Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 16–1 Organizational Behavior Modification Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)

Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 16–16–11

Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior ModificationModification•Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)

Behaviors that result in desirable consequences are Behaviors that result in desirable consequences are repeated and behaviors that produce undesirable repeated and behaviors that produce undesirable outcomes are avoided.outcomes are avoided.

ReinforcementReinforcement—when a consequence makes a —when a consequence makes a behavior more likely to be repeated.behavior more likely to be repeated.

Extinction—when a consequence makes a response Extinction—when a consequence makes a response less likely to be repeated.less likely to be repeated.

StimulusStimulusStimulusStimulus ResponseResponseResponseResponse ConsequenceConsequence(Outcome)(Outcome)

ConsequenceConsequence(Outcome)(Outcome)


Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior ModificationModification•Organizational behavior modification (OBM)Organizational behavior modification (OBM)

The systematic application of operant conditioning The systematic application of operant conditioning theory to manage workplace behavior.theory to manage workplace behavior.

Extends operant theory to include consideration of Extends operant theory to include consideration of behavioral changes in anticipation of future stimulus-behavioral changes in anticipation of future stimulus-response-consequences sequences.response-consequences sequences.

Recognizes social learning—Recognizes social learning—learning from others’ behaviors learning from others’ behaviors and consequences.and consequences.


Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior Modification OutcomesModification Outcomes

StimulusStimulusStimulusStimulus ResponseResponseResponseResponse

IntrinsicIntrinsic Outcome Outcome(Internal)(Internal)

IntrinsicIntrinsic Outcome Outcome(Internal)(Internal)

ConsequencesConsequencesConsequencesConsequences

ExtrinsicExtrinsic Outcome Outcome(External)(External)

ExtrinsicExtrinsic Outcome Outcome(External)(External)


Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior Modification (cont’d)Modification (cont’d)

• Implementing an OBM programImplementing an OBM program Step 1:Step 1: Identify desired performance behaviorsIdentify desired performance behaviors Step 2:Step 2: Determine the base rate of performanceDetermine the base rate of performance Step 3:Step 3: Identify existing contingenciesIdentify existing contingencies Step 4:Step 4: Select an intervention strategySelect an intervention strategy Step 5:Step 5: EvaluateEvaluate



•Effects of OBM programs (examples)Effects of OBM programs (examples) Using pay as positive reinforcement.Using pay as positive reinforcement. ““Docking” pay as punishment.Docking” pay as punishment. Improving performance to get the boss “off your back” Improving performance to get the boss “off your back”

is negative reinforcement.is negative reinforcement. Using reinforcement schedules to speed up and Using reinforcement schedules to speed up and

motivate learning during training.motivate learning during training. Providing physical hazard warning stimulus in factories Providing physical hazard warning stimulus in factories

and aircraft.and aircraft.


An Inside Look—OBM Improves Beaver An Inside Look—OBM Improves Beaver TrappingTrapping

No OBM

2

1.8

ContinuousReinforcement

4:1 VariableRatio

1.6

1.4

1.2

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

Bea

vers

Tra

pp

ed

Per

Ho

ur

FIGURE16FIGURE16–1–1

Source: L. M. Saari and G. P. Latham. 1992. Employee reactions to continuous and variable reinforcement schedules involving a monetary incentive. Journal of Applied Psychology 67:506–507.



•The ethics of OBMThe ethics of OBM Are attempts to modify behaviors ethical?Are attempts to modify behaviors ethical? What must be done to ensure that OBM is used in an What must be done to ensure that OBM is used in an

ethical manner?ethical manner? What is the difference between manipulating behavior What is the difference between manipulating behavior

and assisting employees to become better and assisting employees to become better organizational members?organizational members?


Job and Work DesignJob and Work Design

• Job (work) designJob (work) design The process by which tasks are The process by which tasks are

combined to form a job.combined to form a job. The formal and informal specification The formal and informal specification

of task-related activities assigned to of task-related activities assigned to and carried out by a worker.and carried out by a worker.

The inherent nature and character The inherent nature and character of the work performed.of the work performed.


Job and Work Design (cont’d)Job and Work Design (cont’d)

•The craft approachThe craft approach A single skilled worker designed A single skilled worker designed

and built products one at a time and built products one at a time from beginning to end.from beginning to end.



•The classical approachThe classical approach Work is divided into a small number of simple, Work is divided into a small number of simple,

repetitive, and standardized tasks.repetitive, and standardized tasks. Adam Smith’s reasons for using the classical approach:Adam Smith’s reasons for using the classical approach:

Worker skill and dexterity improves over time.Worker skill and dexterity improves over time. Time savings and production gains from not changing Time savings and production gains from not changing

from one activity to another.from one activity to another. Innovations developed by specialized workers.Innovations developed by specialized workers. Specialized equipment can be developed.Specialized equipment can be developed. Training time and costs are reduced.Training time and costs are reduced.



• Scientific management (Taylor)Scientific management (Taylor) Division of labor used to:Division of labor used to:

Separate management from rank and file.Separate management from rank and file. Create functional supervision within the managerial Create functional supervision within the managerial

ranks.ranks. Functionally supervise the rank and file.Functionally supervise the rank and file. Implement vertical specialization that removes Implement vertical specialization that removes

planning and controlling activities from production planning and controlling activities from production employees.employees.

Implement horizontal specialization that creates many Implement horizontal specialization that creates many low-skill-level, short-time cycle repetitive jobs.low-skill-level, short-time cycle repetitive jobs.



• Scientific management (cont’d)Scientific management (cont’d) Problems created by the division of labor approach:Problems created by the division of labor approach:

Physical withdrawalPhysical withdrawal—absenteeism—absenteeism Psychological withdrawalPsychological withdrawal—low job satisfaction—low job satisfaction Physical resistancePhysical resistance—work slowdowns, horseplay—work slowdowns, horseplay

•The curse of the classical job design modelThe curse of the classical job design model

SimplifiedWork

Perceptionsof Sameness(Monotony)

Feelings ofBoredom and

Dissatisfaction

DysfunctionalBehavior

FIGURE 16FIGURE 16–2–2



•The transition from classical job designThe transition from classical job design Behavioral SchoolBehavioral School

An approach to job design that had a “human face.”An approach to job design that had a “human face.”– Productivity could be attained by making the job more Productivity could be attained by making the job more

interesting.interesting.

– Enlarged and enriched jobs are Enlarged and enriched jobs are favorably associated with intrinsic favorably associated with intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, work motivation, job satisfaction, work attendance, and performance.attendance, and performance.



•The job enlargement approachThe job enlargement approach The process of adding breadth to a job by increasing The process of adding breadth to a job by increasing

the number and variety of activities performed by an the number and variety of activities performed by an employee (horizontal loading).employee (horizontal loading).



•The job enrichment approach (Herzberg)The job enrichment approach (Herzberg) The process of adding depth to a job by adding The process of adding depth to a job by adding

“managerial” activities to the employee’s “managerial” activities to the employee’s responsibilities (vertical loading).responsibilities (vertical loading).

Hygiene factors (pay and safe working conditions) do Hygiene factors (pay and safe working conditions) do not motivate or create long-term satisfaction.not motivate or create long-term satisfaction.

Motivator factors satisfy and motivate employees:Motivator factors satisfy and motivate employees: Accountability, achievement, control, feedback, Accountability, achievement, control, feedback,

personal growth and development, and work pacepersonal growth and development, and work pace


Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model

Core JobCharacteristics

ExperiencedPsychological States

Individual Differences

Personal andWork Outcomes

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Task Autonomy

Job Feedback

Meaningfulnessof Work

Responsibility for

Work Outcome

Knowledge of

Results

Employee Growth-

Need Strength

High InternalWork Motivation

High-Quality WorkPerformance

Low Absenteeismand Turnover

FIGURE 16FIGURE 16–3–3Source: J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham. 1976. Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 16:250–279.


The Relationship Between Job Complexity The Relationship Between Job Complexity and Psychological Ownershipand Psychological Ownership

Dimensions ofJob Complexity:

Routes toPsychological Ownership:

Autonomy

Task Identity

Personal Control

Investment of SelfPsychological

Ownership

Intimate KnowingFeedback

FIGURE 16FIGURE 16–4–4



•Current job design issuesCurrent job design issues Individual characteristicsIndividual characteristics TechnologyTechnology Work unit designWork unit design Leader behaviorLeader behavior


An InterdisciplinaryAn InterdisciplinaryJob Design ModelJob Design Model

JobJobMechanisticMechanistic MotivationalMotivational

BiologicalBiological Perceptual/motorPerceptual/motor



•The self-managing team approachThe self-managing team approach Establishing groups of workers who collaborate in the Establishing groups of workers who collaborate in the

management and performance of their work.management and performance of their work. Work in a self-managed group is designed to offer Work in a self-managed group is designed to offer

variety, autonomy, significance, task identity, feedback variety, autonomy, significance, task identity, feedback and opportunities for human interaction.and opportunities for human interaction.


The Leader During a Team’s Four StagesThe Leader During a Team’s Four Stages

Stage 1: Start-up team

L

Stage 2: Transitional team

Stage 3: Well-trained, experienced team Stage 4: Well-trained, mature team

L L

L

Source: C. C. Manz and J. W. Newstrom. 1990. Self-managing teams in a paper mill: The external leadership of self-managing teams. International Human Resources Management Review, 1:52.

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Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 16–1 Organizational Behavior Modification Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)