Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi Human Realities in the light of Sociology, Anthropology, Philosophical Anthropology, and Psychology

Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi

Human Realities in the light of Sociology, Anthropology,

Philosophical Anthropology, and Psychology

• It is quite common to make a distinction between the social sciences and the humanities, which implies that disciplines such as history, linguistics, literature, and philosophy are separate from the social sciences, such as anthropology, political science, psychology and sociology. The disciplines listed in these two categories vary between countries and universities.

• The term ‘human sciences’ is quite commonly used to overcome this division, but ‘social sciences’ is also sometimes used as a generic term referring to disciplines that are not natural sciences.

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• We assume that at the level of a general synthesis of what we now know about our object of study there cannot be any grave difference between social sciences and humanities.

• Contrary to the common assumption, we think that underneath the surface of competing schools of social thought and research traditions there is a largely shared body of knowledge about the object of social sciences; that object we will call human reality.

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• There is a particular reason why we talk about human reality. Since this is an introduction to social science knowledge, a more conventional choice would be to talk about the social reality or about human society.

• However, although social groups of more complex and large-scale organizations, such as nation states, often serve as objects and observation units of social research, the object of knowledge of social science cannot satisfactorily be defined that way.

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• To talk about social reality implies that material objects are outside the scope of social science, which leads to an idealist conception of social groups and organizations.

• By talking about human reality we refer to the entire reality that we face and experience as human beings. It is not just words, ideas or interaction with other talking subjects; we are also living bodies coming to terms with natural and built environments.

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• Although the natural sciences can and must exclude or abstract away from the influence of human subjects when analysing natural laws and processes, social scientists cannot perform a similar abstraction and ignore material reality.

• Even when we are dealing with objects that hardly interfere with human activities in any way – say, far-away galaxies or the tiniest particles of which atoms are made – natural science research can also be analysed from a social scientific perspective.

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• That is because all knowledge is necessarily socially constructed. It is dependent on the human imagination – that is, on the intelligence and overall potential of the human race to reflect on the reality it encounters.

• Even if we think that it only takes a single exceptional genius to explain a particularly tricky phenomenon or aspect of reality, such inventions are worthless if they cannot be conveyed to others by using language, which is an essential part of human reality.

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• The way human reality was described above implies that in a sense all reality, including the reality that natural science studies, belongs to human reality. However, social science is interested in material reality only from certain perspectives. On the one hand, material reality – or, more precisely, the way it is conceived – sets conditions on human activities and social systems.

• On the other hand, knowledge about material reality and practices of gaining and utilizing that knowledge are essential elements in the formation and daily reproduction of human reality.

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• Thus, as social scientists we are interested in material reality insofar as it plays a direct or indirect part in social action. In many ways material conditions necessarily affect social action, but on the other hand social systems and forms of knowledge possessed by humans affect or, rather, set conditions for an understanding of material reality.

• We discuss the main characteristics of the reality that we humans encounter in our daily life in the light of sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and psychology.

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Slide 11

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

• What is Sociology?• What is Sociological Theory?• The Development of Sociology• Major Theoretical Perspectives• Taking Sociology with You• Careers in Sociology

UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY

Slide 12


█ In what ways does it differ from other social sciences?

█ Does it relate to other social sciences?

█ Who are the pioneers?█ How does sociology help us

develop a sociological imagination?

█ How did sociology develop?

A Look Ahead

Slide 13


█ Sociology: Scientific study of social behavior in human groups

What is Sociology?

█ Focus on:– How relationships

influence people’s attitudes and behavior

– How societies develop and change

Slide 14


A key element is ability to view one’s society as an outsider would

An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society

The SociologicalImagination

█ C. Wright Mills describes sociological imagination as:

Slide 15


The SociologicalImagination

█ Looks beyond a limited understanding of human behavior

– View the world and its people in a new way

– See through a broader lens

Slide 16


Sociology and the Social Sciences

█ Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation

– Natural science: Study of physical features of nature and the ways they interact and change

– Social science: Study of social features of humans and the ways they interact and change

Slide 17


Sociology and the Social Sciences

█ Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior

█ Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society

█ Examine social relationships scientifically

• Haiti earthquake• Virginia Tech

shootings• Katrina

sociologists advise government agencies

on responding to disasters

Slide 18


Table 1-1: Sections of the American Sociological Association

Source: American Sociological Association 2010b.

Slide 19


Women tend to be chatty

Military marriages more likely to end in separation or divorce

Sociology and Common Sense

█ Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it”– Each piece of information must

be tested, recorded, and analyzed

Slide 20


What Is Sociological Theory?

█ Theory: Set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior– Effective theories have

explanatory and predictive power– Theories are not a final

statement about human behavior

Durkheim suicide studies: suggested suicide related to group life

Slide 21


█ Philosophers/religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made observations of human behavior

The Development of Sociology

█ European theorists in 19th century made pioneering contributions to development of the science of human behavior

Slide 22


Early Thinkers

– Systematic investigation of behavior needed to improve society

– Coined term “sociology”

█ Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

█ Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)– Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S.– Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade,

health, and population on social problems

Slide 23


█ Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)

Early Thinkers

– Studied “evolutionary” change in society

█ Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)– Behavior must be understood

within larger social context

Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective

Slide 24


– To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meanings people attach to actions

– Verstehen: understanding; insight

█ Max Weber (1864–1920)

Early Thinkers

Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases

Slide 25


█ Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Early Thinkers

– Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests

– Worked with Engels– Emphasized group

identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

Working class should overthrow

existing class system

Slide 26


█ W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

Early Thinkers

– Black sociologists assisted struggle for racially egalitarian society

– Knowledge essential in combating prejudice– In-depth studies of urban life

• Focused on religion at community level

Double consciousness: Division of individual’s identity into two or more social realities

Slide 27


█ Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)

Twentieth-Century Developments

– Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups

█ Jane Addams (1860–1935)– Combined intellectual inquiry, social

service work, and political activism

Slide 28


█ Robert Merton (1910–2003)

Modern Developments

– Combined theory and research– Developed explanation of deviant behavior

Macrosociology: Concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations

Microsociology: Stresses study of small groups, often through experimental means

Slide 29


█ Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)

Modern Developments

– Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next

Cultural capital: noneconomic goods

reflected in knowledge of

language and arts

Social capital: collective benefit of

social networks

Slide 30


█ Functionalist perspective

Major Theoretical Perspectives

█ Conflict perspective

█ Interactionist perspective

Slide 31


█ Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability

Functionalist Perspective

– Talcott Parsons (1902–1972) • Viewed society as vast

network of connected parts• Each helps maintain

the system as a whole

Slide 32


– Manifest functions: Institutions are open, stated, conscious functions that involve intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society

Functionalist Perspective

– Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden purposes of an institution

– Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or its stability

Slide 33


█ Assumes social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups

Conflict Perspective

█ The Marxist View: Conflict is part of everyday life in all societies– Conflict theorists more “radical”

and “activist” than functionalists

Slide 34


Conflict Perspective

█ The Feminist view

– Sees inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization

– Often allied with conflict perspective– Proponents tend to focus on macro level– Broadened social behavior by extending

analysis beyond male point of view

Slide 35


█ Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole

Interactionist Perspective

– Humans viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects

Nonverbal communication: Includes gestures, facial expressions, and postures

Slide 36


█ George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

Interactionist Perspective

– Regarded as founder of interactionist perspective

█ Erving Goffman (1922–1982)– Dramaturgical approach: People

seen as theatrical performers

Slide 37


Table 1-2: Major Sociological Perspectives

Slide 38


█ Gain broadest understanding of society by drawing on all major perspectives

The Sociological Approach

– Each perspective offers unique insights into the same issue

█ Researcher’s work always guided by his or her theoretical viewpoint

Slide 39


Research Today

█ 1.1: Looking at the Gulf Coast Oil Spill from Four Sociological Perspectives

– Which of the four sociological perspectives seems most useful to you in analyzing the Gulf Coast oil crisis? Why?

– The economic crisis that began in 2008 had disastrous personal consequences for many. Use the four sociological perspectives to analyze what happened to you, your family, and your community.

Slide 40


Taking Sociology with You

█ Examine two fields of sociology– Applied– Clinical

█ Learn to develop sociological imagination

Slide 41


█ Applied sociology: Use of sociology with intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations

Applied and Clinical Sociology

█ Clinical sociology: Facilitating change by altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions

Basic sociology: Seeks profound knowledge of fundamental aspects of social phenomena

Slide 42


█ Theory in Practice

Developing a Sociological Imagination

█ Research Today█ Thinking Globally

– Globalization: Worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas

Slide 43


█ The Significance of Social Inequality

Developing a Sociological Imagination

– Social Inequality: Condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power

█ Speaking Across Race, Gender, and Religious Boundaries

█ Social Policy throughout the World

Slide 44


Sociology in the Global Community

█ 1.2: Your Morning Cup of Coffee

– Would you willingly pay more for a cup of coffee if you knew that the worker who picked the beans would benefit from the higher price?

– The coffee trade has been blamed for perpetuating social inequality, warfare, and global warming. Can you think of any positive effects of the coffee trade?

Slide 45


█ Number of students graduating with degree in sociology has risen steadily

Careers in Sociology

– Provides strong liberal arts background for entry-level positions• Business• Social services• Foundations• Community organizations• Law enforcement• Government

Slide 46


Figure 1-2: Sociology Degrees Conferred in the U.S. by Gender

Source: National Center for Education Statistics 2010:Table 275 on p. 413.

Slide 47


Figure 1-3: Occupations of Graduating Sociology Majors

Note: Based on a national survey conducted in early 2007 of 1,800 sociology majors who graduated in 2005.

Source: Spalter-Roth and Van Vooren 2008a, p. 3.

© 2002 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill

This chapter introduces students to the textbook by discussing how Anthropology is defined and how it relates to other academic fields. It also discusses the different subfields and dimensions that exist within Anthropology.

What is Anthropology?What is Anthropology?What is Anthropology?What is Anthropology?


What is Anthropology?What is Anthropology? Anthropology is the study of the human species and its immediate

ancestors. Anthropology is holistic in that the discipline is concerned with studying the

whole of the human condition: past, present and future. Anthropology studies biology, society, language, and culture.

Anthropology offers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one society with those of others.

People share both society and culture. Society is organized life in groups, a feature that humans share with other

animals. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning, that

govern the beliefs and behaviors of the people exposed to them. While culture is not biological, the ability to use it rests in hominid biology.


Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation is the process by which organisms cope with

environmental stresses. Human adaptation involves interaction between culture and

biology to satisfy individual goals. Four types of human adaptation:

cultural (technological) adaptation genetic adaptation long-term physiological or developmental adaptation immediate physiological adaptation


Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation, Variation, and ChangeHumans are the most adaptable animals in the world,

having the ability to inhabit widely variant ecological niches. Humans, like all other animals use biological means to adapt

to a given environment. Humans are unique in having cultural means of adaptation.


Adaptation, Variation, and ChangeAdaptation, Variation, and Change Through time, social and cultural means of adaptation have

become increasingly important for human groups. Human groups have devised diverse ways of coping with a wide

range of environments. The rate of this cultural adaptation has been rapidly accelerating

during the last 10,000 years. Food production developed between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago

after millions of years during which hunting and gathering was the sole basis for human subsistence.

The first civilizations developed between 6,000 and 5,000 years ago.

More recently, the spread of industrial production has profoundly affected human life.


Four Subdisciplines of AnthropologyFour Subdisciplines of AnthropologyThe academic discipline of American anthropology is

unique in that it includes four subdisciplines: cultural anthropology, archaeological anthropology, biological or physical anthropology, and linguistic anthropology.

This four field approach developed in the US as early American anthropologists studying native peoples of North America became interested in exploring the origins and diversity of the groups that they were studying.

This broad approach to studying human societies did not develop in Europe (e.g. Archaeology, in most European universities, is not a subdiscipline of anthropology; it is its own department).


Origins of American AnthropologyOrigins of American Anthropology

American anthropology arose out of concern for the history and cultures of Native North Americans. Ely S. Parker was a Seneca Indian who made important contributions to early anthropology.

Photo Credit: Smithsonian Institution


Four Subdisciplines of AnthropologyFour Subdisciplines of Anthropology Variation in “Time” (diachronic research): using information

from contemporary groups to model changes that took place in the past, and using knowledge gained from past groups to understand what is likely to happen in the future (e.g. reconstructing past languages using principles based on modern ones).

Variation in “Space” (synchronic research): comparing information collected from human societies existing at the same or roughly the same time, but from different geographic locations (e.g. the race concept in the US, Brazil, and Japan).

Any conclusions about “human nature” must be pursued with a comparative, cross-cultural approach.


Cultural Forces and Human BiologyCultural Forces and Human BiologyCultural traditions promote certain activities and abilities,

discourage others, and set standards of physical well-being and attractiveness. Participation and achievement in sports is determined by

cultural factors, not racial ones. In Brazilian culture, women should be soft, with big hips and

buttocks, not big shoulders; since competitive swimmers tend to have big, strong, shoulders and firm bodies, competitive swimming is not very popular among Brazilian females.

In the US, there aren’t many African-American swimmers or hockey players, not because of some biological reason, but because those sports aren’t as culturally significant as football, basketball, baseball, and track.


Intelligence TestsIntelligence TestsThere is no conclusive evidence for biologically based

contrasts in intelligence between rich and poor, black and white, or men and women. The best indicators of how any individual will perform on an

intelligence test are environmental, such as educational, economic, and social background.

All standard tests are culture-bound and biased because they reflect the training and life experiences of those who develop and administer them.


Culture and SportsCulture and Sports

Years of swimming sculpt a distinctive physique. The countries that tend to produce successful female swimmers are the United States, Canada, Australia, Germany, Scandinavia, and the former Soviet Union, where this body type isn’t as stigmatized for women as it is in Latin countries.

Photo Credit: David Madison/ Duomo


Intelligence TestsIntelligence TestsJensenism asserts that African-Americans are hereditarily

incapable of doing as well as whites. Named for Arthur Jensen, the educational psychologist who

observed that on average African-Americans perform less well on intelligence tests that Euro-Americans and Asian-Americans.

This racist notion of the inborn inferiority of African-Americans recently resurfaced in the 1994 book The Bell Curve by Richard Hernnstein and Charles Murray.


The Bell Curve (1994)The Bell Curve (1994)Like Jensen, Hernnstein and Murray disregard more

convincing environmental explanations in favor of a genetic one to explain patterns observed in intelligence test scores.

An environmental explanation acknowledges that for many reasons, both genetic and environmental, some people are smarter than others, however these differences in intelligence cannot be generalized to characterize whole populations or social groups.

Psychologists have come up with many ways to measure intelligence, but there are problems with all of them.


Intelligence TestsIntelligence TestsIntelligence tests reflect the experiences of the people who

write them. Middle- and upper-class children do well because they share

the test makers’ educational expectations and standards. The SATs claim to measure intellectual aptitude but they also

measure the type and quality of high school education, linguistic and cultural background, and parental wealth.

Studies have shown that performance on the SATs can be improved by coaching and preparation, placing those students who can pay for an SAT preparation course at an advantage.


Intelligence TestsIntelligence TestsCultural biases in testing affect performance by people in

other cultures as well as different groups in the same nation. Native Americans scored the lowest of any group in the US,

but when the environment during growth and development for Native Americans is similar to that of middle-class whites, the test scores tend to equalize (e.g. the Osage Indians).

At the start of World War I, African-Americans living in the north scored on average better than whites living in the south due to the better public school systems in the north.


Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology Cultural Anthropology combines ethnography and ethnology to study

human societies and cultures for the purpose of explaining social and cultural similarities and differences.

Ethnography produces an account (a book, an article, or a film) of a particular community, society, or culture based on information that is collected during fieldwork. Generally, ethnographic fieldwork involves living in the

community that is being studied for an extended period of time (e.g. 6 months to 2 years).

Ethnographic fieldwork tends to emphasize local behavior, beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and religion, rather then developments at the national level.

Since cultures are not isolated, ethnographers must investigate the local, regional, national, and global systems of politics, economics, and information that expose villagers to external influences.


Cultural AnthropologyCultural AnthropologyEthnology examines, interprets, analyzes, and compares the

ethnographic data gathered in different societies to make generalizations about society and culture. Ethnology uses ethnographic data to build models, test

hypotheses, and create theories that enhance our understanding of how social and cultural systems work.

Ethnology works from the particular (ethnographic data) to the general (theory).


Cultural AnthropologyCultural Anthropology

ETHNOGRAPHY ETHNOLOGY

requires fieldwork to collect data

draws upon data collected by a series of researchers

descriptive synthetic

group/community specific comparative/cross-cultural

Comparison between Ethnography and Ethnology


Archaeological AnthropologyArchaeological AnthropologyArchaeological anthropology reconstructs, describes, and

interprets past human behavior and cultural patterns through material remains.

The material remains of a culture include artifacts (e.g. potsherds, jewelry, and tools), garbage, burials, and the remains of structures.

Archaeologists use paleoecological studies to establish the ecological and subsistence parameters within which given group lived.


Archaeological AnthropologyArchaeological AnthropologyThe archaeological record provides archaeologists the

unique opportunity to look at changes in social complexity over thousands and tens of thousands of years (this kind of time depth is not accessible to ethnographers).

Archaeology is not restricted to prehistoric societies. Historical archaeology combines archaeological data and

textual data to reconstruct historically known groups.] William Rathje’s “garbology” project in Tucson, Arizona.


Biological AnthropologyBiological Anthropology Biological, or physical, anthropology investigates human

biological diversity across time and space. There are five special interests within biological anthropology:

paleoanthropology: human evolution as revealed by the fossil record human genetics human growth and development human biological plasticity: the body’s ability to change as it copes with

stresses such as heat, cold, and altitude primatology: the study of the biology, evolution, behavior, and social life of

primates. Biological anthropology is multidisciplinary as it draws on

biology, zoology, geology, anatomy, physiology, medicine, public health, osteology, and archaeology.


Biological AnthropologyBiological Anthropology

Paleoanthropologists study the fossil record of human evolution. This photo shows Professor Teuku Jacob with early fossil skulls from Java, Indonesia.

Photo Credit: Kenneth Garrett / National Geographic


Linguistic AnthropologyLinguistic AnthropologyLinguistic anthropology is the study of language in its

social and cultural context across space and time.Some linguistic anthropologists investigate universal

features of language that may be linked to uniformities in the human brain.

Historical linguists reconstruct ancient languages and study linguistic variation through time.

Sociolinguistics investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation to discover varied perceptions and patterns of thought in different cultures.


Theoretical/Academic AnthropologyTheoretical/Academic AnthropologyTheoretical/academic anthropology includes the four

subfields discussed above (cultural, archaeological, biological, and linguistic anthropology). Directed at collecting data to test hypotheses and models that

were created to advance the field of anthropology. Generally, theoretical/academic anthropology is carried out in

academic institutions (e.g. universities and specialized research facilities).


Applied AnthropologyApplied AnthropologyApplied anthropology is the application of any of

anthropological data, perspectives, theory, and techniques to identify, assess, and solve contemporary social problems. Some standard subdivisions have developed in applied

anthropology: medical anthropology, environmental anthropology, forensic anthropology, and development anthropology.

Applied anthropologists are generally employed by international development agencies, like the World Bank, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the United Nations.


Medical AnthropologyMedical Anthropology

Medical anthropology studies health conditions from a cross-cultural perspective. In Uganda's Mwiri primary school children are taught about HIV.

Photo Credit: Jorgen Schytte / Still Pictures / Peter Arnold, Inc.


Applied AnthropologyApplied AnthropologyApplied anthropologists assess the social and cultural

dimensions of economic development.Development projects often fail when planners ignore the

cultural dimensions of development.Applied anthropologists work with local communities to

identify specific social conditions that will influence the failure or success of a development project.


Two Dimensions of AnthropologyTwo Dimensions of Anthropology

GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY

Cultural Anthropology Medical Anthropology

Archaeological Anthropology Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

Biological or Physical Anthropology

Forensic Anthropology

Linguistic Anthropology Non-government Organizations (NGO’s)

The Four Subfields and Two Dimensions of Anthropology


Anthropology and Other FieldsAnthropology and Other FieldsAnthropology’s own broad scope has always lent it to

interdisciplinary collaboration.Anthropology is a science, in that it is a systematic field of

study that uses experiments, observations, and deduction to produce reliable explanations of human cultural and biological phenomena.

Anthropology is also one of the humanities, in that is encompasses the study and cross-cultural comparison of languages, texts, philosophies, arts, music, performances and other forms of creative expression.


Cultural Anthropology and SociologyCultural Anthropology and SociologyFormerly, sociology focused on “western” societies while

anthropology looked at “exotic” societies.Cultural anthropological methodologies have primarily

been in-depth and qualitative (e.g. participant observation).Sociological methodologies tended to be mainly

quantitative (statistically based).The trend toward increasing interdisciplinary cooperation

(deconstruction) is causing these differences to disappear.


Political Science and EconomicsPolitical Science and EconomicsWhile other disciplines have looked at such institutions as

economics and politics as distinct and amenable to separate analysis, anthropology has emphasized their relatedness to other aspects of the general social order.

Anthropology has tended to emphasize cross-cultural variation in such institutions, in contrast to the almost exclusively Western orientation of the other disciplines.


Anthropology and the HumanitiesAnthropology and the HumanitiesThe anthropological concept of “culture” has gained

increasing influence in the humanities’ treatment of human artifacts.

In turn, cultural studies have brought a fuller recognition of the influence such artifacts may exert on human behavior.


Anthropology and PsychologyAnthropology and PsychologyAnthropology has contributed a cross-cultural perspective

to concepts developed in psychology.The school of cultural anthropology known as culture and

personality has emphasized child rearing practices as the fundamental means for transmitting culture.


Anthropology and HistoryAnthropology and HistoryThe convergence between the disciplines of anthropology

and history has been marked, particularly during the last decade.

Recent treatments of colonial history have emphasized the importance of understanding the cultural contexts of historical records.

Kottak argues for some continued distinction between history and anthropology, on the basis of history’s focus on the movement of individuals through roles, as opposed to anthropology’s focus on change in structure or form.


This chapter introduces students to the field methods and research methods employed by anthropologists. It pays special attention to the field methods of ethnographers and archaeologists, to survey research, and to funding and ethics in anthropology.

In the FieldIn the FieldIn the FieldIn the Field


EthnographyEthnographyEthnography is the firsthand personal study of a local

cultural setting.Ethnographers try to understand the whole of a particular

culture, not just fragments (e.g. the economy).In pursuit of this holistic goal, ethnographers usually spend

an extended period of time living with the group they are studying and employ a series of techniques to gather information.

The early ethnographers conducted research almost exclusively among small-scale, relatively isolated societies, with simple technologies and economics.


Participant ObservationParticipant ObservationEthnographers are trained to be aware of and record details

from daily events, the significance of which may not be apparent until much later.

“Participant observation,” as practiced by ethnographers, involves the researcher taking part in the activities being observed.

Unlike laboratory research, ethnographers do not isolate variables or attempt to manipulate the outcome of events they are observing.


EthnographyEthnography

Here, ethnographer Nadine Peacock works among the Efe of Congo.

Photo Credit: Irven DeVore / Anthro-Photo


Conversation and InterviewingConversation and InterviewingEthnographic interviews range in formality from undirected

conversation, to open-ended interviews focusing on specific topics, to formal interviews using a predetermined schedule of questions.

Increasingly, more than one of these methods are used to accomplish complementary ends on a single ethnographic research project.


The Genealogical MethodThe Genealogical MethodEarly anthropologists identified types of relatedness, such

as kinship, descent, and marriage, as being the fundamental organizing principals of nonindustrial societies.

The genealogical method of diagramming such kin relations was developed as a formalized means of comparing kin-based societies.


Ethnographic TechniquesEthnographic TechniquesKey Cultural Consultants are particularly well-informed

members of the culture being studied that can provide the ethnographer with some of the most useful or complete information.

Life histories are intimate and personal collections of a lifetime of experiences from certain members of the community being studied. Life histories reveal how specific people perceive, react to,

and contribute to changes that affect their lives. Since life histories are focused on how different people

interpret and deal with similar issues, they can be used to illustrate the diversity within a given community.


Ethnographic TechniquesEthnographic Techniques

Anthropologists such as Christie Kiefer typically form personal relationships with cultural consultants, such as this Guatemalan weaver.

Photo Credit: Peggy / Yoran Kahana / Peter Arnold, Inc.


Emic vs. EticEmic vs. EticAn emic (native-oriented) approach investigates how

natives think, categorize the world, express thoughts, and interpret stimuli. Emic means the “native viewpoint” Key cultural consultants are essential for understanding the

emic perspective.An etic (science-oriented) approach emphasizes the

categories, interpretations, and features that the anthropologist considers important.


The Evolution of EthnographyThe Evolution of EthnographyBronislaw Malinowski is generally considered the father of

ethnography. He did salvage ethnography, recording cultural diversity that

was threatened by westernization. His ethnographies were scientific accounts of unknown

people and places.Ethnographic realism

The writer’s goal was to produce an accurate, objective, scientific account of the study community.

The writer’s authority was rooted in his or her personal research experience with that community.


Bronislaw MalinowskiBronislaw MalinowskiMalinowski believed that all aspects of culture were linked

and intertwined, making it impossible to write about just one cultural feature without discussing how it relates to others.

Malinowski argued that understanding the emic perspective, the native’s point of view, was the primary goal of ethnography.


Bronislaw MalinowskiBronislaw Malinowski

Here, Bronislaw Malinowski is seated with villagers of the Trobriand Islands.

Photo Credit: British Library of Political & Economic Science London School of Economics and Political Science


Interpretive AnthropologyInterpretive AnthropologyInterpretive anthropologist believe that ethnographers

should describe and interpret that which is meaningful to the natives.

Geertz argues that cultures are texts that natives constantly “read” and that ethnographers must decipher.

Meanings in a given culture are carried by public symbolic forms, including words, rituals, and customs.


Experimental AnthropologyExperimental AnthropologyExperimental anthropologists, like Marcus and Fischer,

have begun to question the traditional goals, methods, and styles of ethnographic realism and salvage ethnography.

Ethnographies should be viewed as both works of art and works of science.

The ethnographer functions as the mediator who communicates information from the natives to the readers.


Ethnographic PresentEthnographic PresentThe early ethnographies were often written in the

ethnographic present, a romanticized timelessness before westernization, that gave the ethnographies an eternal, unchanging quality.

Today, anthropologists understand that this is an unrealistic construct that inaccurately portrayed the natives as isolated and cut off from the rest of the world.

Ethnographers today recognize that cultures constantly change and that this quality must be represented in the ethnography.


Problem-Oriented EthnographyProblem-Oriented EthnographyEthnographers typically address a specific problem or set

of problems, within the context of broader depictions of cultures.

Variables with the most significant relationship to the problem being addressed are given priority in the analysis.


Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research is the long-term study of a

community, region, society, or culture based on a series of repeated visits.

Longitudinal research has become increasingly common among ethnographic studies, as repeat visits to field sites have become easier.

Such studies may also encompass multiple, related sites.Team Research involves a series of ethnographers

conducting complimentary research in a given community, culture, or region.


Archaeological SurveyArchaeological SurveySystematic survey provides a regional perspective on the

archaeological record.Survey collects information on settlement patterns (e.g. the

location of cities, towns, villages, and hamlets) over a large area (e.g. a river valley).

Survey is one of the ways in which archaeologists locate sites that might be excavated in the future.

During a survey, the team records the location, the size, and the approximate age of the site.


Settlement PatternsSettlement PatternsSettlement patterns are important for making inferences

regarding the social complexity of the prehistoric communities.

Groups at lower levels of complexity generally have lower population densities and people living in small campsites or hamlets with very little variation in architecture.

With greater complexity, comes higher population densities (more people living in the same space) and a variety of sites organized along a settlement hierarchy (e.g. cities, towns, villages, and hamlets) with increased architectural variation between sites.


ExcavationExcavationExcavation compliments the regional survey data with

more fine grained data collected at the level of a specific site.

The layers or strata that make up a site help archaeologists establish a relative chronology for the material recovered (e.g. this pot is older than that pot). The principle of superposition states that in an undisturbed

sequence of strata, the oldest is on the bottom and each successive layer above is younger than the one below.

Artifacts from the lower strata are older than artifacts from higher strata and artifacts from the same strata are roughly the same age.


Excavation: PlanningExcavation: PlanningNobody digs a site without a clear reason, because there are

so many sites and because excavation is so expensive and labor intensive.

Cultural Resource Management (CRM) or contract archaeology is concerned with excavating sites that are threatened by modern development.

Most other sites are selected for excavation because they are well suited to address a series of specific research questions.


Excavation: PreparationExcavation: PreparationBefore a site is excavated, it is first mapped and surface

collected so that the archaeologist can make an informed decision about where to dig. Using the map, the archaeologist lays an arbitrary grid of one

meter squares across the site. This grid is used to record the location of the surface

collection units as well as the excavation units on the surface of the site.


Excavation: PreparationExcavation: Preparation

Archaeologists use grids, such as this grid in Teotihuican, Mexico, in order to record the location of artifacts recovered during excavation.

Photo Credit: Kenneth Garrett / National Geographic


Excavation: StratigraphyExcavation: StratigraphyDigging can be done in either arbitrary levels or by

following the natural stratigraphy. Using arbitrary level is quicker, but less refined and

important information can be lost. Following the natural stratigraphy is more labor intensive,

but also more precise way of excavating as each layer (natural or cultural) is peeled off one by one.


Excavation: StratigraphyExcavation: Stratigraphy

James Adovasio records the stratigraphy of the Meadowcroft rock shelter site in southwestern Pennsylvania.

Photo Credit: Scott Goldsmith


Excavation: RecoveryExcavation: RecoveryArchaeologists use a range of techniques to recover

materials from the excavation. All of the excavated soil is passed through screen to increase

the likelihood that small and fragmented remains are recovered.

Flotation is used to recovered carbonized and very small materials like fish bones and seeds.


Show Me The MoneyShow Me The MoneyAnthropologists need funding to support their research in

the field.There are a series of agencies that support anthropological

research. National Science Foundation (NSF) National Institutes of Health (NIH) Social Science Research Council (SSRC) Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research


Show Me The MoneyShow Me The MoneyIn order to receive funding from any of these institutions,

anthropologists must write grant proposals that summarize what questions are going to be addressed, where the research will be conducted, and how it will be done.

Why this topic/problem? The grant writer must present the topic or problem that they

will address during the proposed research. More importantly, the writer needs to convince the agency

that the topic is important and worthy of being funded.


Show Me The MoneyShow Me The Money Why this place?

The grant writer needs to demonstrate the connection between the research topic and the location where the research will be carried out.

Some locations address certain topics better than others. Why this person?

The grant writer needs to identify the special qualifications that he or she brings to the research topic.

Proficiency in the local language, previous research experience in the area, and strong local contacts are important.

How will the study be done? The grant writer needs to discuss, as specifically as possible, how this

research will be carried out. This section can include a discussion of the techniques and methods as

well as the logistics of living in the study community and gaining permission from the study community to perform the research.


Ethics: People and AnimalsEthics: People and Animals The primary ethical obligation of the anthropologist is to the people,

species, or materials he or she studies. Researchers must respect the safety, dignity, and privacy of the

people, species or materials that he or she studies. Researchers should determine in advance whether their hosts wish to

remain anonymous or receive recognition. Researchers should obtain the informed consent of the people to be

studied and of those whose interests may be affected by the research. Anthropologists who develop close relationships with individuals

must adhere to the obligations of openness and informed consent. Anthropologists may gain personally form their work, but they must

not exploit individuals, groups, animals, or cultural or biological materials.


Ethics: Scholarship and ScienceEthics: Scholarship and Science Anthropologists should expect to encounter ethical dilemmas during

their work. Anthropologists are responsible for the integrity and reputation of

their discipline, of scholarship, and of science. Researchers should do all they can to preserve opportunities for future

field work. To the extent possible, researchers should disseminate their findings

to the scientific and scholarly community. Anthropologists should consider reasonable requests for access to

their data for purposes of research. Responsibility to the public. Researchers should make their results available to sponsors, students,

decision makers, and other non-anthropologists. Anthropologists may move beyond disseminating research results to a

position of advocacy.


Ethics: TeachingEthics: Teaching Anthropologists should conduct their programs in ways that preclude

discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, “race”, social class, political convictions, disability, religion, ethnic background, national origin, sexual orientation, and age.

Anthropologists should strive to improve their teaching and training techniques.

Teachers should impress a concern with ethics on their students. Teachers should properly acknowledge student assistance in their

research and in the preparation of their work. Teachers must avoid sexual liaisons with those for whose education

and professional training they are in any way responsible.


Ethics for Applied AnthropologyEthics for Applied AnthropologyApplied anthropologists should use and disseminate their

work appropriately.With employers, applied anthropologists should be honest

about their qualifications, capabilities, aims, and intentions.Applied anthropologists should be alert to the danger of

compromising ethics as a condition for engaging in research or practice.


Survey ResearchSurvey Research Anthropologists working in large-scale societies are increasingly

using survey methodologies to complement more traditional ethnographic techniques. Survey involves drawing a study group or sample from the larger

study population, collecting impersonal data, and performing statistical analyses on these data.

By studying a properly selected and representative sample, social scientists can make accurate inferences about the larger population.

Survey research is considerably more impersonal than ethnography. Survey researchers call the people who make up their study

sample respondents. Respondents answer a series of formally administered questions.


Survey ResearchSurvey Research

ETHNOGRAPHY SURVEY RESEARCH

is the study whole, functioning communities

is the study a small sample of a larger community

is usually based on firsthand fieldwork during which information is collected after a good, friendly working relationship, based on personal contact, is established between researcher and informants

is often conducted with little to no personal contact between study subjects and researchers as interviews are frequently conducted by assistants over the phone or in printed form

is generally interested in studying all aspects of a the informants’ lives (holistic)

usually focused on a small number of variables, such as ones that influence voting, rather than on the totality of people’s lives

Comparison between Ethnography and Survey Research


Survey ResearchSurvey ResearchComparison between Ethnography and Survey Research (continued)

ETHNOGRAPHY SURVEY RESEARCH

tends to be conducted outside the First (industrial) World, among communities that do not read or write

is normally carried out in modern nations , where most people are literate, permitting respondents to fill in their own questionnaire

makes little use of statistics since the societies being investigated tend to be smaller and less diverse

is heavily dependent upon statistical analyses in order to make inferences regarding a large and diverse study community, based on data collected from a small subset of that community


Anthropology in Complex SocietiesAnthropology in Complex SocietiesAnthropologists rely increasingly on a variety of different

field methodologies to accommodate a demand for greater breadth of applicability of results.

Kottak argues that the core contribution of ethnology remains the qualitative data that result from close, long-term, in-depth contact between ethnographer and subjects.


ScienceScienceScience is a way of viewing the world.Science recognizes the tentativeness and uncertainty of our

knowledge and understanding.To improve our knowledge, scientists test hypotheses,

which are suggested explanations of things and events.Explanations show how and why the thing to be understood

is related to other things in some known way.Explanations rely on associations which are the observed

relationships between two or more measured variables.A theory is more general, suggesting and implying

associations and attempting to explain them.


Social ScienceSocial ScienceAssociations are usually stated probabilistically: two or

more variables tend to be related in a predictable way, but there are exceptions.

A theory is an explanatory framework that helps us understand why something exits.

Theories cannot be proved, we evaluate them through the method of falsification. If a theory is true, certain predictions should stand up to tests

designed to disprove them.. Theories that have not been disproved are accepted.

History and Philosophy

Mechikoff & Estes, A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fourth Edition © 2006, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

History

• Working definition: the study of change over time

• Historians examine how civilizations and institutions (e.g., sport) change over time– identify people and events in this change

• History documents what happened and then asks “why?”– “What”—usually through artifacts, documents,

photos, etc.– “Why”—more difficult

• Theories come into play here (modernization, etc.)

Why Study (Sport) History?

• Provides context and perspective– Studying past civilizations helps explain

what various cultures considered important– “Whoever would know the heart and mind of

America had better learn baseball.”1

• Predictive– History tends to be cyclical – “Those who do not know history are

condemned to repeat its mistakes.”2

Sport—Then

. . . and Now

General Types of History

• Descriptive: Tells what happened in past. Tries to be objective.

– Generally concerned with the who, what, when, and where

– Also known as chronological or narrative• Interpretive: Uses a set of rules or theory to show and

analyze change over time.


• Interpretive– Often reveals the “how” and “why” – Subjective: person selects the theory or

theories that will be used to interpret change over time

• e.g., feminist, postmodernist, critical


• Which is better?– Quality determined by sources employed, not

by type or theory

Doing History: Sources

• Two types: primary and secondary

• Primary– First-hand account– Newspaper and other artifact sources

• pottery, statues, poems, etc.

– Example: an autobiography or written account by an Olympic athlete at the Athens Games

Doing History: Sources

• Secondary: Telling the story from other sources – Producer was not there– Includes books and articles which can use both

primary and secondary sources• Which source type is better?

– Depends on the quality of the source

Philosophy

• Derived from the Greek word philosophia

– “love of wisdom”

• Contemporary philosophy: can be defined as the systematic investigation of reality, knowledge, and values

Philosophy: Areas of Study

• Epistemology: the study of the nature of knowledge

• Metaphysics: the study of the nature of reality– Ontology: the study of the nature of being– Cosmology: the study of the nature of the universe– Theology: the study of the nature of God

Philosophy: Areas of Study

• Axiology: the study of the nature of value– Ethics: the study of the nature of good– Aesthetics: the study of the nature of beauty– Politics: the study of the nature of the common

good

Metaphysics/Ontology

• Metaphysics—ultimate nature of reality – distinguishes between the real and the unreal

• Ontology- branch of metaphysics; deals with reality related to humans and “being”– Does being involve only mind, or mind and body?

• Metaphysics Ontology

matter body

idea mind

Greek Example

• Western world subscribes to Greek metaphysical and ontological positions

• Reality consists of two separate components: idea and matter

– Metaphysical dualism.

• Being (existence) is composed of mind and body

– Greek ontology is founded upon dualism

Interpretive Frameworks

• Ontology: nature of mind/body

• Modernization theory

• Urbanization/industrialization

Ontology: Nature of Mind & Body

• Relationship between mind and body is critical to understanding the text– Relationship between mind and body changes over

time

– Relationship of sport is directly related to the value of the body in a given culture

• The more important the body is, the more central sport is

• The more important the mind, the less central sport is

Ontology Across Time

Modernization Theory (Adelman)

• An interpretive model that seeks to explain “change over time”– Divides culture into “premodern” (traditional)

and “modern”

– Cultures tend to move from premodern to modern characteristics

Premodern Culture: Characteristics

• Stable• Local• Paternalistic hierarchy in both family and society• Absence of specialized roles• Family and community woven together with

respect to labor, leisure, and religion• Dependence on manual labor/muscle power

Premodern Culture: Characteristics

• Cyclic time: past, present, and future are same• Ritual flows through the entire experience of

culture, explaining the meaning of life• No boundaries between secular and religious life• No boundaries between work and leisure• Prevailing attitude is one of acceptance or

resignation• Repetition is encouraged

Modern Culture: Characteristics

• Dynamic• Cosmopolitan• Functional social structure: conforms to

shifting politics and economics• Meritocratic• Highly specialized• Family and community divided by socio-

economic status, job, etc.

Modern Culture: Characteristics

• Technological• Linear time: minutes are mortal• Belief that we are rational• Separation between church and state• Boundaries between work and leisure• Desire for change and the belief that it can

be achieved through the application of rational analysis

Premodern and Modern Sport

Premodern• Organization

– Nonexistent or informal – Arranged directly or

indirectly

• Rules– simple, unwritten– based on local

customs/traditions

Modern• Organization

– Formal

– Differentiated at local, regional, national levels

• Rules– formal, standard, written

– rational and overseen by organization


Premodern• Competition

– locally meaningful

• Roles– loose distinction among

players/spectators

Modern• Competition

– national and international

• Roles—specialists– distinction between

players/spectators


Premodern• Public information

– limited, local, oral

• Stats/records– nonexistent, perhaps

anecdotal

Modern• Public information

– Regular: in local and national mediums

• Stats/records– kept regularly

– important measures of achievement

Industrialization/Urbanization

• Another paradigm to understand change in sport over time

• Views one’s leisure activities dependent on living pattern– Shift from rural to urban patterns– Move from country games to city games

• from hunting and fishing to urban games

Industrialization/Urbanization

• Concept of enclosure becomes important– Space is limited

• one’s recreational pursuits are guided into confined spaces

• Example: American basketball

• Availability of lots of people makes possible team games

Definitions: Sport, Play, Games

• Sport– From French de(s)porter and Latin deportare

• “Amusing oneself”

– Modern interpretation: encompasses competition in numerous forms

• A working definition of sport involves play and games


• Play: any nonutilitarian and autotelic physical or intellectual activity – Nonutilitarian—no motives other than to participate

– Autotelic—done for its own sake and not for a specific reason

– Can be spontaneous or organized (games)

– A larger domain than sport


• Game A play activity which has explicit rules,

specified or understood goals . . ., the element of opposition or contest, recognizable boundaries in time and sometimes in space, and a sequence of actions which is essentially “repeatable” every time the game is played.3

Sport: Working Definition

. . . a playful physical activity that has:

• Continuity (longevity)

• Division of roles

• Dynamic interaction with an audience

• A supporting sport establishment

Classical Western Philosophies

• The mind/body relationship determines much of what is taught and how it is taught in physical education.

• Platonic dualism and Descartes’ rationalism– Have in common the view that the mind and body are

separate and distinct entities.

• Hobbes’ empiricism: argues that there is only the material world and physical bodies in it.

From Dualism to Monism

• Twentieth century philosophies try to reconcile mind and body

• Monist philosophies: view humans as an integrated whole

– Mind and body are not separate– Knowledge exists in the entire person– Focus is not on the nature of a person, but

how that person experiences reality

Twentieth Century Monistic Philosophy

• Pragmatism—one of first to reject dualism– Pragmatists argue that experience, and

therefore the body, is where one begins to come to know reality

– Pragmatists also argue that man is an embodied entity (mind and body are integrated)

Existentialism• Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

– Argued for existence of God– Religion useless if we “reason” our way

back to God• Three stages of life experience:

Aesthetic, Ethical, Religious• Some progress through stages, others

remain in first stage forever

Existentialism

• Third stage is superior

• All three stages reflect the attempt to win salvation and achieve satisfaction or “life’s greatest good”

• Was an existentialist because of emphasis on experience

Phenomenology

• Emphasize epistemology– Body accesses world/knowledge (instrument)– Body has inherent meaning– Body is not enemy of reason/mind

• Emphasizes experience– Meaning not explained by mind or senses alone

• must be LIVED– Awareness and meaning associated with movement

Phenomenology and Existentialism

• Both promote subjective experiences that enhance life

• Promote movement and experiences within

• Experience is where one comes to know reality

References1. George Santayana, “The life of reason,” quoted in J.T. English, A

Garden Book of Profundities, Atticisms, and Smartalek Sayings, 9th ed. (Tacoma, WA: Universidy of Puget Sound, 1905), 60.

2. Jacques Barzun, “God’s Country and Mine,” quoted in English, Garden Book of Profundities, Atticisms, and Smartalek Sayings, 5

3. L.P. Ager, “The Reflection of Cutlural Values in Eskimo Children’s Games,” in D. Calhoun, Sport, Cuture, and Personality (Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1987), 47.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2011

UNDERSTANDING UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY


Psychologists at WorkPsychologists at Work

What is the science of psychology?What is the science of psychology?

What are the major specialties in the field What are the major specialties in the field of psychology?of psychology?

Where do psychologists work?Where do psychologists work?


PsychologyPsychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental The scientific study of behavior and mental processesprocesses


Subfields of Psychology: Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family TreePsychology’s Family Tree

Separated by the basic questions about Separated by the basic questions about behavior that they address: behavior that they address: How do our social networks affect behavior?How do our social networks affect behavior? How do people sense, perceive, learn, and think How do people sense, perceive, learn, and think

about the world?about the world? What are the sources of change and stability in What are the sources of change and stability in

behavior across a life span?behavior across a life span? How do psychological factors affect physical and How do psychological factors affect physical and

mental health?mental health? How do our social networks affect behavior?How do our social networks affect behavior?


How Do Our Social Networks Affect How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior?Behavior?

Social PsychologySocial Psychology The study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are The study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are

affected by othersaffected by others

Cross-Cultural PsychologyCross-Cultural Psychology Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological

functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groupsfunctioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups

What Are the Biological Foundations of Behavior?What Are the Biological Foundations of Behavior? Behavioral NeuroscienceBehavioral Neuroscience

Examines how the brain and the nervous system, in addition Examines how the brain and the nervous system, in addition to other biological processes, determine behaviorto other biological processes, determine behavior


How Do People Sense, Perceive, How Do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think about the Learn, and Think about the

World?World? Experimental PsychologyExperimental Psychology

Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the worldlearning, and thinking about the world

SubspecialtySubspecialty Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology

Studies higher mental processes such as Studies higher mental processes such as thinking, memory, reasoning, problem thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and solving, judging, decision making, and language language


What Are the Sources of Change What Are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behavior Across and Stability in Behavior Across

the Life Span?the Life Span? Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Studies how people grow and change from Studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through deaththe moment of conception through death

Personality Psychology Personality Psychology Focuses on the consistency in people’s Focuses on the consistency in people’s

behavior over time and the traits that behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from anotherdifferentiate one person from another


How Do Psychological Factors How Do Psychological Factors Affect Physical and Mental Health?Affect Physical and Mental Health?

Health PsychologyHealth Psychology Explores the relationship between psychological Explores the relationship between psychological

factors and physical ailments or diseasefactors and physical ailments or disease Clinical PsychologyClinical Psychology

Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorderspsychological disorders

Counseling PsychologyCounseling Psychology Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career-Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career-

adjustment problemsadjustment problems


Expanding Psychology’s Expanding Psychology’s FrontiersFrontiers

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology Considers how behavior is influenced by our Considers how behavior is influenced by our

genetic inheritance from our ancestorsgenetic inheritance from our ancestors Behavioral GeneticsBehavioral Genetics

Seeks to understand how we might inherit Seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually environment influences whether we actually display such traitsdisplay such traits


Expanding Psychology’s Expanding Psychology’s FrontiersFrontiers

Clinical NeuropsychologyClinical Neuropsychology Unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical Unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical

psychologypsychology Focuses on the origin of psychological Focuses on the origin of psychological

disorders in biological factorsdisorders in biological factors


Figure 1 of Chapter 1

Where Psychologists WorkWhere Psychologists Work


Psychologists: A PortraitPsychologists: A Portrait

By 2010 women will outnumber men in the By 2010 women will outnumber men in the fieldfield

Vast majority of psychologists in the Vast majority of psychologists in the United States are whiteUnited States are white

Six percent are members of racial minority Six percent are members of racial minority groupsgroups Limits diversity of the fieldLimits diversity of the field


The Education of a The Education of a PsychologistPsychologist

PhDPhD Doctor of philosophyDoctor of philosophy

PsyDPsyD Doctor of psychologyDoctor of psychology

MA or MS MA or MS Master’s degreeMaster’s degree

BA or BSBA or BS Bachelor’s degree Bachelor’s degree


A Science Evolves: The Past, the A Science Evolves: The Past, the

Present, and the FuturePresent, and the Future

What are the origins of psychology?What are the origins of psychology?

What are the major approaches in What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology?contemporary psychology?


A Science Evolves: The Past, the A Science Evolves: The Past, the

Present, and the FuturePresent, and the Future

What are psychology’s key issues and What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? controversies?

What is the future of psychology likely to What is the future of psychology likely to hold? hold?


The Roots of PsychologyThe Roots of Psychology

StructuralismStructuralism Wilhelm WundtWilhelm Wundt Focused on uncovering the fundamental Focused on uncovering the fundamental

mental components of perception, mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activitieskinds of mental states and activities IntrospectionIntrospection



FunctionalismFunctionalism William JamesWilliam James Concentrated on what the mind does and how Concentrated on what the mind does and how

behavior functionsbehavior functions Stream of consciousnessStream of consciousness



Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology Emphasized how perception is organized Emphasized how perception is organized ““The whole is different from the sum of its The whole is different from the sum of its

parts”parts”


Women in Psychology: Women in Psychology: Founding MothersFounding Mothers

Margaret Floy Washburn Margaret Floy Washburn First woman to receive a doctorate in psychologyFirst woman to receive a doctorate in psychology

Leta Stetter HollingworthLeta Stetter Hollingworth One of the first psychologists to focus on child One of the first psychologists to focus on child

development and on women’s issuesdevelopment and on women’s issues Mary CalkinsMary Calkins

Studied memory Studied memory First female president of the American Psychological First female president of the American Psychological

AssociationAssociation Karen HorneyKaren Horney

Focused on the social and cultural factors behind Focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality personality


Women in Psychology: Women in Psychology: Founding MothersFounding Mothers

June Etta DowneyJune Etta Downey First woman to head a psychology department at a First woman to head a psychology department at a

state universitystate university Anna FreudAnna Freud

Daughter of Sigmund FreudDaughter of Sigmund Freud Notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal Notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal

behaviorbehavior Mamie Phipps ClarkMamie Phipps Clark

Pioneered work on how children of color grew to Pioneered work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differencesrecognize racial differences


Today’s PerspectivesToday’s Perspectives



The Neuroscience The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, Perspective: Blood, Sweat,

and Fearsand Fears

Neuroscience PerspectiveNeuroscience Perspective Considers how people and nonhumans Considers how people and nonhumans

function biologicallyfunction biologically


The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective: Understanding the Perspective: Understanding the

Inner PersonInner Person

Psychodynamic PerspectivePsychodynamic Perspective Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud Behavior is motivated by inner forces and Behavior is motivated by inner forces and

conflicts about which we have little awareness conflicts about which we have little awareness or control. or control.


The Behavioral Perspective: The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the Outer PersonObserving the Outer Person

Behavioral PerspectiveBehavioral Perspective John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner Focuses on observable behavior that can be Focuses on observable behavior that can be

measured objectivelymeasured objectively


The Cognitive Perspective: The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the Roots of Identifying the Roots of

Understanding Understanding

Cognitive PerspectiveCognitive Perspective Focuses on how people think, understand, Focuses on how people think, understand,

and know about the worldand know about the world Information processingInformation processing


The Humanistic Perspective: The The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique Qualities of the Human Unique Qualities of the Human

SpeciesSpecies

Humanistic PerspectiveHumanistic Perspective Carl RogersCarl Rogers Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow Emphasis is on Emphasis is on free willfree will Achieving self-fulfillment Achieving self-fulfillment


Key IssuesKey Issues Nature (Heredity) versus Nurture (Environment)Nature (Heredity) versus Nurture (Environment)

Conscious versus Unconscious causes of behaviorConscious versus Unconscious causes of behavior

Observable Behavior versus Internal Mental ProcessesObservable Behavior versus Internal Mental Processes

Free Will versus DeterminismFree Will versus Determinism

Individual Differences versus Universal PrinciplesIndividual Differences versus Universal Principles


Key IssuesKey Issues



Psychology’s FuturePsychology’s Future

Psychology will become increasingly specialized Psychology will become increasingly specialized and new perspectives will evolve.and new perspectives will evolve.

Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology.other branches of psychology.

Influence on issues of public interest will grow. Influence on issues of public interest will grow. Issues of diversity will become more important to Issues of diversity will become more important to

psychologists providing services and doing psychologists providing services and doing research.research.


Research in Psychology Research in Psychology

What is the scientific method?What is the scientific method? How do psychologists use theory and How do psychologists use theory and

research to answer questions of interest?research to answer questions of interest? What research methods do psychologists What research methods do psychologists

use?use? How do psychologists establish cause-How do psychologists establish cause-

and-effect relationships using and-effect relationships using experiments?experiments?


Scientific MethodScientific Method Approach used by psychologists to systematically Approach used by psychologists to systematically

acquire knowledge and understanding about acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interestbehavior and other phenomena of interest

Four main stepsFour main steps 1. Identifying questions of interest1. Identifying questions of interest 2. Formulating an explanation2. Formulating an explanation 3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute 3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute

the explanationthe explanation 4. Communicating the findings4. Communicating the findings


ScientificScientific MethodMethod



Theories: Specifying Broad Theories: Specifying Broad ExplanationsExplanations

TheoriesTheories Broad explanations and predictions Broad explanations and predictions

concerning phenomena of interestconcerning phenomena of interest


Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Hypotheses: Crafting Testable PredictionsPredictions

HypothesisHypothesis Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be

testedtested Stems from theoriesStems from theories

Operational DefinitionOperational Definition Translation of a hypothesis into specific, Translation of a hypothesis into specific,

testable procedures that can be measured testable procedures that can be measured and observedand observed


Psychological ResearchPsychological Research

ResearchResearch Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of

new knowledgenew knowledge


Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

Archival ResearchArchival Research Existing data, such as census documents, Existing data, such as census documents,

college records, and newspaper clippings, are college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.examined to test a hypothesis. Example: Looking at college records of students’ Example: Looking at college records of students’

grades to see if there are gender differences in grades to see if there are gender differences in academic performanceacademic performance



Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic Observation An investigator observes some naturally An investigator observes some naturally

occurring behavior and does not make a occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situationchange in the situation Example: Sitting in on a class to see how Example: Sitting in on a class to see how

frequently male students speak up in class, as frequently male students speak up in class, as opposed to how frequently female students speak opposed to how frequently female students speak upup



Survey Research Survey Research A A samplesample of people chosen to represent a of people chosen to represent a

larger group of interest (alarger group of interest (a population population) is asked ) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.thoughts, or attitudes. Example: Having a sample of people (an equal Example: Having a sample of people (an equal

number of male and female students) fill out a number of male and female students) fill out a questionnaire about their study habits and gradesquestionnaire about their study habits and grades



The Case StudyThe Case Study An in-depth, intensive investigation of a An in-depth, intensive investigation of a

single individual or a small groupsingle individual or a small group Often includes psychological testingOften includes psychological testing

Example: Investigating an academically Example: Investigating an academically successful student with dyslexia to find successful student with dyslexia to find out what specific behaviors led to his out what specific behaviors led to his academic success. The findings of this academic success. The findings of this investigation could then be used to help investigation could then be used to help other students with dyslexia do better in other students with dyslexia do better in school.school.


Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research

Two sets of variables are examined to determine Two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or whether they are associated, or correlated.correlated. VariablesVariables

Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some waychange, or vary, in some way

Correlation coefficientCorrelation coefficient PositivePositive NegativeNegative

Example: Comparing the amount of time spent Example: Comparing the amount of time spent studying to students’ performance on a test to see if studying to students’ performance on a test to see if the amount of time students studied affected their test the amount of time students studied affected their test scoresscores


Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

A researcher investigates the relationship A researcher investigates the relationship between two or more variables by between two or more variables by deliberately changing one variable in a deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of effects of that change on other aspects of the situation. the situation. Experimental manipulationExperimental manipulation



Experimental Groups and Control GroupsExperimental Groups and Control Groups Treatment Treatment

Manipulation implemented by the Manipulation implemented by the experimenterexperimenter

Experimental groupExperimental group Receives a treatmentReceives a treatment

Control group Control group Receives no treatment Receives no treatment Rules out other reasons for changeRules out other reasons for change



Independent and Dependent VariablesIndependent and Dependent Variables IndependentIndependent

The condition that is manipulated by an The condition that is manipulated by an experimenterexperimenter

DependentDependent The variable that is measured and is The variable that is measured and is

expected to change as a result of changes expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variableof the independent variable



Random Assignment of ParticipantsRandom Assignment of Participants To make the experiment a valid test of the To make the experiment a valid test of the

hypothesishypothesis

Random Assignment to Condition Random Assignment to Condition Participants are assigned to different Participants are assigned to different

experimental groups or experimental groups or conditions conditions on the on the basis of chance.basis of chance.



Designing an ExperimentDesigning an Experiment



Significant OutcomeSignificant Outcome Using statistical analysis, researchers can Using statistical analysis, researchers can

determine whether a numeric difference is a determine whether a numeric difference is a real difference or is merely due to chance.real difference or is merely due to chance.

ReplicationReplication Repeating experimentRepeating experiment

Meta-analysisMeta-analysis


Threats to Experimental Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Validity: Avoiding Experimental BiasExperimental Bias

Experimental BiasExperimental Bias Factors that distort the way the independent Factors that distort the way the independent

variable affects the dependent variable in an variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment experiment Experimenter expectationsExperimenter expectations Participant expectations Participant expectations

PlaceboPlacebo


Research Challenges: Research Challenges: Exploring the ProcessExploring the Process

What major issues confront psychologists What major issues confront psychologists conducting research?conducting research?


The Ethics of ResearchThe Ethics of Research

Informed ConsentInformed Consent Participants sign a document affirming that Participants sign a document affirming that

they have been told the basic outlines of the they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation study and are aware of what their participation will involve. They are informed about any risks will involve. They are informed about any risks the experiment may hold and the fact that the experiment may hold and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary. They their participation is purely voluntary. They also are told that they may terminate their also are told that they may terminate their participation at any time.participation at any time.


Should Animals Be Used in Should Animals Be Used in Research?Research?

Procedures that cause animals distress are Procedures that cause animals distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is permitted only when an alternative procedure is not available and when the research is justified not available and when the research is justified by its prospective value.by its prospective value.

Researchers are required to promote the Researchers are required to promote the psychologicalpsychological well-being of some research well-being of some research animals, such as primates.animals, such as primates.


Thinking CriticallyThinking CriticallyAbout ResearchAbout Research

What was the purpose of the research?What was the purpose of the research? How well was the study conducted?How well was the study conducted? Are the results presented fairly?Are the results presented fairly?

Documents

Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi Human Realities in the light of Sociology, Anthropology, Philosophical Anthropology, and Psychology