposal, USA, 1989

KEITH, T. A., MOTEŠICKÁ, Z., ARCHLEBOVÁ, J., English for Architects, STU, 2004

KUCHÁRIKOVÁ, A., SLAVIN, K., GALATA, J., English for Students of Mechanical Engineering, STU Bratislava, 1999

MCCARTHY, M., O’DELL, F., English Vocabulary in Use, Cambridge University Press, 2003

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2002

MURPHY, R., English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, 1994

REDMAN, S., English Vocabulary in Use, Cambridge University Press, 2000

SOARS, L & J., New Headway Intermediate, Oxford University Press, 1996

SWALES, J., Writing Scientific English, Butler & Tanner Ltd., 1981

SWAN, M., Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1982

SWAN, M., WALTER, C., How English Works, Oxford, 1997

The Federal Minister for Research & Technology, Renewable Energy, Bonn, 1992

WHITE, L., Engineering, Oxford University Press, 2003

English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, Macmillan Publishers, Ltd., 2000

Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, 1995

153

Internet:

www.en.wikipedia.org www.columbia.edu www.csupomona.edu www.eastchance.com www.ehow.com www.diynetwork.com www.hometip.com www.environmentalgrafifiti.com www.bobvila.com www.greenbuildingsolutions.org www.howstuffworks.com www.curiosity.discovery.com www.greenhousebuilding.com www.dancingrabbit.org www.emporis.com www.pbs.org/wgbh/building/big www.teachersparadise.com