COURSEBOOK Full Version

7/31/2019 COURSEBOOK Full Version

1/87

NOTE:

This material is a part of the tutorials in EnglishSyntax held at the Institute of Foreign Languages and theFaculty of Arts, University of Montenegro.

The primary aim of the Workbook is to serve as the

backup teaching material which accompanies therelevant chapters of the textbook English Syntax formsand functions by Doc. dr Igor Laki, whose lectures haveinspired the creation and modeling of this material.

The Workbook resulted from years of teachingpractice and comprises various exercises, some of whichhave been taken from the syntax books listed in theLiterature section. The exercises have been adapted tomeet the undergraduate Syntax course requirements andthey are aimed at facilitating comprehension of thestructure of English and sentence parsing.

This material has not been written for publicationand no part of the Workbook may be reprinted,reproduced or used for commercial purposes.

1


2/87

CONTENTS:

Introduction 3

1. Types of verbs

5

2. Parts of speech (part one)

7

3. Parts of speech (part two)

11

4. Parts of speech revision

14

5. Phrases20

6. Clauses

25

7. Sentences 27

8. Form and function interface

29

9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions36

10. Immediate constituent analysis I

39

11. Immediate constituent analysis II

45

Apendix A

48

Apendix B

75

Literature

83

2


3/87

INTRODUCTION

Syntax can be quite funny!

A. Try to guess what type of word is missing in the songlyrics below (verb, noun, adjective, pronoun etc.).If you know the song lyrics, focus on the word classes not on theactual words that you recognize as missing!

Fever

Never know how much .love youNever know how much I .When you put . arms . meI get .. fever that`s so hard ..

You give .fever . you kiss meFever when you hold me .Fever in . morningFever all through the night.

Sun lights . the . lights up the nightI light up when you . my nameAnd you know I'm gonna treat you .

You give me fever . you kiss meFever when you hold me .Fever in . morning

3


4/87

Fever all through the night.

Ev'rybody's got the feverthat is something you all knowFever isn't such a . thingFever . long ..

. loved Juliet

Juliet she felt the sameWhen he put his arms . herHe said 'Julie, baby, you're my .. givest fever when we kissethFever with . .youthFever I'm .Fever yea I burn forsooth'.

Captain Smith and PocahontasHad a very . affairWhen . daddy tried . himShe said 'Daddy, oh, don't you .He gives mefever with his kissesFever when he holds me tightFever, I'm his .,Oh daddy, won't you treat him right'.

. youve listened to my storyHere's the . that I have madeCats were .to give chicks feverBe it Fahrenheit or centigrade

They give . fever when you kiss themFever if you live and learnFever till you .What lovely way to burnWhat.. lovely way to burnWhat . lovely way to burn.

B. List the word classes that you were able to identify

while filling in the blanks and think of any other part ofspeech to make a list of word classes in English.

4


5/87

1. TYPES OF VERBS

Key issues examined:

- finite, non-finite, auxiliary verbs- transitive, intransitive, copulative verbs- verbs and change of categories- verb complementation (subject and object complement)

A. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF VERB (transitive, intransitive orcopulative)

SENTENCE TYPE OF VERB

1. I can move this heavy box.

2. The Earth moves round the Sun.

3. He walked from London to Windsor.

4. The groom walks the horse for exercise.

5. I must go and change my clothes.

6. Dont lose heart; Im sure your luck willchange.

7. Time passes slowly when you are alone.8. Your dreams might come true one day.

9. Will you pass the salt, please?

10. The driver stopped the car.

11. My watch has stopped.

12. He began his speech with a humorous story.

13. The class begins at 10 oclock.

5


6/87

14. My train was late.

15. She was lying on the sofa when I entered.

16. Its difficult to raise children nowadays.

17. All mortals die.

18. She seems to be satisfied.

19. Put it down, please.

20. The man grew rich by growing his beard.

21. He did everything that he wanted.22. The apprentice looks careful.

23. The writer always knows what he means.

24. This book first appeared in 1948.

25. The department meeting will be in an hour.

B. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF COMPLEMENT (subjective or

objective)

1. Nelson was a sailor. SCOC

2. The fur feels soft. SCOC3. The room looks clean and tidy. SCOC4. They elected him president. SC

OC5. The milk turned sour. SCOC6. It is true, indeed. SCOC7. He called the man a thief. SCOC8. The work seemed easy but it turned out difficult. SC

OC9. He takes his whiskey neat. SCOC10. The door flew open. SCOC11. I drink my coffee strong. SCOC

6


7/87

12. The remark sounds stupid to me. SCOC13. They appointed George captain of the team. SCOC14. The man grew weaker every day. SCOC15. Set the people free. SC

OC16. It made me feel well. SCOC17. This appears to be difficult SCOC

18. His shoes have worn thin. SCOC

19. Let the kids go. SC

OC20. He fell ill. SCOC

2. PARTS OF SPEECH (PART ONE)

Key issues examined:- prepositions: single, coalescent, group prepositions- adjectives predicative and attributive use- classification of adjectives- adjectives with two forms- adjectives and adverbs with the same form (adjectives vs. adverbs easily confused?)- adverbs as modifiers and the classification of adverbs according tomeaning

7


8/87


9/87

2. Mathew Perry is said to be one of the best ............................. actorsnowadays.3. ............................ accidents occur daily on our motorways.4. Sally can paint, but I have no .......................... talents at all.5. This photograph of Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin captures a......................... moment.6. The changes that our country is going through cause great............................. problems.7. There are two ............................. parties in the USA the Democratic

and the Republican party.8. She is studying ............................. languages and literature atCambridge.9. Smart is an ............................. little car.10. She graduated from the School of ............................. last September.11. The ......................... records of the pre-war period are not availableto the public.12. Transport workers are employed in all sectors of ............................13. Many of the ........................ treasures were stolen at the beginningof the century.14. He looked so ............................. in that hat.

15. I dont think it would be ............................. to ask for a loan just now.

C. PROVIDE TWO SENTENCES WITH THE SAME ADJECTIVEUSED:

predicatively:..

attributively:..

D. FILL IN THE BLANKS WITH APPROPRIATE ADJECTIVES,ADVERBS OR PREPOSITIONS:

CLEAR

1. His instructions were as .............................. as mud.2. Keep .............................. of the gate.3. The accident was .............................. the lorry driver's fault.

4. The children were saved from the fire only because a neighbor pulled them

...........................

NEAR

1. Don't come too ............................. me - you might catch my cold.2. I'm nowhere ............................. finishing the book - I'm only half-

way through it.

9


10/87

3. All our computer equipment will be replaced in the............................. future.

4. We had a .............................-disaster this morning in the car!5. It's been ............................. three months since my last haircut.6. She lives ............................. my shop.

BESIDE/S

1. Our school was built right ............................. a river.

2. He was ............................. himself with grief when she died.3. Do you play any other sports ............................. football andbasketball?

4. She has so much to do ..............................

JUST

1. Ive been treated ..............................2. They sold the last ticket five minutes before I got there

- ............................. my luck!3. I've ............................. about finished painting the living room.

4. The judge's sentence was perfectly ............................. in thecircumstances.

E. CIRCLE THE WORD THAT BEST FITS THE SENTENCE.SOMETIMESONLY ONE WORD WILL FIT; SOMETIMES TWO!

1. Our landlady greeted us BRIGHT/BRIGHTLYin French.

2. The moon was shining so BRIGHT/BRIGHTLYwe decided to go out.

3. Industrial goods are often produced CHEAP/CHEAPLY in developingcountries.

4. You can buy fresh vegetables CHEAP/CHEAPLYat the market.

5. He spoke LOUD/LOUDLYand CLEAR/CLEARLY.

6. If anyone phones while Im out tell them Ill be back

DIRECT/DIRECTLY.

7. Is it possible to fly DIRECT/DIRECTLYto Tahiti?8. I dislike playing chess with Janet .She never plays FAIR/FAIRLY.

9. Im sure the shop will treat you FAIR/FAIRLYif you ask for refund.

10. If she offers you less than 1 000 euros, you must FIRM/FIRMLYrefuse.

11. Were standing FIRM/FIRMLYagainst any changes in policy.

12. You did RIGHT/RIGHTLY in refusing payment for giving them

advice.

13. John informed us RIGHT/RIGHTLY that the 8.27 for Brighton was

cancelled.

10


11/87


12/87


- classification of pronouns: personal, possessive, demonstrative,reflexive, interrogative, indefinite, distributive and relative pronouns- pronouns vs. conjunctions/ adjectives- the mysterious `that` - pronoun, adjective, conjunction or somethingelse?

- gerunds vs. participles

A. IDENTIFY THE FORM OF THE ITALICIZED SYNTACTICUNITS AND DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THEM.

1. a) Youve got my pen. ________b) Youre using mine? Wheres yours?

________

2. a) That book is mine.________

b) That is what I want. ________

3. a) Whose is this notebook? ________b) Whose car broke down? ________

4. a) He has gone to the far East.________

b) He didnt walk very far.________

5. a) Few or a few whats the difference? ________b) Noah has had very few opportunities to practice his English.

________6. a) Some students have a taste for grammar, others dont. ________

b) I have no apples. I had some last year but I have none this year.________

7. a) There is little sugar left in the cupboard. ________b) There is a little sugar left in the cupboard. ________

8. a) I think that is the best film I have ever seen.________

b) Which scene did you like best?________

9. a) One shilling is as good as another. ________ b) One never knows when the blow may fall. ________

12


13/87

10. a) This is their silver wedding.________

b) Can you imagine? They spent a night by the silvery light of themoon.

B. SUPPLY REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ONLY WERE STRICTLYNECESSARY.

1. I hope you all enjoy ......................... .

2. You need to relax ........................... after a long period of intensive

work.

3. No one will ever know why she drowned ........................ .

4. Have you shaved ........................ yet?

5. Hamlet revenged ........................ on his fathers murderer.

6. I dont know where to hide ........................... .

7. She avenged ........................... her mothers death.

8. I wish you wouldnt keep repeating ............................ .

9. Youd better check ....................... that our hotel booking is OK.

10. Its always wise to insure ............................ before you travel

abroad.

11. It looks as though the plane-crash victims suffocated .........................

.

12. Its impossible to excuse ............................ such bad behavior.13. I feel I have to excuse ............................... for my bad behavior last

night.

C. IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE You cant do all the work

yourself , THE UNDERLINED REFLEXIVE PRONOUN HAS WHICH

FUNCTION?

D. UNDERLINE AND IDENTIFY ALL (!) ADJECTIVES IN THE FOLLOWINGTEXT.

Consider the following facts: (1) Antisocial behavior among the

young (crime, violence etc.) is increasing, and their educational

standards are falling; (2) Children are eating more so-called 'junk (or

13


14/87

rubbish) food'. Could these two facts be connected? Until recently most

expert opinion would have made fun of the question itself. Now, it

seems, the experts may have to think again, taking into account the

results of recently completed scientific trials, which have dramatically

demonstrated the effects of children's food on their behavior and

intellectual performance.

The central issue behind the new trials concerns the importance ofvitamins. For years those interested in healthy food have claimed we

don't get enough goodness from modern processed food and that we all

need extra

vitamins and minerals to be really healthy. Established medical opinion

tends to laugh at this idea, saying that for the vast majority of us a

normal diet contains more than enough goodness, and that taking

expensive vitamin and mineral supplements is throwing our money

away.

D. IDENTIFY THE ITALICIZED UNITS AS GERUNDS OR

PARTICIPLES.

SENTENCE VERB FORM1. Tara is fond ofrunning.

2. We detest running.

3. Running is my hobby.

4. They do not have the running water!

5. I saw them running.

6. Who is running for the president this year?

7. Put on the running shoes.8. She has control of the day-to-day running of thebusiness.9. Running out of the store, she grabbed a bag.

10. Stop running around me!

14


15/87

E. PROVIDE AN EXAMPLE OF A SENTENCE

CONTAINING:

a) THAT as demonstrative pronoun:

b) THAT as demonstrative adjective:

c) THAT as relative pronoun:

d) THAT as conjunction:

e) THAT functioning as determiner:

4. PARTS OF SPEECH (revision)


- nouns, classification of nouns- determiners

- interjections- revision of the word classes

A. HERE IS A SENTENCE WHICH CONTAINS JUST ONEINSTANCE OF EACH OF THE ELEVEN WORD CLASSESSMENTIONED ON THE LECTURES. MATCH EACH WORD TOITS WORD CLASS:

But alas,

the two jealous

sisters

had gone

home

without her.

B. IDENTIFY THE FORM OF EACH WORD IN THEFOLLOWING SENTENCES.

1. A ..violent ..storm ..

15


16/87


17/87

him. ..

6. If ..you ..think ..that ..we ..should ..do ..

that, ..we ..will ..start ..immediately ..and ..will ..definitely ..finish ..by ..the ..

next ..week. ..

7. The ..boy, ..who ..was ..crying ..as if ..his ..

heart ..would ..break, ..said ..when ..I ..spoke ..to ..him ..that ..he ..

was ..hungry ..because ..he ..had ..had ..nothing ..to eat ..for ..

17


18/87

two ..days. ..

8. Ian, ..though ..he ..had ..not ..previously ..

answered ..any ..question ..when ..the ..teacher ..asked ..him, ..now ..said ..that ..

he ..knew ..the ..answer ..to ..this ..question ..because ..it ..was ..in ..

the ..lesson ..that ..he ..had ..just ..read. ..

9. He ..asked ..if ..

he ..could ..use ..my ..phone ..on ..the ..kitchen ..counter ..

18


19/87

and ..then ..he ..went ..out ..and ..used ..it ..without ..

my ..approval. ..10. Police ..

were ..in ..no ..way ..responsible ..for ..the ..theft ..

or ..for ..the ..subsequent ..murder ..because ..in ..that ..particular ..case ..they ..

were ..just ..following ..their ..captains ..orders. ..

11. Now, ..I ..solemnly ..swear ..

that ..I ..will ..not ..make ..stupid ..inexcusable ..mistakes ..on ..

19


20/87

my ..syntax ..test ..and ..I ..hereby ..officially ..admit ..that ..

after ..this ..extremely ..useful ..exercise ..I ..know ..all ..word ..classes. ..

C. LIST DOWN ALL THE POTENTIAL PROBLEMS YOUDETECTED REGARDING PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE PREVIOUSEXERCISE. ADD AS MANY NOTES AS YOU CAN THINK OFFOCUSING ON THOSE THAT MAY HELP YOU IN THE PROCESSOF IDENTIFYING PARTS OF SPEECH. SOME SUGGESTIONSARE NOTED BELOW.

a) Pronouns do not PRECEDE nouns, they SUBSTITUTE nouns!b) Verb to be can be COPULATIVE or AUXILIARY. It is COPULATIVE

when it . and it is AUXILIARY when itc) Prepositions are typically followed by NOUN PHRASES as in: in my

house, at your disposal, by her absence.d) NOT is not an adjective, it is .e) ALL is ..f) g) h) i) j)

k) l) m)n) o) p) q) r) s) t)

20


21/87

u) v) w) x) y) z)

5. PHRASES(revision)

A. UNDERLINE THE HEADS IN THE FOLLOWING PHRASESAND THEN DRAW A BRANCHING DIAGRAM FOR EACHPHRASE.

the leading figure in the early century

pretty cheaply

was scrubbing the floor

an extremely annoying person

a few arguments about the recent crisis in the East

21


22/87

reluctantly invited her to a party

the smell of the dampness of the workshop

was chasing neighbors cats all day

two amazingly cute girls in the crowded red bus

each ridiculous stupefying question at the beginning of a

debate

22


23/87

B. WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE UNDERLINED SYNTACTICUNITS (Det, M, H, Q)

every quest..

top marks

..

protest against the decision

..

eerily silent

..bold enough

..

Greys anatomy

..

C. DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPLEMENTATION IN THEFOLLOWING PHRASES (transitive, intransitive, copulative). THE

FIRST EXAMPLE IS DONE FOR YOU.

1. was very polite

copulative

2. appointed him chairman of the committee

3. stayed in Bogot for a spell

..

4. begged them to stay..

5. died peacefully in Chicago General Hospital

..

6. unwillingly gave me her phone number yesterday

..

23


24/87

7. have been working in the garden all morning

..

8. was preparing the meal

..

9. seems rather strange

..

D. IN THE FOLLOWING VERB PHRASES THE SHADEDCONSTRUCTIONS FUNCTION AS: (circle the correct answer)

was very politea) AM b) Pred c) IO d) DO e) OC

appointed him chairman of the committee

a) AM b) Pred c) IO d) DO e) OC

died peacefully in Chicago General Hospital


have been working in the garden all morning


was preparing the meal


begged them to stay


E. ANALYSE THE FOLLOWING VERB PHRASES FROM EXERCISEC BY MEANS OF BRANCHING DIAGRAM.Model answer:

was very polite

Vc Pred

AdjP

appointed him chairman of the committee

24


25/87


26/87

..g) a NP with two modifiers:

..

6. CLAUSES

EXERCISE A.PICK OUT THE CLAUSES (NOUN, ADJECTIVE OR ADVERBIAL) IN THEFOLLOWING SENTENCES. DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF EACH CLAUSE

YOU IDENTIFY.

SENTENCE

TYPE OF

CLAUSE

FUNCTIO

The oral examination was not such a great ordeal as I expected.

That it was done deliberately is quite clear.

The notion that people can work less and earn more is contrary toreason.

Don't handle those cups and saucers as if they were of iron.

People are wondering when interplanetary travel will become possible.

This is the route I intend to take.

We greatly regret that we were obliged to refuse your invitation.

They went swimming although the sea was very rough.

26


27/87

What you are attempting is really too difficult for you.

He took notes on what I have already explained to him.

The hospital will greatly appreciate what you can do for the patients.

The suggestion that cinemas should open on Sundays was welcomed.

We were very amused by what you told us.

The house where he lives has just been repainted.

This is what I have always imagined.

Tell me where you are going for your holiday.

When I arrived, he showed me all the paintings he had done recently.

We shall go wherever she wishes to take us.

Do you remember when Hardy came to see me?

We had to cancel the match because it was so foggy.

B. GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF AN ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL CLAUSE,BOTH BEGINNING WITH WHERE.

27


28/87

C. DISCUSS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

The wine which was in the cellar was ruined.The wine, which was in the cellar, was ruined.

7. SENTENCE

A. IN THE FOLLOWING SET OF SENTENCES IDENTIFY EACH SENTENCEAS SIMPLE, COMPLEX OR COMPOUND BY CIRCLING THE CORRECTANSWER.

1. The company calls itself a social enterprise and the first item on the

agenda is to promote fair trade with undeveloped countries.

a) simple b) complex c) compound

2. Although my girlfriend spent most of her time at home, she managed to

become a real woman of the world.


3. As I stood under the streaming water for a long time, I thought that I had

to do laundry and pay some bills.


4. He told his students that the meeting would take some time and asked

them to wait.a) simple b) complex c) compound

5. When she returned from maternity leave, she found that the company

had undergone restructuring.


6. That evening she learned that the ticket she found had a winning number

of it.

a) simple b) complex c) compound7. A patch of sunlight came through the tree branches outside the window

and I woke up and saw that the sunlight was on my face.


8. I stretched out on the shabby motel bed and rested my hands over my

breasts.

a) simple b) complex c) compound28


29/87

9. If a firm can persuade the public that its product has unique qualities it

can beat the rivals and sell the same product at a lower price.


B. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF EACH PHRASE OR SENTENCE INTHE FOLLOWING SET OF CONSTRUCTIONS AND THENDETERMINE THEIR STRUCTURE (SPECIFY IS IT COORDINATE OR

SUBORDINATE)THE FIRST CONSTRUCTION IS DONE FOR YOU.

-the glasses on the tableNP, subordinate

1. has ensured environmental stability..

2. Should I stay or should I go?..

3. annoying habit..4. very pretty and highly motivated

..5. utterly defenseless

..6. Ross and Rachel

..7. He offered to bring some tea but we all refused.

..8. old house by the road..

9. nice but goofy..

10. the founder of a dynasty..

11. in the house or by the playground..

C. GIVE YOU OWN EXAMPLE OF:

- a subordinate NP

- a coordinate NP

- a compound sentence

29


30/87

- a subordinate AdjP

- a coordinate VP-

8. FORM AND FUNCTION INTERFACE

A) IDENTIFY THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF THEUNDERLINED UNITS. THE FIRST SENTENCE IS DONE FOR

YOU.

SENTENCE FORM FUNCTION

His greatest ambition is to win this

match.

NP,

subordinate(NOUN PHRASE)

S

(SUBJECT)

The loss of control was quite scary.

The old man travelled slowlythrough the village.

They promised Tim a better salary.

It seemed an unthinkably long way .

Ill tell everyone if you leave now.

This is what I expect from you.

To drive a car is expensivenowadays.

The disclosure of her real identitystartled the public.

My way of dealing with problems is

30


31/87

running away as far as possible.

I am leaving is all she said.

They painted the house white.

The facts I had begun my lecturewith caused some concern amongthe students.

By that time the party will be over.

This has been a very cold winter.

The student didnt understand whatI asked.

I fI I forgot to turn off the light.

The Harvard library and StanfordUniversity have just extended heran exceptional offer.

The teacher showed whoeverinsisted the exam results.

Whatever you do is OK with me.

She was in terrible pains when she

called me.

Staying late every night makes merather tired.

I like practicing to music.

31


32/87

The woman over there is a friend ofmine

What you want to say isunimportant.

The stories he told frightened me.

I have discussed the question ofstocking the new pig farm with mycolleagues.

The little boy asked anembarrassing question as soon as Icalled him.

One is the loneliest number.

She gave him a condescending lookand walked away.

I hope you wont take it amiss if weleave earlier.

Gina pressed the flower betweenthe pages.

She considers it a shame.

Steve gave up smoking.

They showed Ian and Cate a nicepicture.

My cousin Dianne turned into a veryhandsome girl over the years.

She speaks fast.

32


33/87

Hamlet's vengeance is what we allrecognize as the motif of the play.

He made her his queen.

To steal or not to steal doesntsound as an appropriate question.

Efficient is not a correct answer.

She went home because she wasvery tired.

I am listening to some very oldrecords.

She went out to buy some candles.

Are you seriously proposing weshould allow this situation tocontinue?

Bowling is not a very popular sportin our country.

B) GIVE AN EXAMPLE EACH OF SENTENCES CONTAINING:

- noun functioning as subject

- noun functioning as direct object

- noun functioning as indirect object

- noun functioning as predicative

33


34/87

- subordinate noun phrase functioning as subject

- coordinate noun phrase functioning as subject

- subordinate noun phrase functioning as direct object

- coordinate noun phrase functioning as direct object

- subordinate noun phrase functioning as indirect object

- coordinate noun phrase functioning as indirect object

- subordinate noun phrase functioning as predicative

- coordinate noun phrase functioning as predicative

- noun phrase functioning as object complement

- personal pronoun functioning as subject

- personal pronoun functioning as direct object

- personal pronoun functioning as indirect object

- gerund functioning as subject

- gerund functioning as direct object

- gerund phrase functioning as subject

- gerund phrase functioning as direct object

34


35/87

- adjective functioning as predicative

- adjective functioning as object complement

- adjectival phrase functioning as predicative

- adjectival phrase functioning as object complement

- adjectival phrase functioning as modifier

- adverb functioning as adverbial modifier

- adverb functioning as qualifier

- adverbial phrase functioning as adverbial modifier

- adverbial phrase functioning as subject

- adverbial phrase functioning as predicative

- infinitive functioning as subject

- infinitive functioning as direct object

- infinitive phrase functioning as subject

- infinitive phrase functioning as direct object

- infinitive phrase functioning as predicative

- prepositional phrase functioning as subject

- prepositional phrase functioning as predicative

35


36/87

- prepositional phrase functioning as adverbial modifier

- prepositional phrase functioning as qualifier

- clause functioning as subject

- clause functioning as direct object

- clause functioning as indirect object

- clause functioning as predicative

- clause functioning as adverbial modifier

- clause functioning as qualifier

- simple sentence

- complex sentence

- compound sentence

36


37/87

9.ENDOCENTRIC AND EXOCENTRICCONSTRUCTIONS

A. IDENTIFY THE CONSTRUCTION TYPES AND THE SYNTACTICLEVELS TO WHICH THE FOLLOWING CONSTRUCTIONS BELONG.

THE FIRST CONSTRUCTION IS ANALYSED FOR YOU.

- lives thereENDOCENTRIC SUBORDINATE CENTRE FIRST VERB PHRASE

- in the evening______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- a social ladder______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- have exceeded______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- is radiant______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- Clive arrived safe and sound.______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- extremely boring______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- This can not be negotiable.______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- to and fro______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- was listening______________ ______________ _____________ ______________

- if you insist______________ ______________ _____________ _______________

- I arrived safely although we passed through hell.______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

- She bumped in and we all looked at her.______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

- fairly quickly and strictly professionally

37


38/87

______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- about us______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- gave a wink______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- speaks fluently

______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- amber eyes______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- the Ministry of Justice______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- has just come______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- was more than enough______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- no place to go______________ _____________ ______________ _____________

- Dorian` s wife______________ _____________ ______________ _____________

- seems radical______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- did not recommend______________ _____________ ______________ _____________

- If you really want to know, call her.______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- will meet all the participants______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- Dickens, the author of `Oliver Twist`

______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- M & S______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- 150______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

38


39/87

- old enough______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- took a boat trip along the coast______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- was more than enough______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- because she disappeared______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- started crying incessantly______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- Off we go!______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- to and fro______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- Lake Como______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- too green to be red______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- you or me______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

- If you see her, tell her I forgive her.

______________ ______________ ______________ _____________

10. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS(IC ANALYSIS)

39


40/87

LEVEL FIRSTCUT

SENTENCE

-simple sentence separatessubject and predicate

All birds

must eat.

-complex sentence in front of subordinatingconjunction

(because, although, as,when, even though ...) I feel exhilaratedwhen I pass the exam.

-compound sentence in front of and after theconjunction

(and ,but ,or) I am sleeping andshe is awake.

If a sentence contains a sentence modifier (exclamations, vocatives,PrepP, VingP ...) first cut is in front of or after the sentence modifier.After doing that, you can proceed and make the other cuts accordingto the given rules.

Of course, she IS pretty.

NOTE: Sentence modifiers are usually separated from the rest of thesentence by commas so you should have no trouble whatsoever indetecting them.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE after theconjunction

becauseshe left

although itwas getting late

RELATIVE CLAUSE after relativepronoun

who playsin the band

40


41/87

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE afterpreposition

inthe box

INFINITIVE PHRASE afterinfinitive

toraise kids

GERUNDIAL PHRASE after gerund

speaking to him

NOUN PHRASE

Beginning at the end cut off successively each QUALIFIER until you

reach the noun head.

the girl I met

So, first check whether NP has a qualifier and if it has - make the firstcut in front of it and then proceed. After doing this, begin at the frontand cut off all prenominal modifiers until you reach the noun head.

the old garden hat in the shed

VERB PHRASE

Modifiers of the verb are cut off from the front, back to the verb head.There is seldom more than one AM preceding the main verb.

happily jumped on the table

After the preverbal modifiers have been cut off, one begins at theback and cuts off successive modifiers up to the verb head.

happily jumped on the table

41


42/87

Auxiliaries are cut off successively up to the verb head.

may have been eating

N.B. PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO:

- ADJECTIVE PHRASES FUNCTIONING AS MODIFIERS WITHIN NOUNPHRASES

a very amusing story

- COORDINATE MODIFIERS WITHIN NPs JOINED WITH CONJUNCTIONS AND,BUT or OR .THEY ARE SEPARATED AS FOLLOWS:

beautiful red and white stripes

-IF WITHIN VP THERE IS AN ADVERB (not, always, rarely...) INSERTEDBETWEEN AUXILIARY AND MAIN VERB YOU ANALYSE THE PHRASE ASFOLLOWS:

was never urging

- WITHIN VP FIRST CUT IS ALWAYS MADE IN FRONT OF OR AFTERADVERBIAL MODIFIER (depends on whether it precedes or follows themain verb).

-IF WITHIN VP YOU HAVE INDIRECT AND DIRECT OBJECT LEAVE THEINDIRECT OBJECT WITH THE VERB (since it is closer) AND CUT OFF DIRECTAND THEN INDIRECT OBJECT:

told her the truth

- COORDINATE PHRASES WITHIN VP:

wanted to come and visit me

SUMMARY:

1. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SENTENCE (is it simple, compound orcomplex?).2. CUT OFF ANY SENTENCE MODIFIERS.

42


43/87

3. CUT BETWEEN THE SUBJECT NOUN PHRASE AND THEPREDICATE VERB PHRASE.4. CUT THESE PHRASES INTO SUCCESSIVE ICs, DOWN TO THEINDIVIDUAL WORDS

A. MAKE AN IC ANALYSIS OF THE GIVEN SENTENCES ACCORDING TOTHE GENERAL RULES FOR IC ANALYSIS IN SYNTAX. FOCUS ONDIFFERENT SYNTACTIC UNITS, WITH PARTICULAR EMPHASIS ON NP

AND VP CUTTING.

1. We will build the raft tomorrow, notwithstanding their objections.

2. The little boy has read two novels by Joyce since Monday.

3. Our old friends from Yorkshire came to visit us last weekend.

4. She wants to write literary books which are accessible to a generalaudience.

5. They said that they had never been to Barcelona before that dreadful day.

43


44/87

6. All those convincing reasons she mentioned were not seen as relevant.

7. Mia and Zoe have never been in that old fashionable caf near theirschool.

8. They will probably buy all the red and green apples in the shop.

9. He did what he wanted and what was the best thing to do.

10. Al went to the book store and bought a very interesting book she talked

about.

44


45/87


46/87

11. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS(PART TWO)

A. DRAW AN IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS DIAGRAM OF

THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. He had to read the book because his teacher told him to read it.

2. Duff asked me where her office was as he wanted to warn her about the flood.

3. She felt mortified and embarrassed when he suddenly asked her about her fianc.

4. When Rick saw the rotting corpse, he admitted that he could not handle it anymore.

46


47/87

5. While we were there we met a very nice couple who showed us the town and invited us totheir wedding.

6. He accepted the proposal but he changed his mind after a few minutes.

7. I will give you the necessary directions if you insist but the rest is your responsibility.

9. The police interrogated the man with an old and shabby straw hat but did not detect anythsuspicious.

10. She decided to go to the city and asked if I could give her a lift.

47


48/87

11. He asked if he might conduct us to the ball dedicated to the memory of our recentlydeceased princess.

B. DRAW AN IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS DIAGRAM OF THEFOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. Their rather stubborn refusal to see that the protection of the environmen

uld be our first priority today is a great tragedy.

2. A recent survey suggests that the longest stayers are the British who visit Spain to

nds and relatives.

48


49/87

APPENDIX A

Types of verbs

1.1 Verbs definitions and classifications

49


50/87

`Grammarians consider sentences the basic building blocks of

language, in the way the biologist consider the DNA molecules the basic

building blocks of life.`1

In many in depth syntactic analysis verbs are very often regarded as

a central element of every sentence. The illustrative quote stated above

brings us directly to verbs, a nucleus of every sentence, its DNA. Just like

the DNA which `controls the structure and purpose of every cell and

carries the genetic information`2, verbs have crucial influence on the

other components in sentences and they define and determine the

relationships among other sentence parts.

Now, when we established that sentences are put around verbs, we

should think of a proper definition for this word class. Traditional

grammatical definitions of verbs as ` that part of speech by means of

which we make an assertion or ask a question`3 or as ` action words`4,

`words that describe condition or experience`5, `words that are used to

express distinctions in time through tense`6, `one of the elements in a

the clause structure as subject and predicate`7 are all vague and

incomplete and therefore unacceptable. Modern linguists usually define

verbs as words that belong to open world class8 and denote actions,

events, processes and states but this definition does not incorporate thethree categories that indicate the status of a verb: its tense, modality

and aspect.

All these attempts to define such a broad category do not prove

verbs to be indefinable, they just point out the fact that every exact

1 Max Morenberg, op.cit, p.52Dictionary of contemporary English, Harlow: Longman, 1995, p. 3593 George O. Curme,English grammar, New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1966, p. 224 Bas Aarts, op.cit, p.85 Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge grammar of English: a comprehensive guide,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 9286 L.G. Alexander, op.cit, p.1597 Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk,A students grammar of the English language, Harlow: Longman,1999, p. 248 But this statement excludes auxiliary verbs which belong to closed class (function, grammatical, emptywords).

50


51/87

definition of this category has some obvious shortcomings and that all

the features of verbs cannot be put in a sentence or two.

However, most grammarians and linguists agree on the two basic

divisions of verbs.

The first division is the one according to which verbs can be

classified into finite, non-finite and auxiliary.

According to the other division, there are three basic verb classes:transitive, intransitive and copulative verbs.

We will examine the characteristics of each subcategory in both

these classifications in order to get a more precise idea of possible verb

phrase structures and order of elements within it.

1.2 Finite, non-finite and auxiliary verbs

Verbs can be divided into finite, non-finite and auxiliary and the

main criterion for this division is the fact that some verbs can stand on

their own in a sentence and carry tense while some verbs cannot stand

independently or form predicate by themselves. Verb that carries tense

is called finite, verb that does not carry tense non-finite and verb which

must accompany another verb (a finite verb) is called auxiliary verb.

1.2.1 Finite verbs

Finite verbs (also called lexical or main verbs) have `full verbal

meaning`9 and with all their modifiers and complements or alone can

constitute the predicate of a sentence. They also indicate the contrast of

tense, person, or number

He winced.

No one suspects him.1.2.2. Non-finite verbs

Non-finite verbs, as stated before, do not carry tense. They do not

link to the subject in clear way 10 and they do not establish the tense of

the verb as either present or past. They need auxiliaries to establish9 George O. Curme, op.cit, p.10210 `E.g. by an ending that indicates a person`. Leslie Jeffries, op.cit, p.87

51


52/87

such aspects of the meaning of the predicator. These forms, often

known as the ing form, the en form and the i- form are also called the

progressive form, the perfective form and the infinitive form.11

Non-finite verb forms can be part of finite verb phrases in which case

they are preceded by auxiliary verbs and function as predicator of a

verb phrase, e.g.:

Dianne was looking for you.

She has stabbed him this morning.

In these sentences, looking and stabbed are both main verbs of a

phrase and function as predicators (the slot usually fulfilled by finite

verbs) even though they are non-finite, participial verb forms.

Non-finite verbs are also called infinitives, participles (present and past)

and gerunds.

Non finite verbs

Infinitive She learnt to look after herself.

I heard her weep.Present participle Jeremy rode away whistling.

She is sleeping.Past participle She has never accepted her defeat.

The bridge had been weakened by successive storms.Gerund I detest writing letters.

I dont care for standing in queues.

1.2.3. Auxiliary verbs (Vaux)

Auxiliary verbs12 are a small closed class of verbs which add extra

information to the lexical verb or help a main verb to the extent that

they add more specific meaning to it.

11Ibid, p.8712 This term is derived from Latin auxiliaries, fr. auxiliarium to help (Websters Ninth New Collegiate

Dictionary, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster INC, 1985, p.118) That is why auxiliaries are often referredto as helping verbs.

52


53/87

The class of auxiliary verbs can be subdivided into four groups:

1. aspectual auxiliaries (be, have)

2. passive auxiliary (be)

3. the dummy auxiliary (do)

4. modal auxiliaries (can, will, used to, have to,

etc.)Aspectual auxiliaries, passive auxiliary and the dummy auxiliary are

also called primary auxiliaries.

1.2.3.1 Primary auxiliaries

Aspectual auxiliaries be and have encode aspect, a concept which

refers to the way the meaning of the main verb is viewed in time. The

main categories of aspect in English are progressive and perfectiveaspect.

They are learning Portuguese.

(be as aspectual auxiliary indicating progressive aspect)

I have never visited the Louvre.

(have as aspectual auxiliary indicating perfect aspect)

Verb be is also used as passive auxiliary in forming passive voice.

Susan was awarded a prize.

(be as passive auxiliary)

Verb do as an auxiliary verb is used in the creation of interrogative,

negative and empathic structures.

Do you feel like a cup of coffee?

She didnt invite you!

I do feel like a fool!13

13 Do=really (empathic use)53


54/87

All three auxiliaries be, have and do can be used as auxiliary or lexical

verbs, in which case they function as heads in a finite verb phrase.

Fish and chips are a national institution

in Britain.

(be as lexical, copulative verb)

Can I have a close look at the engine?

(have as lexical, transitive verb)

Did you do my crossword?14

(do as lexical, transitive verb)

1.2.3.2 Modal auxiliaries

Modal auxiliaries are verb forms that differ from the forms of other

types of verbs in significant ways. Modal verbs usually only have one

form and do not inflect for person or number. As all auxiliaries modal

verbs precede main verbs in a verb phrase but unlike be, have and do

they cannot be used as lexical verbs. Modal verbs can be

subcategorised into:

core modal verbs,

semi modal verbs and

periphrastic modals.

Many of the modals were originally ordinary verbs taking the full

range of verb suffixes. Over time these verbs became increasingly

specialised in their functions and so restricted as to their distribution

14 As main verbs do and have have a wide range of use as a general-purpose transitive verbs especially ininformal speech e.g. do damage/the dishes/an exam/your homework/Paris/a sketch; have an argument/achat/a cold/fun/an idea/a nap etc.

54


55/87

`that we might reasonably doubt whether they still belong to the

category of verbs`15.

Core modal verbs or true modals are may, might, can, will etc.

Core modal verbs

can

could

may

might

must

shall

should

will

would

The core modals were once like other verbs in having present and

past tense forms. The modals in the right-hand column were once the

past tense forms of the modals in the left-hand column.16

Core modal verbs express ability, permission, possibility, obligation,deduction, assumption, reproach, condition, prediction or intention.

I may leave the office as soon as I have finished.(permission)

He may tell his wife. (possibility)

This must be the key. (deduction)

He will have plenty of time to get to the station.(assumption)

15 Roderick A. Jacobs, English Syntax:a grammar for English Language Professionals, Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1995, p. 21716 `Except in the case of shall and should which today are quite distinct from each other, two majorremnants of this relationship survive. The first remnant is seen in reported speech which often shows tensesifting. The second remnant of the former past-present tense relationship between modals comes in use of

past tense forms as more tentative, polite versions of present tense forms. Ibid, p.21955


56/87

Semi modal verbs are also called non-typical or marginal modal

verbs. They either behave grammatically like lexical verbs or like the

core modals. In some contexts they assume the features non typical for

modals while in some contexts they behave like core modals.

Semi-modal verbs

dare

need

ought to

used to

I dare not tell her what happened. (as with core modal verbs, negative

is formed without auxiliary do)

Maggie didnt dare say anything to them. (as with lexical verbs,

negative is formed by means of the dummy auxiliary do)

We ought to wash this tray, oughtn`t we? (unlike core modal verbsought is followed by to, but like core modals can be used in tag

questions)

Sky diving is dangerous but does it need to be so dangerous? (need

as lexical verb)

Sky diving is dangerous but need it be so dangerous? (need as modal

verb)

Periphrastic modals are multiword verb idioms used to express

modal notions i.e. they paraphrase modal meanings like possibility,

probability or necessity. With two exceptions, have and have got to,

their first part of periphrastic modals is always a form ofbe.

56


57/87

Each periphrastic modal in its basic properties corresponds

approximately to one or core modals.17

She is obliged to/has to/has got to

help us with this.

He is due to help us with this.

They are unable to help us with this.

1.2.3.3 Ordering of auxiliary elements in verb phrases

Before we conclude a chapter on auxiliary verbs, we should note

that auxiliaries have one important syntactic function in common they

are treated as operators when they occur as the first verb in a finite verb

phrase.18

As for their order in a complex verb phrase and syntactic

restrictions, it should be stated that the maximum number of different

17 Though, unlike core modals, periphrastic modals may be marked for tense or even preceded by a core

modal and the meaning of the periphrastic modal and corresponding core modal may not be exactly similar.

Compare:

I have to go. (have to refers to external authority)

I must go. (must refers to speakers authority over himself)

18 More on operators in chapter 3.2, p. 34

Periphrastic modals

have to

have got to

be tobe due to

be about to

be able to

be obliged to

etc.

57


58/87

auxiliaries is four (the fifth element is, of course, the lexical verb

functioning as predicator).

may have been being reproduced

VP

Vaux1 Vaux2 Vaux3 Vaux4 Vm

Core modal Aspectual Passive AspectualLexical/

verb auxiliary auxiliary auxiliaryfinite

be be beverb

must be followed must be must be must befollowed

by base form followed followed by edparticiple

by -ed participle by -ingparticiple

verb phrase verb phrase verb phrase verbphrasehas modal has perfect is passive has

progressivemeaning aspect

aspect

To find all four auxiliaries within one verb phrase is an extremely

rare linguistic phenomenon. Usually verb phrase consists of one, two or

three auxiliaries19, e.g.:

must have been talking(VP Vaux1 + Vaux2 + Vaux3 + Vm)

had been knitting(VP Vaux1 + Vaux2 + Vm)

19 Verb phrase may consist of one core modal only.58


59/87

may be allowed(VP Vaux1 + Vaux2 + Vm)

may be being followed(VP Vaux1 + Vaux2 + Vaux3 + Vm)

1.3 Transitive, intransitive and copulative verbs

The subclasses of lexical verbs that can be identified tend to depend

on the context in which they occur. Whilst the traditional grammars

distinguished between transitive and intransitive verbs, we find it useful

to distinguish further categories. Special attention will be devoted to

contextual identification of verbs and their change of categories.

1.3.1 Transitive verbs (Vtr)

Transitive verbs express an action that passes over from the subject

to someone or something else i.e. transitive verbs occur with an object

in subject predicator object structure.

She detests you.

Someone called 911!

I warned him to keep away from my

jewels.

Some linguists20 tried to simplify the explanation of this verb class by

stating that transitive verbs must be followed by nouns or noun

phrases , which is an unacceptable generalization as the object of a

transitive verb may be, as we can see from the above sentences, a

pronoun, numeral, etc.

On the other hand, some linguists21 tried to make the identification

of transitive verbs easier by saying that `sentences with transitive verbs

20 Max Morenberg, op.cit, p.821 L.G. Alexander, op.cit, p. 243

59


60/87

can always be turned into passive`.22 That is true for the following

sentence:

The coyotes destroyed the carcass.

(passive: The carcass was destroyed by

coyotes.)

However, some verbs, such as resemble23 which has some of the

characteristics of transitive verbs, cannot be used in passive

constructions.

Andy Garcia resembles Armand Assante.

(Armand Assante is resembled by Andy

Garcia

24

)

Transitive verbs can be further subcategorized into:

monotransitive,

ditransitive and

complex-transitive verbs.

1.3.1.1 Monotransitive verbs

Monotransitive verbs are those transitive verbs that are followed by

one object, namely direct object.25

Take whatever you want.

Raise your hand if you cant hear me.

He tookmy notes and all my books.26

22 Many linguists and grammarians tend to use adverb always instead of adverb usually in definitions andthis is just one more example of making a probabilistic rule deterministic.23 Verbs like resemble and weigh are sometimes called semi-transitive. Besides these two mentioned verbs,there are other verbs such as have, lack,suitandfitwhichdo not allow passive constructions.24 An asterisk at the end of a sentence indicates that a sentence cannot occur in language.25 Besides direct object, (mono)transitive verbs can be followed by adverbial modifiers but the focus in thisdefinition is on `one object since the number of objects marks the difference between monotransitive andditransitive verbs. This classification of transitive verbs is based on the number and type of syntactic unitsthat follow the finite verb.26 Direct object can be coordinate construction (in this sentence coordinate noun phrase functioning asdirect object) and some linguists analyse verb phrases like this as Vtr + DO1 + DO2, but even in that case

60


61/87

1.3.1.2 Ditransitive verbs

Ditransitive verbs27 are verbs that function as heads in verb phrases

with two objectsindirect and direct. The most common ditransitive

verbs are verbs give and tell.

I gave her a mischievous wink.

Indirect object Direct object

She told Rachel the truth.

Indirect object Direct object

Other common ditransitive verbs are listed in the table below.

the main verb is monotransitive since it is followed by direct objects only (there are no indirect objects orobject complements in phrase structure).27 Also called Vg verbs ortwo place transitive verbs.

Ditransitive verbs

allow leave save

ask lend send

bring make serve

charge offer show

envy order spare

find owe teach

fine pay tell

forgive promise throw

give read wish

grant refuse etc.

hand reserve

61


62/87

They brought her some whisky.

I lent my niece 20 euros.

She ordered them to stop.

1.3.1.3 Complex-transitive verbs

Complex-transitive verbs are verbs that are followed by direct object

and object complement.

The most common verb which belongs to this subclass of transitive

verbs is verb consider therefore these verbs are in some textbooks

referred to as Vc verbs. Complex-transitive verbs are incomplete and

they require further specification to complete their meaning.

They consider the Rolling stones

old fashioned.

Direct object Object

complement

The most common complex-

transitive verbs are listed in the

table below.

Complex transitive verbs

appoint get

proclaim

baptize have

pronounce

call hear rate

consider help see

christen hold send

crown keep think

declare leave turn

deem let vote

drive like want

elect make

watch

entitle name etc.

feel notice

find overhearget prefer

62


63/87

They declared the festival a great success.

All that made you a slightly different person.

I had him mend the fence for me.

I must keep her dinner warm.

1.3.2 Intransitive verbs (Vintr)

Intransitive verbs are verbs that are complete in themselves and do

not require any further element to make their meaning complete. They

are sometimes defined as `verbs that denote a state or simple action

without any reference to an object`,28 but this definition should not be

taken for granted since in some contexts intransitive verbs can be

followed by an object. Such object is called cognate object or sham

objectand it is already implied more or less in the verb itself, e.g.:He died a sad death.

The girl laughed a merry laugh.

She dreamed a happy dream.

He sighed a sigh.29

More often, intransitive verbs are followed or preceded by adverbial

modifiers e.g.:

28 George O. Curme, op.cit, p.2329 Examples taken from: Igor Lakic,English syntax, a Functional approach, izvodi iz predavanja, Institut zastrane jezike, 2005, p.8

63


64/87

`His heart sank, and his limbs trembled nervously as he came to an

immense pile of buildings facing the canal on one side and the street on

other. `30

The broad category of intransitive verbs also consists of the so-called

pseudo-intransitive verbs, reciprocal and reflexive verbs which even

though undoubtedly intransitive include information about subject-

object relationship or have parallel transitive constructions with the

same meaning.

1.3.2.1 Pseudo-intransitive verbs

Pseudo-intransitive verbs are verbs that are used in clauses where

the subject is in reality the recipient of the action or event and where

the agent is not mentioned.31

This shirt hasnt washed very well.

Nick Hornsbys books sell by the million.

`The Observer` are carrying a shortened version of the

Choltitz

profile of you, Prime minister. It reads very well indeed.32

Verbs used in this way are listed in the table below.

30 Fyodor Dostoyevski, Crime and punishment, Harmondsworth: Penguin books, 1997, p.3

31 (In)Transitivity in these cases is semantic category.32 Pseudo-intransitive verbs are usually complemented by adverbial or prepositional phrases (functioning asadverbial modifiers).

Pseudo-intransitive

verbs

clean closecook drink

drive fold

iron keep

open pack

photograph print

read sell

store wash64


65/87

1.3.2.2 Reciprocal verbs

Verbs like meetand marry, which are called reciprocal verbs, even

though intransitive in the following sentences have the same meaning

as their transitive equivalents:

Brad and Angelina first met in 2004.(compare with: Brad first met Angelina in 2004.

or Angelina first met Brad in2004.)

Lily and Tom married after a brief courtship.(compare with: Lily married Tom after a briefcourtship.)

1.3.2.3 Reflexive verbs

Reflexive verbs are a small class of verbs which may be used

transitively (with a reflexive pronoun as object) or intransitively. Verbs

such as brace, dress, undress and wash belong to this verb class.

Dolly had dressed and done her hair with care.

(He dressedhimselfvery hurriedly.)

Sometimes meaning changes occur when these verbs are used as

transitive, e.g:

Sturr braced, as if for a fight.

(brace here means to tense ones body ready for a negative

physical impact)

She took a deep breath and bracedherself.33

(brace oneself has a more abstract meaning of being mentally

prepared for something negative)

33 Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, op.cit, p.50765


66/87

1.3.3 Copulative verbs (Vc)

Copulative verbs34 describe the state of people and things and since

they do not express the idea clearly and have no concrete meaning

alone, they always link the subject to the obligatory complement which

functions as a predicative within a predicate of a clause.Sentences:

She appears.

Roger is.

make no sense if something is not added.

Verbs appearand be which are lexical verbs in the above sentences are

incomplete and therefore require a complement after them.

She appears modest.

Roger is an architect.35

Other common copulative verbs are listed in the table below.

Copulative verbs

appear lie soundbecome look standcome loom stayfall prove tastefeel rank turnget remain turn outgo rest etc.grow runhappen seemkeep sitleave off smell

Night became day.

34 Copulative verbs are often referred to as copulas/copular verbs, verbs of incomplete predication orlinkingverbs

35 Verb to be when it is used as a lexical verb in a sentence or as a main verb (predicator) in non-finite verbphrases is always copulative.

66


67/87

She looks absolutely stunning.

This fruit tasted faintly of garlic.

The truth turned out to be stranger than we

expected.

Most of the verbs listed above have become copulas as a result

of a long development, gradually losing their original concrete meaning.

Some of them still serve in their old capacity as verbs of complete

predication as well as in their new capacity as linking verbs e.g.:

He fell as a brave soldier at the front. (full verb)

He fell heir to a large estate. (linking verb)

The cow has gone into the barn. (full verb)

The spring has gone dry. (linking verb)36

1.3.4 Verbs and change of categories

The fact that verbs determine the syntactic units that follow them

was mentioned in the introduction of this paper. It should be pointed out

that verbs are also defined by what immediately follows them, which

means that verbs are identified by the means of the context in which

they are used. They fall into different categories when they occur in

different environment and individual verb is not necessarily alwaystransitive, intransitive or copulative. The following examples will prove a

well-known syntactic fact that the same verb can fit into several

different verb categories.

L.G Alexander in Longman English Grammar37gives a list of verbs

which are always intransitive and this category includes verbs pause

and remain. But, think of these two sentences:

She paused the tape and started crying.

He remained calm.

Many linguists fall into this trap of giving definite categorizations or

definitions even when any categorization is simply implausible. Verbs

pause and remain, as the above sentences prove, are not always

36 Examples taken from: George O. Curme, op.cit, p.10637 L.G Alexander, op.cit, p.322

67


68/87

intransitive. They can be transitive (pause) or copulative (remain) which

depends on the context in which they are used.

Few verbs must always be used intransitively and many verbs can

be used both transitively or intransitively. Sometimes the meaning

remains the same whether the verb is used transitively or intransitively,

but sometimes there is a change of relationship between the verb and

the subject.

A) No change in meaning

Some verbs may be used with or without an object with no change in

meaning. Such verbs include: approach, enter, play, drink, help, win,

drive, leave, write, eat,pass, etc.38

People make extra money by driving taxis. You drive along here about twomiles.Can I help you? How can I help?All I need to do is win the lottery. You cant win all thetime.

B) Change of subject-verb relationship

Some verbs may be used with or without an object, but the subject-verb

relationship is different in each case. Such verbs include: begin, drop,

turn, change, increase, walk, close, open, work, decrease, slam, etc.39

When these verbs are used with an object, the subject is the agent

(doer) of the action. When they are used without an object, the action or

event happens to the subject.

We closed the door and they knocked later. The door closed.Sony increased overseas production. Worldwide salesincreased by 14%.

She walks the dog every morning. He walkseverywhere.How do you workthis photocopier? The photocopier is not

working.

Sometimes a different form of verb is used to mark a difference

between transitive and intransitive form, e.g.:38 Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, op.cit, p. 50639 Ibid,p.506

68


69/87

bait bitedrench drinkfell falllay lieraise riseset sit40

She stumbled and fell. (Vintr)The lumberjack felled the pine. (Vtr)The balloon rose gently up in the air. (Vintr)He raised the window and looked out. (Vtr)

Copulative verbs can be used intransitively (as already mentioned

verb remain), e.g.:

He suddenly appeared in the doorway. (Vintr)These things arent always what they appear to

be. (Vc)

CLAUSES

Clause is a group of words that consists of subject and predicate. There are threetypes of clauses:

-Adverbial clauses- Adjective clauses- Noun clauses

-ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverbial clauses do the work of adverbs and they function as adverbial

modifiers (AM) in a sentence. They answer the question when, where, how, for

what reason or because of what the action expressed by main verb took place.

We often went to theatre when we lived in London. (temporal)

Although you dont like him, you can still be polite. (clause of concession)

I will do that if it is really necessary. (conditional clause )

Adverb clauses are easily recognized in a sentence because they are introduced

by conjunctions when, while, where, because, since, though, even though, if,

whether etc.

40 The list is taken from: Radmila orevi, Gramatika engleskog jezika, Beograd: igoja tampa, 1997,p.580

69


70/87

-ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Adjective clauses are also called attributive clauses or relative clauses by some

linguists. They qualify nouns and therefore they function as qualifiers within noun

phrases (So, they are always preceded by a noun, since qualifier comes after a

noun that is head in a noun phrase!).They are usually introduced by relative

pronouns who, that, which, where, whose etc. (Look at the diagram below to seethe position of adjective clause within noun phrase)

the novel (that ) you have just readNP

Det H Q

Art N Cl (adjectiveclause)

-NOUN CLAUSES

Noun clauses are clauses which do the work of a noun. That means that you canreplace a noun clause with a noun or a noun phrase and it still makes sense (whichis not the case with adverb and adjective clauses).

I know that you didn't do it.

We could replace the underlined clause with any noun phrase (the truth, her sister,my path...) and the sentence is still complete.(I know the truth. )

A NOUN CLAUSE MAY FUNCTION AS:-THE OBJECT OF A VERB

Jordan explained that she was just trying to help.

It also may be a direct or indirect statement or question (and clause still functions

as an object in a sentence)She confessed 'I never eat meat'.He said he had been waiting for ages.Myra asked 'Where's the station ? 'John asked why she hadn't come .

-THE SUBJECT OF A VERB

What amazes me is her sense of humour.

70


71/87

How she won the first prize is still a mystery.'Where have you been?' was his first question.

Subject noun clause always precedes a verb .The verb is usually copulative (to beor some other verb of incomplete predication)

-PREDICATIVE

Noun clause may also function as a predicative, after copulative verbs.

It appears that she is not ready to take that risk.This is not what I intended to offer you.The truth is that I have no idea about that new project.

-A PART OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE

We are not responsible for what you accuse us of.She believes she is good at whatever she initiates.

Form and function relationships

` Lets consider the general notion `function` in connection with ordinary three-dimensional objects. Rather superficially, an observation we can make is that mostobjects perform a certain particular function. Consider, for example a pencil. What isits function? Depending on the person you are, your circumstances, your interests,your profession, etc., you may give a variety of answers to this question. Forexample `writing` (if you are a student), `drawing` (if you are an artist), or perhaps`designing` (if you are an architect). Or take a rather more complex object, a

personal computer. Again, we might ask: what is its function? There is no uniformanswer. We can use a computer for word processing, for making calculations, forsending e-mail messages, etc. Notice that as regards objects and the functions wecan carry out with them, the reverse situation also holds: for most functions that wemay want to perform, a variety of objects can be used. For example, the function`transportation` can be performed by a car, a train, a bus, a boat, a bicycle, etc. Thepoint is that there is no one-to-one relationship between a particular function(writing, drawing, word processing, etc) and the object used (pencil, computer) tocarry out that function. `41

The interrelationship between form and function and the complexity of

realization of certain syntactic elements within sentences or phrases are of cardinal

importance in the study of syntax. The above mentioned effective quote points out

that both in life and in language we always deal with various relations. In language,

we always deal with form-function relations and there is a lack of one-to-one

relationship between the various forms we encounter and the function they perform.

41 Bas Aarts,English syntax and argumentation, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001, p.7171


72/87

One of the fundamental aspects of structuralism as one of the basic linguistic

approaches is a belief that ` a word class needs to be defined not by a vague

concept of general meaning but by a rigorous assessment of the behaviour

(function) and form of the members of the prospective class or category`. 42 Word

classes are not formally well-defined as we may have thought. Therefore, the

possibility of using syntactic functions as a defining feature of the class is

particularly useful. The syntactic system has mutually dependent aspects and it isimpossible to describe one of these aspects without referring to another aspect.

The notion of form and function is a field where many linguistic swords were

unsheathed and used as a tool in the battle of antagonistic ideas and assertions. It is

also a field where an average student may feel lost and accept potentially incorrect

information due to the erroneous interpretation of these two concepts. It is thus very

important to establish which syntactic terms both these categories include.

Term function refers to a role word may assume in a phrase, clause or sentence

i.e. subject,predicate, direct object, etc.

Term form refers to word classes i.e. parts of speech, phrases and clauses and

includes categories such as nouns, noun phrases, verbs, adjective clauses, etc.

The table below lists major forms and functions in English and makes a clear

visual distinction between these two notions.

Form Function

Noun (proper, common)

Noun phrase

Verbs (auxiliary, finite, non-finite)

Verb phrase

Adjective (descriptive, indefinite.)

Adjective phrase

Adverb (of manner, of time, of place)Adverbial phrase

Pronoun (relative, personal,

interrogative)

Preposition (single, group, coalescent)

Subject

Predicate

Predicator

Operator

Direct object

Indirect object

Object complement

Adverbial modifier

42 Leslie Jeffries, Discovering language: The structure of modern English, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan,2006, p. 83

72


73/87

Prepositional phrase

Infinitive

Infinitive phrase

Gerund

Gerundial phrase

Participle

Participial phraseNoun clause

Adjective clause

Adverbial clause

Sentence modifier

Head (of a phrase)

Adjectival modifier (pre-modifier)

Qualifier (post-modifier)

How do these notions interact? Let us take nouns, for example. The basic forms

of nouns in English are many and varied hence it is not feasible to summarize forms

of nouns themselves. However, it is possible to present a number of potential

functions that they can perform in

English clauses. Nouns are very illustrative example since they have the most varied

potential of any word class in being able to function (together with its modifiers and

qualifiers within noun phrase) as subject, direct object, indirect object, etc. Let us

present this in terms of diagram.

Form Function

Subject

Direct object

Noun (phrase) Indirect object

Predicative

Object complement

Adverbial modifier

Adjectival modifier

73


74/87


75/87

COORDINATE SUBORDINATE

ADDITIVE ( AND ) ATTRIBUTE FIRST

Jack and Jill ( NP )you and me ( NP )

She stayed home and he went out.( compound sentence )

in and out ( PrepP )beautiful gal and older guy ( NP )

quite quickly and prettystrictly( AdvP )

stayed home and watched TV( VP )

M+H

silly girl, happy hour ( NP )jolly nice, rather slow ( AdjP )fairly cheaply, very well ( AdvP

)

D+H

no sugar, the baby, my soul( NP )

comp

sent.(s+m)

If we buy tickets, we willcome.

Vaux +Vm

was preparing, have said( VP )ALTERNATIVE ( OR )

CENTRE FIRSTSteve or Nora ( NP )

you or me ( NP)Should I stay or should I go?

( compound sentence )beautiful girl or handsome guy ( NP

)utterly stupid or very sincere ( AdjP

)play games or watch TV ( VP )

up or down ( AdvP )

V+Adv

work hard, went there ( VP )

comp.

senten

(m+s)

We will come if we buytickets.

H+Q

book on the shelf, house insuburbia ( NP )good enough, bad indeed( AdjP )

APPOSITIVE( NP )

ATTRIBUTE DISCONTINUOUS

Dr Inaritulake Michigan

PhD Rob Sullivan

Cetinje, the royal capital ofMontenegro

too honest to be a sailor( AdjP )

a better plan than this ( NP )too good to be true ( AdjP )

75


76/87

EXOCENTRIC CONSTRUCTIONS

DIRECTIVE

a) VERB + OBJECT ( VP )

missed you, promised to come,wanted to leave immediately,will change the world, saw it

b) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

in the corner, near the fire, onthe cuff, by the way, in front ofour house

c) SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

as soon as I cameeven though I cried

because you didnt do it

CONNECTIVE(VP Vc +Pred)

is a huge profitwas interested in linguisticsseems that she is over youappears confident

PREDICATIONAL(simple sentences)

All these books are for sale.She is leaving today.That man I just dont like!She walked in and gave me her

purse.Off we go.

76


77/87

APPENDIX B

77


78/87

UNIVERSITY OF MONTENEGROFACULTY OF ARTS NIKI

ENGLISH SYNTAX TEST(mock test)

Student

Indexno.

I Define the type of verb (Vtr - transitive, Vintr -intransitive, Vc - copulative):

1. It is me. 2. They came home late.

3. He seems nice. 4. I expect they will come 5. Shes reading newspapers.

II Identify the type of complement (subjective - SC orobjective - OC):

1. She is a teacher. .2. That's all I wanted to know. .

3. It made me feel well. .4. This homework seems easy. .5. They consider him a fool.

.

III Identify the part of speech the underlined wordsbelong to:

1. We bought several bottles of tequila. .

I dont have any book but he has several..

2. Most people like jazz. .Which music do you like most? .

3. She came too late. .I havent seen her lately. .

5

5

78


79/87

4. Those shirts have shrunk. .Those are my friends. .

5. Have you seen my bag? .The house over there is mine. .

IV Identify the part of speech of each word in thefollowing sentence:

He is an incredibly rich

. . . . .

man who owns a

huge

. . . . .

yacht and who grew

up

. . . . .

as a part of an

. . . . .

ordinary Egyptian family inAlexandria.

. . . . .

V Answer the following questions

1. List objective personal pronouns.

2. In the sentence "He drives quickly", quickly is the adverb of.

5

25

79


80/87

3. Say whether the underlined forms in the following sentencesare gerunds, present participles or past participles.

Broken glasses were all around..Speaking in public can be difficult..

4. In the following sentence, is the adjective 'responsible' usedattributively or predicatively?

The person responsible is away today..

5. What part of speech is 'which' in the following question?

Which book do you prefer, this one or that one?.

UNIVERSITY OF MONTENEGROFACULTY OF ARTS NIKI

ENGLISH SYNTAX TEST PART ONE(mock test)

Student Index

no.

I Write what is the function of the underlined words in thefollowing phrases (Det., M, H, Q):

- largely conventional .

- a little time to think about it .

- this serious business talk .

- the success of the play .

II Underline and identify all clauses in the following sentencesand specify the function of each clause:

5

42

2

80


81/87

III Identify the form and function of the underlined units:

SENTENCE FORM FUNCTIONJohn and Mary arrived last night.

I dont care what you think about that.

He is coming tomorrow.Mary is the best student in our class.

They appointed him president of the club.

Winning the prize carries immense prestige.

Im interested in news about celebrities.

Call Nora or Duff, they will know.

I still have that brown belt.

The two approaches differ markedly.

IV Give one example each of sentences containing:

1. adjective functioning as modifier

SENTENCE TYPE OF CLAUSE FUNCTION

Unless some extra money is found, the theatre will

close.

The hotel he stayed in has received a large influx of

quests.

They said he had a profound influence on modern

poets.

I wonder how James is getting on.

It seems that he gave false information to the tax

authorities.

10

20

81


82/87

2. prepositional phrase functioning as adverbial modifier

3. clause functioning as predicative

4. clause functioning as indirect object

5. infinitive phrase functioning as subject

Underline the phrases and clauses.

ENGLISH SYNTAX TEST PART TWO

Answer the following questions:

1. What are non-sentences according to Carter/McCarthy? Give anexample. (1.5)

2. What is the function of adverbial clauses in sentences? (1 p.)

3. What are characteristic functions within a noun phrase? (1)

10

8

82


83/87

4. What are coordinated clauses? Give an example. (1.5)

5. What is predicator? Illustrate. (1.5)

6. List three conjunctions introducing temporal clauses. (1.5)

.

83


84/87

84


85/87

LITERATURE:

Aarts, Bas, English syntax and argumentation, Hampshire: Palgrave,2001

Alexander, L.G., Longman English Grammar, Harlow: Longman, 1999

Allen, W. Stannard, Living English structure, Harlow: Longman, 2001

Ayto, John, Dictionary of word origins, New York: Arcade, 1990

Baker, C.L., English Syntax, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1989

Blackwell Companion to Syntax-Volume II, edited by Everaert Martin,Henk van Riemsdijk: http://www.blackwellreference.com

85
http://www.blackwellreference.com/http://www.blackwellreference.com/


86/87

Carter, Ronald and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge grammar of English: acomprehensiveguide, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006

Curme, George O., English grammar, New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc.,1966Dictionary of contemporary English, Harlow: Longman, 1995

orevic, Radmila, Gramatika engleskog jezika, Beograd: igoja

tampa,1997Dostoyevski, Fyodor, Crime and punishment, Harmondsworth: Penguinbooks, 1997

Greenbaum, Sidney and Randolph Quirk, A students grammar of theEnglish language, Harlow: Longman, 1999

Jacobs, Roderick A., English syntax: a grammar for English LanguageProfessionals, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995

Jeffries, Leslie, Discovering language: The structure of modern English,Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006

Joyce, James, Dubliners, London: Penguin books Ltd, 1996

Laki, Igor, English Syntax forms and functions, izvodi iz predavanja,Institut za strane jezike, 2008

Leech, Jeffries, Margaret Deuchar and Robert Hoogenraad, Englishgrammar for today: A

New Introduction

, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan,2006

Miller, Jim, An introduction to English Syntax, Edinburgh: EdinburghUniversity Press Ltd, 2004

Mii Ili, Biljana, Syntax for EFL Students Workbook, Ni: DIGP`Prosveta`, 2003

Mii Ili, Biljana, Syntax for EFL Students, Ni: SVEN, 2008

Morenberg, Max, Doing grammar, New York: Oxford University Press,1997

Oxford Collocations dictionary for students of English, Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 2002

86


87/87

Swan, Michael, Practical English Usage, third edition, Oxford UniversityPress, 2006

Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet, A Practical English grammar, Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1986

Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster INC, 1985

Documents

COURSEBOOK Full Version