Cultural policy a preliminary study

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Culturalpolicy

a

reliminary

study

Unesco


2/48

Studies and documents on cultural policies

1


3/48

Published

by

the

United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization

Place de Fontenoy,75 Pari~-7~

First edition 1969

Second, revised edition 1969

Printed by Imprimerie Blanchard, Paris

nesco 1969

Printed

in

France

SHC,69/XIX.

a/A


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This publication is the rst in the

Studies

and

ocuments

on Cultural

Policies

series,

published as part of the programme adopted by the Unesco General Conference at its

fifteenth session for the study of cultural policies.

In this context, cultural policy

is

taken to mean a body of operational principles,

administrative and budgetary practices and procedures which provide a basis for cultural

action by the State. Obviously, there cannot be oue cultural policy suited to all countries;

each Member State determines

its

own

cultural policy according to the cultural values,

aims and choices it sets for itself.

It has been largely recognized that there is a need for exchange of information and expe-

rience between countries as well as for cross-national investigations on specific themes,

research into concepts and methods, etc.

The aim of this series, therefore,is to contribute to the dissemination of information by

presenting both the findings of such studies and various national surveys illustrating

problems, experiments and achievements in individual countries chosen as representative

of differing socioeconomic systems, regional areas and levels of development.

This text

is

the outcome

of

a round-table meeting organized by Unesco from 18 to

22

December 1967 in Monaco. It was attended by thirty-two participants from twenty-four

countries who had been invited in their personal capacity as being responsible for cultural

action at the national level, specialists in the social and human sciences, creative artists or

representatives of interested non-governmental organizations. The conclusions reached

and recommendations adopted by the meeting have been used as a basis for the Unesco

programme in the field concerned.


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Contents

Introduction

9

The idea of cultural policy

10

Evaluation of cultural needs

and development

of

long-term programmes

12

Artistic creation

and the training

of

cultural agents

16

The channels for cultural action

25

Administrative and financial structures

36

Conclusions

48

List

of

participants

50


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Introduction

Rapidly evolving new ways of life and information techniques make people more clearly

aware of their needs in the cultural field. In a civilization which is dominated by tech-

nology, cultural action has an increasing role to play, supplementing ducational work and

scientific effort by

giving them an aim. Its function

is

to ensure that development

serves the mind. It is no longer enough for a few individuals to take steps to promote

exchanges between lite groups, or for specialists to appreciate mutually the wealth

and excellence of neighbouring civilizations.

It

is

for all the people to have access to cultural

life and an active share

in

it. Cultural development

must

now catch up on and

keep in

step

with technological and scientific progress; t must gradually take

its

place in over-all olicies

for development, along with those for education and scientific activity.

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The idea

of cul tural pol i cy

The participants to the round-table meeting on cultural policies decided unanimously

against embarking on an attempt to define culture; the representative of the Director-

General had made a point of recalling that

it

was not the role of Unesco to define the cultur-

al policy of States. It was considered preferable: (a) that cultural poky should be taken

to mean the sum total of the conscious and deliberate usages, action or lack of action in a

society, aimed at meeting certain cultural needs through the optimum utilization of all the

physical and human resources available to that society at a given time; (b) that certain cri-

teria for cultural development should be delbed, and that culture should be linked to the

fullilment of personality and to economic and social development.

It was recognized that economic and social development should go hand in hand with

cultural development; culture has a beneficial effect on the means of production available

and on man himself; every improvement

in

physical well-being helps to promote culture,

by freeing man from enslavement to physical obligations, and by giving him leisure for the

activities of the mind. The march of economic progress

is

generally reflected in the cultural

sphere, and cultural activity stimulates economic Me. Emphasis was placed on the need to

integrate science in culture, and to study the way

in

which culture evolves under the influence

of science and technology. Attention was also drawn to the fact that literacy programmes

and cultural development form an indivisible whole: it

is

the cultural advancement of the

whole people that imparts force to the literacy movement.

Over the last twenty years or

so,

and more especially since 1960,an increasing number of

governments have set up departments of cultural affairs distinct from their departments of

education.

his

trend reflects, on the one hand, a new phenomenon-sometimes referred to

as cultural development-connected with improvements in school enrolments, com-

munication media, town planning and living standards and, on the other, the determination

of governments to take deliberate measures, on a national scale, to meet

this

new demand.

Several States have written into their basic laws the idea of making great cultural works

accessible to all sections of the population. This cannot, however, be left entirely to indivi-

dual initiative, hampered as it

is

by

so

many economic and psychological difficulties.

It

must be promoted by the public authorities, which have the necessary means for carrying

out such a tremendous task.

Each country has a Merent general concept of the action which public authorities should

take in the cultural field, and of its justification and

aims.

enerally, t appeared that there

are four Werent approaches

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The

idea

of cultural

policy

1 Cultural policy is integrated in general planning.

2.The State considers that it has a responsibility for culture deriving from the role

it

has

undertaken towards the nation, and that it

is

the duty of the State to replace private in-

itiative which

is

not always capable of carrying out this task successfuliy.

3. One should beware of centralization and of a predominant role for the State in the

direct management of cultural institutions, because of the danger of cultural action being

reduced to uniformity and lest the controversial element in art

be

neutralized; those who

support

this

approach prefer to limit

State

intervention to financial assistance, free from

any conditions.

4.In certain developing societies it is considered that cultural development is essential in

order to strengthen awareness of nationhood and thus facilitate the growth ofan original

culture which

wili

meet both the deepest aspirations of the people and the requirements

of the modern world; State intervention is essential, since private action is

stili

clearly

inadequate.

In any event, State intervention must not have a harmful effect

on

the freedom to create

and public passivity must be avoided at any price.

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Eval uati on of cul tural needs

and devel opment

of

l ong- termprogrammes

Desirability

of

a general description

of

cultural activiy

In working out a cultural policy

it

is necessary

to

evaluate needs and to know what exists

to meet them. In most countries very little is known concerning either of these aspects:

people do not even know what methods can be used to discover the facts of cultural activity

and what are the needs of the public. Which members of the public are in fact reached?

What is provided? By what types of institutions? With what equipment? With what staff?

At what cost? In each sector (creation, dissemination, training, conservation), what are

the activities and expenditure

of

the State, local communities, voluntary associations,

individuals?

Answering these questions means approaching ultural problems objectively.

A

philosophy

of culture is not a sufficient basis for action; the facts that we are trying to change must

be exactly known. These are the facts which will tell us who is benefiting from cultura1

action (which frequently reaches only the cultured), what proportion of the public is not

in any way affected, and what impact the various means of action have. It is then realized

how inadequate former practice

is

in regard to the new problems.

It is

more readily appre-

ciated that a cultural policy cannot be confined to patronage, even on

a

larger scale than

before. It becomes obvious that a cultural policy must be linked both with a policy for con-

tinuing education and a policy for decentralization and regional development. It falls into

its proper place in the social and economic development of the nation.

Methods

of

description

In

some

countries an economic model is used, which consists

in

taking over for cultura1

activity the categories used in economic analysis. In fact, the application of the notions of

supply and demand to the cultural sector might be productive of many useful results, making

possible a better knowledge of the public, its diversity and its requirements and a much

closer analysis of existing structures. The same holds good when the categories of produc-

tion, distribution and consumption are applied: this brings out more clearly the points

to which the efforts of the public authorities can be directed with the best effect. Further-

more, t makes it possible to combine the data of cultural development with those of eco-

nomic, social and educational development. It

is

necessary, however, not to neglect notions

of free choice and the claims of the mind.

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Cultural needs

and

long-term programmes

Latent

needs

The round table emphasized that a distinction should be made between cultural demand and

cultural needs, which may remain latent, without being expressed as a demand. Cultural

needs are not a fact; they are discovered by sociological research, using as a basis certain

data (e.g., the difference between the cultural models of two societies or two groups),

bearing in mind desirable and possible objectives. People can only desire something that

they know of. In order to understand the cultural needs of a people one must bring it into

contact with cultural facts recognized as such, or with innovations, and, by offering it a

choice, induce t to indicate ts preferences. If offered the possibility of entering into contact

with different or new forms of culture, people

will

have a better understanding of them and

take more interest in them. This

is

particularly important in the case of young people.

A n example of this kind of action was quoted: in Japan, at the time when a young

peoples arts theatre was set up to tour rural areas, an inquiry was made into the choice of

plays to be put on. The results showed that all the authorities consulted were unanimously

in

favour of modern works, mostly dramas or operas, on the grounds that the traditional

noh

and bunraku works, whose rhythm

is

too slow, would not be understood by young

people. It was nevertheless decided, as an experiment, to put on traditional plays in certain

places: they had considerable success, and a demand arose for them.

In the absence of suitable machinery, systematic methods for evaluating needs have not

yet been devised. Even apart from the conceptual problems arising in connexion with the

very idea of cultural need, the methods of investigation are unusual and unfamiliar. The

various approaches may be grouped under the following heads.

First,

the study of behaviour patterns by analysis of time-budgets, he measurement of

attendance at institutions (the user-hour oncept), and expenditure accounting gives a

better idea of levels of activity and, more particularly, f the areas of inactivity, he cultural

deserts. By means of comparisons over time or between regions, needs can to some extent

be estimated. One participant insisted on the usefulness of statistics for research directed

towards the future. Tables giving, for example, the number of theatres, cinemas, clubs,

sporting facilities, and the number of radio and television sets are helpful

in

foreseeing the

probable evolution of cultural life. Another participant noted that it was not enough to draw

inferences; one must study changes

in

trends, their possible causes, and the means avail-

able to bring them about.

Secondly, studies of behaviour patterns must be carried out by specialized institutes, using

the appropriate statistical and sociological tools. Opinion polls do not give a really accurate

picture of the desiderata, for the samples interviewed speak only of what

they

know,

employing the usual clichs. O n the other hand, opinion polls do provide a means of

evaluating the response to a particular offer and, thereby, of estimating the needs.

A third source of information

is

afforded by cultural promoters and persons responsible

for cultural action in the field. The inspectors f cultural action inquire into their needs

and pass the information on to the central administration.A fourth source

is

provided by

local council members or members of parliament, who are responsible for representing

regional

or

sectional interests.

In several countries, it has been felt that some co-ordinating body is required to evaluate

needs. Research departments have been set up

in

the civil service, generally reporting to a

minister; their role is not to conduct studies themselves, but to commission specialized

bodies to carry them out. These departments draw up research programmes, follow their

implementation, and see that they are turned to account by the various services. They

build up documentation, nd redistribute information. n Czechoslovakia, a scientific council

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Culrural

needs and long-termProgrammes

for cultural development, reporting to the minister, has a membership of leading figures

in the world of the arts and scientific research workers. In other countries, commissions of

inquiry are set up for a certain length of time to study needs and propose solutions. In

Sweden, a commission of inquiry on the decentralization of music gave rise both to a wide-

ranging sociological study on musical activity and to controlled practical experiments:

by combining the results of the two approaches, the commission is in a position to propose

a

reform of the organization of music.

Development of

long-term

programmes

Most participants pointed to the difficulties which arise at present in the development of

long-term programmes. Cultural needs are evolving more quickly; new needs are appear-

ing, and public taste changes.

As

television sets have multiplied, for example, cinema atten-

dances have failen

50-70

per cent over a period of ten to fifteen years. One must, therefore,

avoid choosing a framework which may become too narrow, and preserve the possibility

of a flexible adaptation of resources to the requirements of a rapidly evolving cultural

scene. Some countries have preferred to restrict themselves to short-term plans (five

or

even

four years), which makes possible periodic evaluations and the drawing of conclusions from

experience. It

is

extremely difficult to carry out a study of methods in this field, since

adequate data are lacking.

In some countries, guidance panels are concerned with the establishment of long-term

programmes. Consisting of experts drawn not only from the administration and from cultur-

al circles, but also from economic circles, these panels study long-term projections concern-

ing national trends (population, economic, educational and technological projections)

and

try

to situate the probable trend of cultural development against that background.

In the U.S.S.R., plan for cultural policy over the next twenty years provides for a wide-

spread development of cultural media and an increase in and improvement of the physical

and technical bases of culture, together with social measures aimed at facilitating participa-

tion by the people in cultural activities.

During the last five years, an attempt has been made in Poland to draw up a long-term

cultural programme. From the institutional point of view, this is being carried out in the

framework of activities of the main national scientific organization, the Polish Academy

of Sciences. The Department of Social Sciencesofthe academy has set up a sector for research

on

contemporary culture responsible for working out a scientific

basis

for planning

in

the

field of culture and its development. The Ministry for Culture and the Arts has a Council

for Culture composed of distinguished representatives of art, science and culture. One of

the tasks of the council is to assist the ministry in drawing up long-term plans. The

firm

belief that any set line

of

policy, in particular cultural policy, may

easily

become authoritar-

ian and runs the risk of embarking on utopian schemes s a decisive element in the growing

importance attached to the necessity for scientific analyses as a condition of effective action.

The long-term economic development plan and demographic projections provide the

essential starting point for long-term cultural planning. Reference should be made to two

of the cultural problems which arise in demographic planning: the vital problem of cultural

relations between different generations, which will live together for a longer time than for-

merly (differing not only in age and in their background of historic experience but also,

thanks

to

educational advance, in their general level of education); and the problem of

culture for older people in an environment where most of the ideas in wide circulation are

aimed at the young. The work of Polish specialists and planners in the field of culture

is

at

present directed toward developing cultural models for the future. These models

will

serve

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Cultural needs and long-term programmes

both as an instrument for intellectual analysis and as a standardizing agent, determining

the choice of a policy whereby set objectives may

be

reached. They are drawn up on the

basis of three assumptions: (a) extrapolation from a series of statistics typical of the cultural

needs of a society; (b) analogy with the cultural development of other countries, bearing in

mind differences in their socio-poiitical systems; and (c) a relative stabilization of certain

existing structures and factors in the life of a nation.

Even those responsible for this exercise nevertheless recognize that

it

is extremely difficult;

and they point out that there are disadvantages in institutionalizing cultural activities.

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Ar tistic crea

tion

and t he trai ni ng of cul tural agent s

Art and

life

Traditional cultures

In pre-industrial societies, art was closely linked with life. One participant even observed

that in Africa the word art as no meaning: objects which today are described as artistic

were used as necessities of everyday life; dances and songs were not inspired by aesthetic

preoccupations. There was not one culture for the rich and one for the poor: culture was

indivisible, the common property of the tribe. Western civilization has also gone through

periods when the position was much the same: the master builders of the cathedrals in

the Middle Ages were anonymous, and their work had a social role.

The idea of art for the chosen few should be discarded. Culture is born of the people,

for the reason that it is fed by the deep well-springs of a peoples conscience.

A

discussion

took place on the extent to which, in modern society, work promotes cultural training or,

on the contrary, hinders it.

For each culture, one must seek out the secrets of its life, growth and subsequent develop-

ment. The traditional rts should not be considered as poor relations, or minor arts whose

products should

be

buried in museums or commercialized for tourists.3he developing

countries emphasize that

it is

important for them, firstly, to retrace and make widely known

the values of their national cultures, and secondly, to take over the cultural heritage of

mankind in order to find a place in the world of today and to be able in their turn to

enrich the universal heritage by new creations which, from the artistic point of view, may

be worthy of their era.

One participant pointed out that in Japan the national culture has co-existed fora hundred

years with Western culture and that the two have

so

closely intermingled that

it

is now

often difficult to define what

is

meant by traditional

rt

forms and modern rt forms;

the distinctions between the art of the governing class and folk culture, and between creative

artists and the public, are virtually non-existent.

Various examples were quoted of the vitality of the traditional arts; of efforts made

to revive them and breathe new life into them; and of the results obtained.

In Tunisia, one of the main objectives of cultural centres and committees s to contribute

in the first place to the revival of national culture; in each

gouvernorat

persons responsible

for culture are invited to participate in the revival of local folklore and to take an interest

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Artistic creation

and

the

training of

cultural agents

in archaeology, folk poetry, and traditional music. The research carried out with regard

to traditional Tunisian music

Mulouf)

as proved particularly useful, since the old airs

were not notated. There is an urgent need to make a collection of them before those who

pass them on orally die. Local cultural committees have the task of tracing Malouf singers,

recording the tunes of the different regions and arousing interest in them among young

Tunisian men and women.

In Colombia, Ecuador and above all in Mexico and certain areas of Brazil, displays of

folk culture are both numerous and lively. Fiestas are truly popular, and real talent

is

used

in the arts of costume, dance and music. Some of them, however, have acquired a modern

aspect in the sense that they are an armation of conscious nationhood. They are often

expanded into festivals organized by the authorities for public or political celebrations.

In Guinea, a particularly original creation is the instrumental and choral ensemble of

the national broadcasting company, which uses only the traditional musical instruments

of the country.

It

has undertaken the task of harmonizing and orchestrating, and bringing

back into favour, the old songs and epics which recount the glorious destiny of national

heroes.A visible sign of the development of the music of the country

is

the existence of three

orchestras, the records of whose musical creations are widely known both in Africa and

beyond.

New art

forms

M o d e m mass media can usefully help in reviving traditional arts. They should not, how-

ever, be considered solely

as

methods for spreading the arts, since they bear

in

themselves he

seed of new art forms. The real masterpieces produced

so

far

by the cinema in half a century,

which have raised the cinema to an art, and the results of experiments and research in broad-

casting and television, are rich in promise; they are already producing an effect on other

fields of artistic creation which can only become more pronounced. In particular, broad-

casting and television may perhaps make possible a direct transition from a traditional oral

culture to a new oral culture. The problem for them is to evolve a form of expression of their

own.

Only in this way

will it

be possible, in the words of one participant, to disinfect the

mass media, which now threaten to corrupt civilization.

The

aesthetic

element

in

everyday

life

In many countries an effort is now being made to improve the surroundings in which m an

lives his life, and to raise the level of each days cultural content. This brings us to the heart

of the matter: the aesthetic element in everyday life; a problem in which architecture, town-

planning and industriai design are all involved. Our surroundings, and everyday objects,

should not be merely functionai; beauty of form and usefulness should be inseparable.

Modern techniques, new construction materials, and new forms of decoration make

architectural innovations possible. Little is done,

or

known, about interesting, informing

and training the public, or even builders themselves. Exhibitions of models and briefing

meetings are organized in some countries, and a number of countries are taking an interest

in the question and studying various solutions. In the U.S.S.R.,or example, voluntary art

councils settle a variety of problems concerning town planning and the modernization of

the appearance of streets, squares and shop windows, and thus

try

to contribute towards

the art education of the peopIe. Such concerns need to be more clearly reflected in cultural

policy.

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Artistic creation and

the

training of cultural agents

Assistance to artisc creation

In the past, princes made a practice of commissioning artists to work for them, either to

add glory to their reigns or for their own pleasure. In m odem democracies, t is gradually

coming to

be

felt that a societys greatness in the eyes of the world and in the history of

mankind owes much to the form and quality of the works of

art

it

produces.

It is not enough to acquaint people with the vast store of treasures inherited from the past;

we must foster the spring of creation itself, for

it

is that which gives the new society symbolic

images of

its

own distinctive identity and the wealth of values it embodies. Creation is the

principie of life in cultural activity. Socially speaking, artists have always been-and often

still are, even

in

the welfare societies-among the most underprivileged members of the

community. heir income s low and irregular. They do not enjoy the protection afforded by

membership of the great organizations of modern society. It is therefore now generally

agreed that governmental authorities should take a hand the situation.At present,

assi s-

tance to artistic creation

is

most often directed towards group media (cinema and theatre)

rather than to individual creative artists.

What are the most effective procedures for assisting artistic creation? The methods adopted

should be such as to meet the major requirement for artistic creation: the freedom of the

artist. Whatever the method adopted, therefore, the basic problem to be solved is how to

secure the freedom

of

the creative artist, while at the same time givinghi mthe place he should

have in economic and social life.

Whatever is done to assist artistic creation should be based on indisputable facts. Some

studies have already been made, although much stili remains to

be

done. The foliowing

are examples of work

in

this sphere: the survey on the professional and social position of

artists

carried out in 1957 by the International ssociation of

Art

and published under the

title, Definition of the Professional Artist; in the United Kingdom, a Short Survey of the

Situation of the Artist in England: Visual Arts 1960), ublished by the Congress for Cultural

Freedom, and The

Book

Writers- W h o Are They? (1966), compiled by Richard Findlater

on the basis of a survey conducted by Research Services Ltd.; in France,Enqute

sur

les

Dbouchs de lEnseignement Artistique (1967); the United Arab Republic has set up a

national council to be responsible for examining the situation as regards artistic creation in

the repubiic and how

t

can be encouraged; and in 1967, Sweden started a systematic survey

on creative artists, their numbers and their income, as compared

wth

other categories of

citizens. In the U.S.S.R., socio-psychological inquiry on creativity in the arts has been

carried out with the help of a cultural periodical.

Legal assistance

It appears that governments,asWeil as artistsunions in the different countries, are concern-

ed with legal assistance, but the nature of the action taken or to be taken naturally depends

upon the laws and regulationsin forcein each country, which may vary very widely. Another

point on which it would

be

useful to have information

is

what changes have been made by

certain countries

in

copyright law. The artist also sometimes has a droit de suite in respect

of his works. In general, however, the national studies make no mention of action

in

this

sphere.

Social assistance

It

is desirable to separate social assistance from assistance to

artists,

since, in the past, as

artists were frequently in straitened circumstances, the public authorities often used to com-

mission work from them for social rather than aesthetic considerations. o w many pictures

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Artistic creation and the training of cultural agents

and sculptures are cluttering the cellars of ministries-and were not fit to be displayed even

when they were delivered uch a policy meant that the funds available were frittered away,

with very dubious criteria for their allocation and little significance for culture.

A

sounder procedure would be to define and apply social assistance measures applicable

to all artists who satisfy certain professional criteria. It is desirable that such social mea-

sures should be the responsibility of a separate administration, and that those who are

responsible for cultural action and the commissioning of works by the State should not have

their hands tied by social considerations. In some countries, for example, grants from

cultural funds re made to artists and their families in case of need. Another country has

recently adopted a system of insurance for painters, sculptors and engravers, covering sick-

ness, maternity benefits and death.

Tax

relief

Many countries allow tax relief not for artists but for the distributors in various sectors.

The problem of a policy for the partial or even complete exemption from taxation of artists

themselves has been raised by many artists unions, societies of authors and so on. In the

United Kingdom, for instance, copyright sale is still treated as income, and taxed as such.

Some relaxation has, however, been allowed in the possibility of spreading the tax payable

on royalties and other sums received over a period of two years. Here, too, rtists, generally

benefit indirectly from measures providing tax relief for foundations and associations. Re-

ductions in taxation, and credit facilities, are sometimes allowed-usually under recent

legislation-to distributors in the cinema and theatre sectors. Many countries give direct

assistance. In Mexico, for instance, artists are allowed to settle their tax claims by handing

over their works to the State.

Prizes,

commissions

and

other

forms of

State

assistance

The award of prizes and State commissions, hich was for a long time largely a matter of

which artists the authorities happened to know, should also form part of the cultural action

policy and be governed by a policy-or, in other words, by principles of action and admin-

istration.If contact is to be re-established between the sovereign-nowadays, the people-

and the artist,so that the latter may be conscious of a demand from society, the

first

neces-

sity is

to link commissioning with the distribution system.

Public buildings

Public buildings provide the most obvious opportunity for State-commissioned work,

either

in

architecturai design or in the related arts. In the United States of America 0.5

per cent of the cost of public buildings may be used for their decoration by artists. In

France, 1 per cent of the cost of school buildings may likewise be set aside for such decor-

ation. In Tunisia, the sums allocated for the decoration of public buildings may amount

to as much as 1 per cent of the cost of the construction work. In Sweden, an allocation of

2

million kronor was included in the 1967-68 budget for the purchase of works of art to

decorate public buildings.

The problem

is:

(a) to induce architects to make use of these facilities

(in

France,

4

per

cent of the

1

per cent

is

paid to the architect to cover his costs);

(b)

to help the architect in

choosing works of

art,

especially when he lives at a distance from the main centres of artis-

tic creation. Documentation centres are at present being set up for the assistance of

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Artistic creation and the training of cultural agents

architects and to secure the harmonious integration of the different forms of expression. The

latest trend is to bring artists into the picture as soon as the preparation of the plans begins,

so

that their works are not added as an after-thought or superimposed, as mere ornamenta-

tion, but form an integral and vital part of the architectural composition.

Exhibitions

Works commissioned by the State should not be left mouldering in store, nor should they

merely adorn the buildings occupied by public authorities; they should be exhibited to the

general public. Temporary exhibitionsmight be organized,to tour various cultural centres

and museums.

Performance

of

musical works

If a work is commissioned but not performed, the composer may benefit, but cultural action

as such is not furthered at all. Systems are now being devised whereby commissioning is

linked to performances; either the State commissions the work directly and guarantees

that

it

will be performed,

or-preferably-orchestras

themselves are asked to commission

musical works from composers chosen by them, and receive grants from the political

authorities for that purpose. In some countries, grants are made to cover the cost of copying

the score.

Hire-purchaseof works of arts

Certain cultural centres have devised a system whereby contemporary works, chosen by

the centre, can be hired out to private persons for a nominal sum-about the amount it

costs to insure the work. If the borrower likes a work, he may purchase t.

Experimentation

An artists production may not immediately find a place in social life. The history of pro-

gressive art movements abounds in examples of works which were not understood

unti l

many years later. Yet research and experimentation are even more vital

in

art than

in

any

other sphere. Experimental art must be assisted by the authorities; works commissioned

by the State may thus not all have a place

in

the distribution system; some commissions ay

represent assistance to basic research in the visual arts. Some countries earmark funds for

this purpose

in

the same way as they do for basic scientific research, and sometimes through

the same machinery.

Grants and allowances

Almost all countries make grants and allowances available to artists and writers. The finan-

cial aspect apart, the question s: at what stage in their career and for how long? Then again,

are these rewards to go to established artists and writers or to beginners? Formerly subsidies

went to the older generation, who became official poets or painters. The modern trend

seems

to be to encourage new talent on a larger scale by means of limited assistance (at least

two years but not more than five) rather than to institutionalize few established careers.

20


18/48

Artistic creation and the training

of

cultural agents

Experimental

studios

(for contacts between creative artists

and between these artists and the public)

The round table considered there was an urgent need to provide research premises and stu-

dios for experiments in the arts (the theatre, cinema, painting, etc.) on the same lines as lab-

oratories where scientists, singly or in teams, and often from different disciplines, enjoy

freedom of creation. Such studios, whether national, regional or international, here artists

can meet and experiment, would bring about some of the conditions considered favourable

for creation in the modern world.

The three following courses of action seemed to be the most effective:

1

Contacts between artists and craftsmen using traditional forms of expression poets,

novelists, writers, painters, sculptors, architects, dramatists, actors, musicians, choreo-

graphers.

2. Contacts and comparisons between these and specialists in modern techniques of expres-

sion or dissemination

film,

television, radio, sound or photographic recording.

3. Contacts between these artists and craftsmen, orking alone or in teams, and the commu-

nity, Le., with as diversified a public as possible, ranging from a public assumed to be recep-

tive to

new

forms to audiences for which this type of experiment s a complete novelty.

Such contacts should include experiments in collective creation, grouping artists among

themselves, and also grouping artists and the public.

Architecture has a major role to play here, since the question will arise of the forms

to

be

given to these experimental centres, which

will

be a hive of

cells

opening into each other and

making possible interactions and an exchange of influences between the different art forms.

In the field of literature, contacts between writers, poets and novelists would be encour-

aged by the organization

of

meetings at the national, regional or international level which

would be extended to a dialogue with the public, using modern media-broadcasting and,

above all, television.

Management machinery

The selection of commissioned works and the allocation of grants pose delicate problems of

cultural policy, for they involve personal taste.

Who is

to select, and according to what

criteria?

Selection by civil servants is open to criticism on the grounds that extraneous consider-

ations enter into it or else that

it

is too subjective. Anxiety to be impartial and the guarantee

required by public authorities generally lead to the setting up of commissions, hich have two

inherent defects: their members, even

if

they are artists, cannot be appointed otherwise than

on the basis of recognized qualifications-they are therefore, otabilities-and, furthermore,

the decisions are majority decisions. The average hoice therefore prevails. N o w creative

art is generally extreme and refutes established canons. Furthermore, if the commission, n

an endeavour to be independent, renews

its

membership by co-opting, t only perpetuates its

original tendencies and underestimates any

art

which challenges

t; in

other words, t becomes

academic.At all events, art which breaks new ground

is

not appreciated. T o avoid this risk,

selection can be left in the hands of responsible individuals, ho are free to make decisions

quite independently of the authorities, but it should not be left

in

the same hands too long.

Patronage by firms

T o safeguard aesthetic diversity and the freedom of the creative artist to innovate, it is

Weil that aid should come from various sources. Private patrons can take

risks

which public

authorities cannot take. Furthermore, n modern countries, financial power (apart from the

21


19/48

Artistic creation and the training

of

cultural agents

State and the mass of consumers)

s

vested mainly in firms.So in some countries they have

been approached to aid artistic creation. They grant this aid either by commissioning works

to decorate their headquarters or factories, or by organizing exhibitions on their premises.

In some countries

firms

have, in addition to their economic functions, a cultural function:

Polish legislation, for instance, makes this compulsory.

Patronage

by

trade

unions

Whether patronageis compulsory or whether experiments are made on anoptional basis with

a

few

rade unions, the aim is always to bring the creative artist and the worker closer to-

gether. This

is

done, for example, by providing studios for

artists

on factory premises. In cert-

ain countries, trade unions make grants to a substantial number of creative artists.

It

would

seem, however, that this form of patronage is still not very common in most countries with

liberal economies, ttempts being hampered by certain reservations on the part of the trade

unions.

Foundations

In countries where private fortunes can be built up, foundations have been valuable in

fostering patronage. In the United States of America, for example, many aspects of natio-

nal development have always benefited considerably by private funds. Provisions governing

probate duty, and then taxation on private income, granting partial exemption for amounts

donated to charitable institutions, have led to the growth of vast foundations. United States

foundations today devote from

3

to 4 er cent of their resources to the arts, and this amount

corresponds to 80 per cent of all public support. The foundations do not assist continuing

activities

so

much as particular projects or projects which will subsequently be taken over

by the public authorities. They undertake what the State cannot yet do and are a factor

promoting innovation. However, although they have their advantages, they have corres-

ponding disadvantages: dispersal of their efforts, lack of a long-term programme, lack of

specific competence. herefore, fthey are to be effective agents for the promotion of cultural

action, they too must be associated with a general cultural policy.

Training

Professionalart training

Art

education has a long tradition behind

it

and so presents problems of adaptation. In

many countries, there has been a rapid increase in the number of students at specialized

institutions-academies of art, music and the like-which has brought with it serious

employment problems for those in charge of cultural policy. The point is to balance the

supply and the demand: how can a plethora of

artists

in sectors offering relatively poor

outlets, such as the visual arts, be avoided? One method, adopted by Poland, consists in

promoting the development of institutes of applied art, for which there

is

a constantly grow-

ing industrial demand. The same problem also arises in connexion with music, where one

fairly satisfactory medium-term solution can be the reorganization of training facilities to

distinguish more clearly between the training of amateurs and that of professionals. Some

countries pay particular attention to the provision of institutionsfor the purpose of training

specialists in the performing

arts

(theatre, cinema, radio, television).

The development of technical media (photographic equipment, cinematographic, projec-

22


20/48

Artistic creation and the trainingof cultural agents

tion and recording equipment, tc.) and their mass production, which makes them accessible

to a large section of the public, make possible the discovery of artistic vocations and of a

growing amount of talent. Thus the distinction between professionals and amateurs is gra-

dually disappearing, and the recruitment of specialists continues over an ever-widening

field.

Training of arts administrators

Changes in the function of the traditional means of spreading culture and the emergence of

new agencies-mass communication media, adult education movements, social and cultural

facilities-have brought with them for all countries the problems of running the institutions

involved and, at all levels, problems of manpower, whether the people required be arts

administrators, adult education organizers, or those in charge of cultural centres. Regular,

organized cultural action on the part of government and local communities

is

something

quite new; and like the other sectors,

t

calls for competent administrators. Similarly, in the

great private institutions (symphony orchestras, theatres, etc.) administrative work has

become

so

complicated as to rule out the amateurism which hitherto prevailed. Most coun-

tries are today feeling their way towards solutions on a trial-and-error basis. The altern-

atives are either to provide training in cultural affairs for young graduates of schools

of

administration, or to give artists,writers, etc., courses in administration.

The participants considered that, in most countries, highly responsible posts in the field

of cultural affairs are only too often held either by artists without any administrative ability

or even inclination, or else, on the contrary, by civilservants who are entirely unaware of the

particular problems facing

artists

and those who promote cultural activities. Thus the train-

ing of those who hold these offices constitutes a problem of great importance, which might

perhaps be solved in two ways: by the creation of training centres for groups of countries

whose civilization and governmental structures are to a certain extent similar; and by setting

up training courses in existing institutions, for example in universities, specialized institutes

of higher learning, colleges of social or human sciences.

Under certain conditions these centres or courses might also be used to train cultural

activities promoters or even technicians (for example, broadcasting or television producers

or directors).

Training of cuitura activities promoters

(animateurs

culturels)

The promoter

is

an educator, either professional or voluntary, whose aim is to persuade

people to participate of their own will in activities which are not the standard ones of

their environment. H e bridges the gap between creative artists and the public, and between

works of art and the ordinary man. Studies of the qualifications required in such promotional

staff are now being made (Czechoslovakia, Poland, France) and

will

enable us to specify

exactly what should be their level of recruitment, henature of their training, he type of career

offered and their status.

Several countries, however, consider that multi-function teachers of this sort should be

university-trained. thers prefer specialized training institutions suited to the specific pion-

eering character of cultural activities organization. Some institutions have a country-wide

coverage (United Kingdom, France, Tunisia), the aim being to secure consistency, efficiency

and optimum utilization. O n the other hand, training may be left to local or sector institu-

tions (museums, libraries, cultural centres), making decentralization possible and a better

response to regional or sector needs, as well as the employment of local talent. The current

23


21/48

Artistic creation and the training of cultural

agents

tendency is tomix the two combining a common core of theory with specialized field courses

for each sector.

Whether the subject of recent research, as in Italy, the United Kingdom, France and the

United States

of

America, or determined by older practices, as in the countries of Eastern

Europe, the training programmes for cultural activities promoters are everywhere being

re-examined. What theoretical studies are desirable (sociology, psychology, education, art

appreciation)? What practical work should be included, how long should

this

last, when

and where should

it be

done? One participant pointed out that the non-governmental

organizations Working Party on the Role of Culture in Leisure had carried out a tentative

inquiry among its members regarding the training of personnel of this kind.

Training

ofaudio-visual

technicians

Several developing countries stress the need for training specialists in audio-visual echniques,

which are particularly important among peoplesin the course of becoming literate and

lacking the traditional cultural amenities.

Training of techniciansfor the protcction of sites and monuments

In many countries there are not yet enough qualified local curators to look after the archaeo-

logical treasures of the country. International co-operation, ighly effective though it al-

ready is,

is

no substitute for regular local supervision, which international experts cannot

undertake.

H therto,

national technicians have received their training while working along-

side these experts, but the shortcomings of this method and the scale of needs make other

measures necessary.

Training of museum specialists

A

cultural action policy calls for museums which are no longer merely repositories but go

out to instruct the public. The role of the museum curator is, therefore, changing: he must

still be a scholar who builds up the collections, classifies them and preserves them,but at

the same time he must also be a display artist, a promoter, or museum management is chang-

ing and n ow makes use of audio-visual equipment and provides amenities to attract the

public. This calls for specialized training (through theoretical and practical courses), the feat-

ures of which could be better defined by means of international discussions. Unesco has

already begun to act in thisfield, with the assistance of the International ouncil of Museums.

Training of librarians

Similarly, a librarianis no longer merely a keeper who adds to and classifies his collections;

he must now ensure that the great works published (in the form of books, records or tapes)

reach the widest possible audience. Public reading depends to a large extent upon his pro-

motional abilities

(in

one city, the number of volumes loaned annually increased fourfold

when the library was livened p). Straight librarianship

is

thus no longer the only technique

in which the future librarian must be trained: he must also be familiar with methods of

promoting activities, readership identification and cultural action. In some countries, lib-

rarians are required to attend courses in cultural activities promotion, whereas, in others,

an initial general training in the promotion of such activities

is

followed by one year of

specialization in librarianship.

24


22/48

he channel s for cul tural action

New data

Institutions for the spread of culture are undergoing a radical transformation due partly to

technical advances in methods of communicating culture and partly to the expansion of

audiences and profound changes in their way of life. Over and above the part they can and

should play in creating new art forms, mass communication media provide for greater

access to culture than traditional institutions such as theatres, museums and libraries. In

France, for example, a hundred times more people go to the cinema than to the theatre

and the hours spent in watching television are a hundred times more than those spent at

the cinema. The opportunities for bringing people into contact with culture have increased

several thousandfold over the past

fifty

years.

Hence the new distribution of tasks everywhere among cultural institutions. What are the

respective parts played by television, schools and cultural centres? What happens to the

cinema when shows can be seen in every home? What are the new tasks of museums and

the theatre when their public increases? The function of cultural policy will be to apportion

tasks in accordance with the purpose of each institution, before allotting funds.

Schools

In many countries t would seem to be the school which, because of the range of its action,

can and should play the essential part for, down to village level, it affects or will affect

nearly everyone and at the most impressionable age. The school, t

is

felt, should provide

not only the normal intellectual training but also an introduction to the arts calculated to

awaken young peoples powers of appreciation. For

it is

at school that life-long habits

of

reading, theatre-going and appreciating works of art are formed. Hence, the need to give

prominence to the training function of schools, which should cultivate,not only intelligence,

but also sensitivity and creative faculties. The only way of forming the habits and needs

that

will

raise the general cultural level

is

to make art training compulsory in general edu-

cation from the primary school on.Art education at school thus becomes one of the most

important items in cultural policy.

25


23/48


Science

Like literature and the

arts,

science

is

a creation of the human mind. Its procedures, struc-

tures, and diverse forms of expression-in principle, as universal as reason-have varied

throughout the centuries; they are a reflection and expression of mans needs, aspirations

and ideas and of his place in the universe, which are all closely bound up with the cultural

context of his life. O n the other hand, science

is,

in itselfor through the medium of techno-

logy,the decisive factor that is today transforming the destiny of individuals, of societies

and of our planet as a whole. Anyone who remains completely impervious to the scientific

spirit

is

thereby cut off from the universe that he inhabits and from the main stream of

contemporary culture. This also presents a hazard for culture in general; for, should it

fail to absorb the scientific spirit, it stands in danger of developing out of contact with

reality, far removed from the true present in which

it

exists.

Finally,

if

the different cultures wish to survive and preserve their individual identity,

they can only do

so

by assimilating, each in

its

own way, that same science and technology

which have become their common destiny, as the universal product of the faculty of reason

common to all. From the point of view of human rights, a certain acquaintance on the part

of everyone with the scientific spirit-its methods of inquiry and research,

its

conception

of ideas, its way of comparing evidence, accepting what

it

proves and constantly seeking

the truth-is indispensable if we want to prevent a minority of initiates, wielding far too

much power and the prisoners of their own isolation, from ruling over the masses of man-

kind reduced to passivity. The round-table participants considered that science teaching

should

be

more closely integrated in school curricula from primary school onwards. They

also

drew attention to the dangers of premature specialization, which would prevent the

acquisition of an adequate general level of education at school: this view coincides

with

recommendations made by other conferences.

I n f o d

rt training

Introducing people to art and science quite apart from the formal system of general edu-

cation

is

one of the increasingly important sectors of cultural activity and one of the purposes

of cultural action. This particular problem is bound up with the use of leisure. In some

countries, where

it

is felt to be the States duty to take an interest in this question, the

authorities provide equipment

or

lay down methods for introducingpeople to

art

and science

among other things;

t

was suggested that scientific laboratories be installed in cultural

centres. Where there

is

an active adult education movement, art or science training, in the

form of lectures, clubs or working groups, holds a prominent place among the activities

offered.

In most countries, one of the purposes of cultural centres

is

to encourage informal art

training. Such training facilities are often requested when new urban districts are built. Ne w

instructional methods are sometimes devised there and can subsequently be used in general

education. Informal

art

education helps to raise the level of cultural needs by creating a

wider, more receptive and more exacting public. It is therefore a major concern in any

cultural policy. In Cuba, visual arts studios are open at all hours to receive amateurs who

are keen to study drawing, painting and sculpture under guidance from trained instructors.

Experienced artists are showing an interest in this experiment.

1. cf. in particular Recommendation A adopted bu the Conference of Ministers ofEducation ofEuropean

Member States (Vienna,20-25 November 19673.

26


24/48

The channelsfor cultural action

Books

The participants were unanimous in acknowledging that, in spite of the increasing importance

of all the other media, books remain an irreplaceable instrument of cultural training. Thanks

to technical progress, cheap editions are now readily obtainable and their quality has been

improved, ith the result that books now reach a considerably wider public. Various surveys,

however, indicate that readers are

stiil

drawn from the same categories of the public. The

percentage of people who never open a book remains high, even in industrialized countries.

Greater use should be made of radio and television to popularize reading. Cultural centres

could exert a similar influence.

Cheap editions can only show a profit if they seil in large numbers, therefore publishers

too often hesitate to publish the work of young authors. A n international study would

undoubtedly throw a useful light on this subject. Quite a valuable part could be played in

this respect by State publishing houses, which act in some countries as a method of subsi-

dizing literary production.

Because of the number and complexity of the questions involved and the lack of time at

their disposal, the participants did not go deeply into the problem as a whole, although

they did not underestimate

ts

importance and realized that

it

already occupies a large place

in Unesco s programme.

Television

Practical effecton cultural development

The quantitative importance of television

is

considerable, for in many countries the number

of television sets is growing extremely fast. For example, television reaches 80 per cent of

homes in Japan, about

63

per cent

in

Italy, and

33

per cent in Poland. Owing to the size

of

its

audience in these countries, television

is

the main factor for out-of-school ultural

development, whatever the quality of the programmes shown. Quantitatively speaking,

it

is

more important than the traditional means of spreading culture, namely, museums, theatres

and libraries. Television is helping to change the very modes of perception

of

whole popu-

lations.

By

modifying attendance at other cultural institutions, such as the cinema and the

theatre,

it

forces them to change.

In

certain countries where purchasing power

is

low, television involves great sacrifices or

State and citizens alike. Many countries consider television an irreplaceable training instru-

ment. Television makes t possible to reconcile different behaviour patterns and can help to

reduce undue disparities of outlook between town and country.

t is

an effective instrument

for cultural change. Many countries, therefore, make a special financial effort on behalf of

television and manage to arrange collective viewing by providing community centres and

various other public institutions with television sets.

The question of programmes

Almost every country recognizes that the three functions of television are to inform, instruct

and entertain.

This

third function

is

the one that presents problems for the people in charge

of cultural policies. Since television ranks high as a means of developing culture, how

is

the need for quality to be reconciled with the expansion of audiences? Should the coexistence

of high-quality broadcasts with programmes that might appear more demagogic than

educational be encouraged? Alternatively, should it be agreed that quality must

be

brought

down to an average level in order to avoid lasting schisms among the public? This

is

one

21


25/48


of the most serious problems in cultural development; it was discussed by the Prague

Conference

on

Adult Education and Leisurein Contemporary Europe

(29

March to 6 April

1965 , which recommended that

it

be studied, and in particular, that research be undertaken

on the impact of television on the cultural development of adults.

The round table considered

it

desirable that the cultural authorities in each country should

be able to take part officially, and with effective results, in the preparation of radio and

television programmes;

t

recommended exchanges of cultural programmes.

Radio

With the introduction of television, the radio has had to reconsider its role, adapt itself to

changing demands and strike out a new course more closely in keeping with its technical

possibilities. The invention of the transistor radio, something more personal, easy to trans-

port, and usable where there is no electricity laid on, has given radio broadcasting a certain

advantage over television by providing increased opportunities for dissemination in time

and space. This

is

particularly true in the developing countries, but

in

some industrialized

countries, too, surveys show that more people listen to the radio than watch television.

Programming problems are similar to those of television.

The wide coverage of radio and television reinforces the penetration of other media, itself

considerably extended by the greatly increased number of reprints, recordings and reproduc-

tions. This is not so much a mutation or a break with the past, as a change in the relative

importance of different methods of intellectual communication, though there

is

an obvious

predominance of dynamic over static culture, and of the concrete sensorial message over

the abstract one.

Cinema

In several countries the cinema, as a form of entertainment appealing primarily to the

younger age group,

is

left to private initiative and thus falls outside the control of the

cultural authorities. However, ts cultural influence

is

increasingly recognized and the crisis

in the cinema brought about by television has had two advantages: (a) it has created

awareness of the importance of the role which the cinema might play in cultural develop-

ment; (b) owing to the respective technical characteristics of these two media,

t

has brought

about an increasingly marked differentiation

in

their respective forms of expression.

In many countries, therefore, the cinema is one of the major considerations in cultural

policy. The need to train technicians, producers and actors leads to the establishment

of

special schools

or

joint training schools for theatre actors and technicians as well as cultural

centre and television personnel. As far as production is concerned, aid in the form of sub-

ventions or advances is given for high-quality productions which often include the organi-

zation of international festivals.

O n he distribution side, public authorities can help to ensure high standards by founding

film libraries for the conservation and loan of films and

film

clubs (in schools, factories and

firms

ultural centres, etc.) or experimental theatres and cinemas enjoying special tax con-

cessions. The aim of cultural policy in this field should be primarily to improve equipment

and promotion and to define ways in which public and private initiative can co-

operate effectively.All these media continue to evolve rapidly as a result of the appearance

of new forms of leisure, for example tourism, motoring and festivals.

The participants emphasized the need to beware lest these all-powerful edia, which allow

of a wide dissemination of culture become either, a form of plebeian barbarity as feared

28


26/48


by certain intellectuals or, in the words of the sociologist Adorno, a mass illusion the

result of which

will

be to prevent the growth of self-reliant independent individuals capable

of conscious judgement and decision. These media are, in fact, a two-edged weapon; being

often

in

the hands of commercial

firms

which are guided by the profit motive, they run the

risk, in catering for the widest possible public, of lowering standards and producing a

de-personalizing niformity, and of encouraging the public to be increasingly passive. W e

should, therefore, study a technique for using these extraordinarily powerful media

in

a

way which will promote culture.

Since the developing countries are beyond question less well equipped with mass media

than are highly industrialized countries, a study should be made of measures to prevent the

intake of cultures from other countries having a harmful effect

on

national cultures.

Press

It

is

agreed that the primary role of the press is information. However, many daily papers

and

still

more weeklies regularly publish specialized articles which may and do contribute

towards expanding cultural knowledge and the dissemination of culture. The illustrated

press (photographic reportage, comic strips) has surprising powers of getting through to

the public; if comic strips were produced by genuine artists, they might become a new form

of graphic literature.

The press suffers severely from the competition of radio and above all of television.To

remedy this state of affairs, the Swedish Government adopted a measure in

1966

which, in

the shape of a subsidy to political parties, in fact provides financial assistance to newspapers.

In the same year

it

agreed to give regular grants to cultural Magazines.

Theatre

In the Western world the theatre has gradually left

its

popular origins behind and has become

a form of expression for the lite; it is guided chiefly by conservative middle-class aste, the

aesthetic promptingsof avant-gardeartists, or by an intellectual desire to challenge society.

The ast two factors may go together, ut all these types of theatre remain inevitably restricted

to a small public. The association with social class acquired by the drama in the course

of its evolution is reflected even in the architectural design and internal layout of theatres.

During the last fifty years there has appeared the idea of a peoples theatre.An effort has

been made to attract a wider public to the theatre by putting on plays more adapted to its

tastes and needs, by locating theatres in poorer districts, by using adapted premises, or by

increasing the number of open-air performances. In the United States, t has been observed

that there is a theatre-going public among the poorer classes, provided plays deal

with

social questions.

Theatre decentralization

Nowadays, some countries regard the theatre as a public service

in

the full sense of the

word and are tryingto broaden the geographical nd social basis of the theatre-going ublic,

The

first

step has been to subsidize touring companies, while longer-term measures are

designed to encourage the provision of permanent facilities.

In

Tunisia, for example, the

travelling expenses of touring companies are borne by the government. Theatre decentra-

lization has often been the first step in a general policy of decentralizing the various

sectors and has even-as in Sweden and Cuba-been the starting point of an entire

cultural programme.

29


27/48

The channels

for

cultural action

A

number of countries regard the theatre as a driving force in cultural action. This is

due to the very nature ofthe art, which holds a mirror up to social relationships and provides

a meeting point for the individual and the community in the contemplation of the great

works of mankind. In some countries such as France, Japan and Tunisia, cultural centres

have grown out of nothing more than a theatrical company and an auditorium.

Financing

of

theatre deficit

Theatres everywhere are run increasingly at a

loss,

since this

is

a field in which costs are

constantly rising because of increased technical overheads and the growing number of

professional actors, with no possibility of greater productivity. This means that,

if

the State

wishes to treat the theatre as a public service and keep prices really low, theatres cannot

possibly break even and are unlikely to do so at any time in the future. What

is

more, high-

quality productions are very expensive, and money has also to be found for the production

of a certain number

of

contemporary works.

This

is an expense which those responsible for

theatrical development at various levels may sometimes still be unwilling to bear.

Opera raises serious problems of balance, since its costs are exorbitant and weigh heavily

on the theatrical sector as a whole, although it plays a minor part in quantitative terms.

Some

sort

of balance between the means of access to culture must, however, be maintained.

The problem of reintegrating opera in the life of a modern society

is

receiving attention in

a number

of

countries.

Festivals

These have made a great deal of headway in certain countries. In Europe, they have been

started either by well-known figures in the world of art or by local authorities, while in

Japan the initiative has been taken by the Ministry of Education.

International estivals. These are of a very high standard, take place increasingly at regular

intervals, and may be divided into three categories:

1 Those which enrich the educationofthe public by showing works from different countries

and in different art forms (Thtre des Nations, the film festivals of Acapulco, Cannes,

Moscow, N e w York, Sydney, Venice).

2. Those which promote research by providing an opportunity of comparing different

creative trends in the arts and of making experiments which give rise to innovations in

a particular field (the music festivals of Royan, Zagreb and Salzburg; the biennial exhi-

bitions of painting held in Venice and So Paulo; the Pesaro Mostre Internationale del

Nuovo Cinema; the Knokke festival of experimental i l m the Annecy Festival of Ani-

mation Films;the biennial festival of song held in Varna.

3. Festivals combining several art forms which help to do away with the traditional divisions

between art forms and to give rise to new combinations, uniting established forms of

expression with others hitherto considered minor (the Avignon festival, the Biennale de

Paris,

the festivals of Carthage, Baalbek and Shiraz..

. .

Regional or local festivals. These are mostly organized by university students, who find in

them an opportunity to experiment in cultural activity; or by local authorities, with a view

to adding to their towns prestige or to giving the local population a stimulating outlet for

expression (Bulgaria, France, United States, Yugoslavia).

Festivals with competitive events. These are organized in a number of countries and generally

carry prizes. Their main aim

is

to encourage amateur groups and to search for new talent.

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The channels

for

cultural action

In Tunisia, prizes are given at the end of the amateur theatre festival to the best actor, the

best actress, the best production, the best adaptation, tc. The participating companies are

selected by a special committee, ith the result that they have an incentive to improve their

productions throughout the year and to put

on

original work in the hope of being chosen

by the selection committees. In Cuba, the best actors come under the patronage of the

government, which provides their training. In Japan, festivals combine as many as ten

different art forms; those responsible for the best stage performances can take them on

tour at government expense.

Cuitund centres

N e w departures require new methods. Cultural centres have sprung up in many countries

(Ecuador, France, Poland, Tunisia,

U.S.S.R.

tc.) which have come to

be

widely regarded

as the perfect vehicle for the new cultural policy, endeavouring to reconcile quality with mass

participation. These are multi-purpose, ublicly owned cultural centres which organize acti-

vities in response to cultural needs in a number of different fields (theatre, music, visual arts,

libraries and-as circumstances require-youth clubs and adult education classes). Some

countries have a very lofty conception of the role of these centres, regarding it as their job to

provide the community with a spiritual nucleus by combining high standards of quality in

whatever they present, with opportunities for active participationon the part of a wide public.

Elsewhere-especially in the developing countries-greater stress

is

laid on the centres ocial

and educational aspects, and the training they are called upon to provide is often of a prac-

tical character. In such circumstances, the cultural centre

is

primarily an instrument of adult

education.

Although many-sidedness

s

fundamental to the whole idea of a cultural centre, this

principle can easily go by the board, especially as public demand or the personality of whom-

ever is in charge can sometimes lead to concentration

on

one particular activity-such as

drama, visual arts or science. Generally speaking, the activities of a cultural centre represent

a choice between the broad alternatives of cultural policy: the popularizing of masterpieces

or workers education. In the former case, anything presented

will

be essentially of an artistic

nature and of high-in other words invariably professional-quality, thereby setting a stan-

dard and providing a stimulus both for local artists and for the public as a whole. Where

workers education

is

the alternative chosen, activitieswill be far more diversified and will

even include practical hints for home handy-men and housewives; in

this

case, the idea is to

stimulate community life by organizing leisure activities while often providing workers

education and training as well-especially in the developing countries, here this last func-

tion

is

the most important one.

The cultural centre is still in an experimental stage and the methods used are on the whole

empirical. The round-table participants asked for arrangements to be made to pool the

experienceso far gained. A n nteresting innovation on these lines was pointed out:in Poland,

a large number of coffee-clubs ave sprung up, even in the villages. These are meeting places

where books, newspapers, television, radio and refreshments are available, also a gramo-

phone and games. Cultural activities are thus integrated in social and commercial life, to the

great benet

of

the community. These clubs make a concrete contribution towards reducing

the cultural ap between town and country and towards the adoption, above all by young

people, of models of urban culture and of new customs and behaviour. They promote social

integration by bringing together representatives of different generations and different groups.

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Libraries

Unesco deals elsewhere with libraries and their problems:

this

paper

is

concerned with them

only from the point of view of cultural policy. Libraries are vital to cultural policy because

although there

is

more than one approach to great works and the main streams of culture,

only libraries can combine top quality with low cost, maximum freedom of choice and a high

degree of public participation. The minimum price level that

will

allow a theatre, say, or

concert hall to offer a satisfactory standard of quality

is

very high; moreover, neither theatre

nor concert hall can offer the same breadth of choice as a library, and neither requires

such an active response on the part of the public. For these reasons, any countries refer to

concentrate on libraries

in

their development programmes.

Public reading centres

Libraries were originally places of learning where stocks f bouks were collected,

classified

and preserved. T o that stewardship of knowledge there has now

been

added the task of

disseminating

t.

While record offices and university libraries are as essential as ever, cultural

development calls for a great increasein the number of public reading rooms. These are very

different from the traditional library: space

is

used for display rather than storage, an effort

is made to attract the public and to make them feel at home, and use is made of audio-visual

aids. The librarian becomes not

so

much a curator as a promoter (see Training f librarians

above). As the material involved need not consist exclusively of printed books but may be

recorded on disc or

film

the quality of the centre does not depend on the size of its premises,

which can be varied to suit the size of the district to

be

served. Specially equipped and con-

structed childrens libraries are springing

up

everywhere.

In

one country

it

is

a compulsory

requirement that they be run by women, who are more likely to understand a childs outlook.

In order to bring books to the reader, mobile libraries have been set up, which cover even

remote villages. Public reading facilities are fairly easy to run, and this simplifies manage-

ment. In most countries, libraries are run by decentralized bodies such as local authorities,

trade unions,

r m s

and other associations. n one country, uch bodies have long been required

by law to devote a certain percentage of their funds to public reading facilities, which are as

a result exceptionally weli developed. Intervention by central authorities is limited to ini-

tiating action where necessary, establishing standards, subsidizing purchasing and training

personnel.All this can be done more efficiently if public libraries are closely associated with

the programme of cultural action as a whole.

N e w functions of museums

It

is

part of a museums job nowadays to interest the public in

its

treasures instead of merely

conserving them as it did in the past. Hence the museum, too, is an instrument of cultural

policy. Because their duties are no longer quite the same as a result of this new departure,

museum staffs are having to adopt new methods and may need a different sort of training,

while a corresponding transformation s taking place in the architecture and activities of the

museums themselves. The public-usually attracted in the

first

instance by a temporary

exhibition-nd their interest awakened and held by new amenities, useful adjuncts such as

projection

rooms

and special libraries and more instructive display techniques thus the

museum becomes dynamic instead of static and begins to function as a true cultural centre.

It may be linked to a cultural centre, or provide a commercial service by the sale of books

of art, reproductions and handicrafts, or fulfil an educational function by offering evening

courses in the fine arts, music, town planning,

and

so forth. N e w museums are sometimes

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founded in response to contemporary nterest in such things as motor-cars Italy),

oil

(Venez-

uela), and science and technology

in

general.

The problen here, asin other sectors of cultural action, s that of reconciling co-ordination

with decentralization. Its new and important role as a distributor means that the museum

is

no longer the exclusive concern of one particular town which happens, as

an

act of pie

Documents

Cultural policy a preliminary study