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Chapter 7Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
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The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology
Thinking
Intelligence
Language
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The Cognitive Revolution
Cognition Way in which information is processed and
manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing
Shift away from behaviorism in 1950s Computer analogy for human cognition and brain Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Cognitive Psychology Approaches seeking to explain observable behavior
by investigating mental processes and structures that cannot be directly observed
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The Computer Analogy
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Thinking
Manipulating information mentally
Concepts Problem Solving Reasoning and Decision Making Thinking Critically and Creatively Expertise
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Concepts
Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics Allow generalization Allow association of experiences and objects Aid memory Provide clues about how to react to particular object
or experience
Prototype Model Comparison of item with most typical item in
category
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Problem Solving
Finding appropriate way to attain goal which is not readily available
Find and Frame Problems Develop Good Problem-Solving Strategies
Subgoaling Algorithms Heuristics
Evaluate Solutions Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions
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Problem-Solving Strategies
Subgoaling Setting intermediate goals Defining intermediate problems
Algorithms Strategies that guarantee solution to problem
Heuristics Shortcut strategies that suggest solution to problem
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Obstacles to Problem Solving
Fixation Using prior strategy Failing to look at problem from fresh, new perspective
Functional Fixedness Failure to solve problem due to fixedness on usual
function of something
Failure to “think outside the box”
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The Maier String Problem
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Reasoning & Decision Making
Reasoning Mental activity of transforming information to reach
conclusions Inductive Reasoning
From specific observations to generalizations Deductive Reasoning
From general case to specific instance
Decision Making Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them
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Biases in Decision Making
Confirmation Bias Tendency to search for and use information that
supports ideas rather than refutes them
Hindsight Bias Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that outcome
was accurately predicted
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Heuristics in Decision Making
Rules of thumb
Availability Heuristic Prediction about possibility of event based on
recalling or imagining similar events Base Rate Fallacy
Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
Representativeness Heuristic Tendency to make judgments about group
membership based on match to group stereotype
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Thinking Critically
Thinking reflectively and productively Evaluating evidence
Mindfulness Being alert and mentally present for everyday
activities
Open-Mindedness Being receptive to other ways of looking at things
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Thinking Creatively
To think about something in novel/unusual ways To devise unconventional solutions to problems
Divergent Thinking Producing many solutions to same problem Brainstorming
Convergent Thinking Producing single best solution to problem
Creative thinkers do both.
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Thinking Creatively
Flexibility and playful thinking
Inner motivation
Willingness to face risk
Objective evaluation of work
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Intelligence
Cultures vary in ways they define intelligence.
All-purpose ability . . . to do well on cognitive tasks to solve problems to learn from experience
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Measuring Intelligence
Validity Extent to which test measures what it is intended to
measure
Reliability Extent to which test yields consistent, reproducible
measure of performance
Standardization Uniform procedures for administering and scoring Norms, or performance standards for test
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IQ Tests
Mental Age (Binet) Individual’s level of mental development relative to
that of others
Intelligence Quotient (Stern) Mental Age (MA) vs. Chronological Age (CA) IQ = MA/CA * 100
Normal Distribution Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve
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Normal Distribution of IQ
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Cultural Bias in IQ Testing
Culturally biased tests have favored people . . . From urban, rather than rural, environments Of middle, rather than low, socioeconomic status Who are White, rather than African American
Culture-Fair (or Culture-Reduced) Tests Intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased Include questions familiar to people of all backgrounds Or include no verbal questions
Raven Progressive Matrices
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Raven Progressive Matrices
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Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Genetic markers Locations for intelligence on chromosomes 4, 6, and 22
Heritability Proportion of observable differences explained by genes Approximately 75% for intelligence Increases with age, due to choice of environments Statistic providing information about group, not
individual Can change over time and across groups
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Environmental Influences
Impact of enriched environments and opportunities on intellectual ability
Flynn Effect Phenomenon of rapidly increasing IQ test scores May be due to rising levels of education, or other
environmental factors
Intelligent behaviors always an option
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Extremes of Intelligence
Giftedness High intelligence and/or superior talent in some area Product of both heredity and environment
Mental Retardation Condition of limited mental ability Low IQ Difficulty adapting Exhibited these characteristics by age 18
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Mental Retardation
Organic Retardation Caused by genetic disorder or by brain damage
Cultural-Familial Retardation Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage
Classification Based on IQ
Mild, moderate, severe/profound Based on degree of support required
Intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive
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Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence Practical Intelligence
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (Frames of Mind) Verbal, Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic,
Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist, Existentialist
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Language
Form of communication based on system of symbols
Infinite Generativity Ability to produce endless number of
meaningful sentences
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Basic Properties of Language
Phonology Sound system
Morphology Rules for word formation
Syntax Rules for combining words into phrases/sentences
Semantics Meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics Ability of language to communicate more than said
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Language and Cognition
Language Cognition Language may determine/cause way we think (Whorf) Or, language may merely reflect way we think
Cognition Language Mental retardation often, but not always, accompanied
by reduced language proficiency
Language and thought related, but not part of single system
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Biological Influences on Language
Language Universals (Chomsky) Biological prewiring to learn language in humans Imitation not adequate to learn language
Language and the Brain Language processing in left hemisphere Broca’s area speech production Wernicke’s area language
comprehension
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Environmental Influences
Language as nothing more than chain of responses acquired through reinforcement (Skinner) Language as complex learned skill Not tenable, given rapid language development
Critical period Special time during which language must develop
Biology and environment interact for language.
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Language Development Over the Life Span
Babbling Endlessly repeating sounds and syllables
Sorting through sounds for ones with meaning First words Two-word statements
Learning second language Sensitive periods
