Contents€¦ · ‘product/market couples’.2Amorous metaphors thus abound, with film marketing depicted as ‘large-scale flirting’3or ‘seduction thanks to packaging’.4Quick

vii Acknowledgmentsviii Notes on Contributors

xi ForewordJanet WASKO

1 IntroductionNolwenn MINGANT, Cecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

13 ‘My job is to find the right signals at the right moment for the right people’An Interview with Benoît MÉLYLaurent CRETON and Nolwenn MINGANT

I MARKETING AND FILM CULTURE

21 ‘There simply isn’t one-shape-fits-all for film’An Interview with Michael WILLIAMS-JONESNolwenn MINGANT

26 And Tom Cruise Climbed the Burj Khalifa, or How MarketingShapes Hollywood Film ProductionNolwenn MINGANT

36 ‘My Big Fat Life in Ruins’Marketing Greekness and the Contemporary US Independent FilmYannis TZIOUMAKIS and Lydia PAPADIMITRIOU

47 Carry On LaughingSelling English Humour in FranceCecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

61 Hearing VoicesDubbing and Marketing in the Ice Age SeriesA case study by Nolwenn MINGANT

65 Hollywood in ChinaContinuities and Disjunctures in Film MarketingMichael CURTIN, Wesley JACKS and Yongli LI

Contents

Copyright material – 9781137443137

76 Film Marketing in NollywoodA case study by Alessandro JEDLOWSKI

80 Marketing High Frame Rate in The Hobbit TrilogyA Spectacular Case of Promoting and Un-promoting New Cinema TechnologyMiriam ROSS

92 Niche Marketing in PeruAn Interview with Claudia ZAVALETANolwenn MINGANT

II MARKETING FOR AND BY THE CONSUMER

97 Leaked Information and RumoursThe Buzz EffectA case study by Joël AUGROS

102 Brave New Films, Brave New WaysThe Internet and the Future of Low- to No Budget Film Distribution and MarketingHayley TROWBRIDGE

112 Between Storytelling and Marketing, the SocialSamba ModelAn Interview with Aaron WilliamsNolwenn MINGANT

117 Promoting in Six SecondsNew Advertising Strategies Using the Video Social Network Vine in SpainA case study by Javier LOZANO DELMAR and José Antonio MUÑIZ-VELÁZQUEZ


122 Piracy and PromotionUnderstanding the Double-edged Power of CrowdsRamon LOBATO

132 Marketing Bait (2012)Using SMART Data to Identify e-guanxi Among China’s ‘Internet Aborigines’Brian YECIES, Jie YANG, Matthew BERRYMAN and Kai SOH

147 From Marketing to Performing the MarketThe Emerging Role of Digital Data in the Independent Film BusinessMichael FRANKLIN, Dimitrinka STOYANOVA RUSSELL and Barbara TOWNLEY

POSTSCRIPT: THE INVISIBLE SIDE OF BUSINESS: B-TO-B MARKETING

163 Marketing the ‘Avatar Revolution’, or How to Sell Digital Technology to ExhibitorsKira KITSOPANIDOU

174 ‘It’s Africa. It’s Arizona. It’s Antarctica. It’s Afghanistan. Actually, it’s Alberta’Marketing Locations to Film ProducersBen GOLDSMITH

185 Select Bibliography194 Index


Introduction

Nolwenn MINGANT, Cecilia TIRTAINE and Joël AUGROS

While in the 1930s Bette Davis fans, enticed by posters, trailers and articles in fan maga-zines, had to patiently wait for her films to be released in theatres, today Julia Roberts fanscan enjoy her past and current films in theatres but also on numerous types of screens, inlicensed or pirated copies. They can immerse in the film’s marketing campaign, by reactingon the official website, downloading applications and exchanging comments on social net-works. In the early twenty-first century, films are still avidly watched, but the ways they areexperienced has dramatically changed; and as the way to engage films has evolved, sohave the ways to reach audiences.

Film Marketing: A Defi nitionFilm marketer Jean-François Camilleri once described his job as ‘the art of creating desire,or seducing the largest number of people’.1 Just as the aim of marketing is to ‘find the bestpossible match between a product and its market’, film marketing strives to create ‘product/market couples’.2 Amorous metaphors thus abound, with film marketing depictedas ‘large-scale flirting’3 or ‘seduction thanks to packaging’.4 Quick seduction is required, ona ‘it’s now or never’ principle, as people have to be enticed to go to theatres for the ‘criticalopening weekend’.5 At the centre of attention is the spectator, the ‘target’ to reach, andfilm marketing can first be defined as ‘consumer marketing’.6

Cinematic products have a number of specific characteristics. First, each film isunique: cinema is a prototype industry. For each campaign, marketers have to identifythe adequate target group and create adapted material. This is called ‘audience cre-ation’.7 Not only is each campaign unique, but it also takes place prior to the release,leaving few opportunities for ulterior changes. In the words of producer Robert Evans: ‘afilm is like no other product. It only goes around once. It is like a parachute jump. If itdoesn’t open you’re dead.’8 Second, films are cultural products. Culture can be under-stood as ‘the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity’,9 whichlinks film to performing arts and museums, with their uniqueness, intangibility andabsence of concrete utility. Film marketing, as ‘cultural marketing’, indeed, deals withhedonistic, emotional and symbolic experiences.10 ‘Culture’ can also be understood asthe common identity shared by a country’s inhabitants, as a fundamental element in thevery making of these nations, which Benedict Anderson defined as ‘imagined politicalcommunities’.11 In that sense, marketers have to deal with national traits and represen-tations, and although ‘marketing is universal, marketing practice … varies from countryto country’.12 Moreover, these constructed cultural elements which characterise agroup13 do not necessarily refer to a national context. The target of film marketers can,indeed, be ‘affinity groups’,14 such as Twilight fans, or ‘trekkies’.15 With the developmentof social media, such affinity groups have recently gained importance. Practitioners andanalysts of film marketing must thus be mindful of the link between the film, as a cultural


product, and the spectator, as a culturally specific entity, whether in terms of nationality,gender, age, or affinities.Although to the general audience film marketing is mostly visible through posters and

trailers, film marketers’ attempts to reach their target is a much wider-reaching activity.More than mere ‘sales techniques’, film marketing is about ‘gathering the information andintelligence necessary to elaborate a production and commercialisation strategy’.16 Itimplies the participation of many players, from the very beginning of a film’s life in itsauthor’s mind, to the adoption by audiences long after they have left the theatres. For thisvolume, we have adopted Kerrigan’s definition that film marketing ‘begins at the new prod-uct development stage and continues throughout the formation of the project ideas,through production and into distribution and exhibition’.17 Like her, we believe it is neces-sary to ‘continue the film marketing journey unto the realm of film consumption’ as con-sumers ‘may wish to extend their consumption through visiting online review sites,discussing the films with friends or progressing with their film consumption to consumer-related films’.18

The Film Marketing ProcessDetailed practical information on how to take a film through the different production and dis-tribution stages is readily available in how-to guides such as Angus Finney’s InternationalFilm Business: A Market Guide beyond Hollywood (2010), Jon Reiss’s Think Outside theBox Office: The Ultimate Guide to Film Distribution and Marketing for the Digital Era(2011), or Robert Marich’s seminal Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategiesand Tactics (2013). One can also turn to the now-dated but still pertinent Movie Marketing:Opening the Picture and Giving it Legs (1997), in which Tiiu Lukk presents a series of casestudies based on interviews with professionals. This introduction will briefly go over the dif-ferent stages of film marketing.

Strategic marketingFirst, the target audience is identified by analysing the ‘film marketing mix’ – that is, direc-tor, actors, script, genre, age classification. Marketers map out the film’s SWOTs(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats).19 On the basis of these elements,film marketers operate a segmentation of the audience, identifying a core target, but alsoa secondary group to which the film could cross over.Once the target audience is identified, the team determines the film’s positioning, by

setting its identity and defining where it stands in relation to other films on the market andin audiences’ minds. Positioning relies on a film’s selling points – that is, ‘story elementsthat are easily communicated in simple terms’.20 One film can have several types of posi-tioning, for different target groups. Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994) was marketed asa comedy about single people to eighteen-to-twenty-four-year-olds, as an English-humourromantic comedy for twenty-five-to-thirty-four-year-olds and as an adult date movie forthe thirty-five-plus audience.21 A film can also have a different positioning in differentcountries. While Minority Report (2002) was sold in France on the reputation of its direc-tor, with praise from film critics printed on the poster, the highly technological elements ofthe films were the major selling point in the Japanese campaign.22

The identification of the audience segment and positioning then guides the choice of adistribution pattern or release strategy. Big-budget films for mainstream audiences usuallybenefit from a saturation release – that is, on a large number of screens, with a blitz tele-vision campaign. Mid-range pictures, often directed to a more adult audience, usually have

2 F I LM MARKET I NG I NTO THE TWENTY- F I R ST CENTURY


a more limited release. An exclusive release refers to a distribution move restricted to afew theatres, in big cities. A platform release is a limited release strategy: the film is firstdistributed in a few cinemas and then, as positive word of mouth expands, the number ofcopies gradually increases and the marketing campaign gathers pace. At that stage, arelease date is selected, according to existing seasons. In the USA, summer is the peakseason,23 the time for big-budget films. A second important season for big-budget films,notably animation, is the Christmas holidays. For art-house films the peak will be autumn,on the way to the Oscar season. Although big-budget films increasingly tend to bereleased simultaneously around the world, or day-and-date, each region maintains its ownseasons. In Europe, for example, autumn is a strong period.24 Marketers must also takeinto account specific holidays such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha in Egypt, or the summerschool break in China. They must stay attuned to this seasonality, which can evolve overtime. The choice of the right release date is vital, as the buzz created by the theatrical mar-keting push is crucial for ancillary markets such as television, DVDs and video-on-demand(VoD).

Operational marketingOperational marketing occurs at the distribution stage. It comprises the creation of com-munication material (title, poster, teasers, trailers), media planning and buying (also calledthe media mix) and publicity. One must distinguish advertising, which marketers pay for(e.g. ads in papers or posters) and publicity, which includes all unpaid-for media coverage,TV chat shows, interviews, premiere appearances, world tours, press junkets, films reviewsand awards ceremonies.25 Trailers, which are ‘probably the most important, effective, and

Introduct ion 3

UK poster for Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994): an English-humour romantic comedy and an adultdate movie


cost-efficient way of marketing a new film’,26 have been the object of a specific literature,with notable contributions such as Lisa Kernan’s Coming Attractions: Reading AmericanMovie Trailers (2004), Keith M. Johnston’s Coming Soon: Film Trailers and the Selling ofHollywood Technology (2009) and Tiiu Lukk’s chapter ‘Coming Attractions: Creating theTrailer’.27 But film promotion today relies on a wider variety of tools, as Jonathan Gray’sShow Sold Separately: Promos, Spoilers, and Other Media Paratexts (2010) shows with hisanalyses of trailers, as well as spoilers, reviews or DVD bonus materials.Operational marketing is deeply rooted in local conditions. Marketers in charge of media

buying must be aware of the specificities of local media outlets. An example is how tele-vision spending is a large part of the budget in North America, while no ads for movies areallowed on French television. A central issue for the operational marketing team is, thus,how to tailor the film’s campaign to a specific market, a process called adaptation or local-isation. Beyond the choice of adequate media outlets for advertising and promotion, andminor adaptation of the posters and trailers, marketing teams can also use two other toolsto localise their campaigns: dubbing28 and tie-ins with local partners.

Cross-cutting practicesSome activities stand astride the division described above. For example, product place-ment – that is, ‘ “placing” a product or a brand in one or more scenes of a film, in one formor another, in return for payment’29 – is decided upon at the strategic stage and activatedat the operational stage. Generally, the production company strikes a barter deal with abrand, which provides the products in exchange for their presence in the film.30 Productplacement at the production stage opens cross-promotional opportunities at the distribu-tion stage. The James Bond franchise is probably the best-known example of productplacement on a large scale, with more than twenty brands included in Die Another Day(2002) and the appearance of Heineken in Skyfall (2012).31 As films are prepared forrelease, the car, food or perfume companies devise their own advertising campaigns fea-turing the film’s characters, thus participating in the marketing push with tie-ins. Tie-indeals can also result in the creation of branded products, or merchandising.Another activity that occurs both at the strategic and operational marketing stages is

market research. As the ability to obtain information about the potential audience is vital,market research holds a central place at all stages.32 During development, producers canresort to concept and title testing. At the strategic marketing stage, positioning studies can‘develop a detailed movie marketing plan at a very early stage based on a script and cast-ing’.33 Marich gives a detailed presentation of market research practices such as focusgroups, test screenings, or tracking surveys.34 Marketing material, such as posters andtrailers, can also be tested. Although market research is central, film marketers equallyinsist on the importance of intuition and experience – personal and shared – in makingdecisions.The search for predictability which guides market research has also led to a trend in

academic literature whose aim is to identify the impact of the marketing mix on a film’ssuccess, such as Barry Litman and Hoekyun Ahn’s ‘Predicting Financial Success ofMotion Pictures: The Early ’90s Experience’35 or Arthur De Vany’s chapter on ‘BigBudgets, Big Openings and Legs: Analysis of the Blockbuster Strategy’.36

Marketability and distribution choicesGiven the vast array of films, not all are equally marketable. Marketability is ‘a marketer’scalculation of all the elements of the film than can be used in promotion and advertising’:



the ‘larger the number of advertising-friendly elements – including a film’simagery, storyline, music, genre and styl-isation – the greater the marketability’.37

The most ‘advertising-friendly’ films are‘high-concept’ films, such as Flashdance(1983) or Top Gun (1986), which includestriking visual and audio elements con-ceived to be easily used at the marketingstage.38

The marketing practices describedabove are thus used to varying degreesfor each film, depending on its mar-ketability and its distributor. Marketingstrategies for big-budget films releasedby Hollywood studios will tend to inte-grate production and marketing, todevote a large budget to prints andadvertising (P&A), and to rely on satura-tion releases. Independent distributorswill tend to ‘dispense with research com-pletely’,39 have much smaller P&A bud-

gets and fewer distribution outlets. While saturation releases rely on a massive marketingblitz, independent distribution will favour the development of positive word of mouththrough limited releases and presentations in the festival circuits.

Industrial marketingStrategic and operational marketing can be defined as ‘business-to-consumer’ (B-to-C)practices. They are the more visible facets of the marketing campaign. However, film mar-keting also encompasses ‘business-to-business’ (B-to-B) practices, including pitches byscreenwriters to producers, screenings for sales agents or distributors, the selling of a newtechnology to theatre owners, as well as advocacy marketing – that is, the creation of pop-ular and political support for Hollywood through publicised awards ceremonies and politi-cal lobbying by the Independent Film & Television Alliance and the Motion PictureAssociation of America (MPAA).40

Film Marketing PlayersWith such a variety of practices, film marketing involves many players. The overall strategyused is determined by the type of distributor. The largest distribution outfits areHollywood’s major studios: Disney, Paramount, Sony, 20th Century-Fox, Universal andWarner Bros. They have large marketing departments with subdivisions for creative adver-tising, publicity and promotion, market research and media.41 The majors also have a largenetwork of international distribution offices, which contributes to their continued domi-nance in the world markets. They own speciality divisions, such as Fine Line or SonyPicture Classics, which distribute less mainstream films. Alongside these internationalcolossuses, there is a variety of smaller distribution companies, such as Lionsgate in theUSA. To market their films abroad, US independent distribution companies rely on localdistributors. While some distributors cover a regional area, such as the French company

Introduct ion 5

Top Gun (1986): the prototype of the ‘high-concept’fi lm


Studio Canal which has offices in France, Germany, the UK, Australia and New Zealand,or Dubai-based Gulf Film, which covers the whole Middle East, some distributors focusspecifically on their national market, such as United Motion Pictures in Egypt or Prooptikiin Greece.Film marketing activities are often externalised to a wide range of small companies,

called ‘outside vendors’42 or ‘boutique agencies’.43 Market research is largely outsourcedto firms like National Research Group (NRG)44 and Online Testing Exchange (OTX) in theUSA, or Ipsos MediaCT and Dodona Research in the UK. Also often externalised is thecreation of trailers, to companies such as Ant Farm in Los Angeles or Silenzio in Paris, andthe film’s dubbing to companies such as Dubbing Brothers, VSI Group or Arvintel MediaProductions. When the distributor does not have an in-house marketing department, themarketing process can be subcontracted to advertising and communication agencies,such as Ireland’s Wide Eye Media. Other types of advertising-support companies includecinema in foyer media companies (e.g. Boomerang Media in the UK), outdoor advertisingcompanies (e.g. Primesight UK, JCDecaux or CBS Outdoor in the UK), advertising spacebrokers (e.g. Carat, Mediacom or Mindshare in the UK) or internet-advertising companies(France’s Cinefriends).The film’s talent, the director and actors, can also be very much involved in the market-

ing push, through personal appearances and interviews. For small-budget films, doing thelegwork can be determining, as when comedian Dany Boon toured France to promoteBienvenue chez les Ch’tis (2008), a medium-budget comedy which became a hit in Franceand subsequently experienced success in a large number of countries.Film marketing activities do not, however, rely on film professionals only. State players

also have a key role in the definition and operations of this activity. In France, the filmindustry is closely regulated by a public body, the Centre national de la cinématographieet de l’image animée (CNC). The ban on film trailers on television decided in order to fightinequality between small and large distributors is one aspect through which marketing islimited in France. States also intervene through censorship and quota legislations orthrough nationalised film distributors, such as China Film Group or Kuwait NationalCinema Company. In contrast, state intervention can be enabling, especially for indepen-dent films. In 2003, the UK Specialised P&A Fund was created to support the national dis-tribution and marketing of specialised movies, whether British or not, and of moremainstream British movies which had small P&A budgets.45 On a pan-regional level, theCreative Europe EU initiative has a MEDIA sub-programme dedicated to distribution andmarketing to encourage transnational film circulation.A final player is the spectator. The object of constant attention from film marketers, the

audience should not be viewed as a passive entity experimented upon with previews andsurveys. Viewers increasingly take on an active role in film campaigns. Through positiveand negative word of mouth, they can be true ‘influencers’,46 a phenomenon nowincreased by the internet.

A Brief History of Film MarketingFilm marketing in HollywoodMarketing developed in the USA in the 1930s. Although it did not officially reachHollywood before the 1960s, one can consider that many current practices are as old ascinema itself, with the use of market research in production choices identified as early asthe 1910s.47 In the 1930s, stars were used as ‘market strategy’, while studios practisedaudience testing and publicity in fan magazines.48 Before the 1970s, however, Hollywood



did not market its films, it promoted them. The publicity departments concentrated on pub-licity and trailers, rather than on advertising.49 During the ‘studio era’, studios were, indeed,associated with particular stars – who were under contract – and genres, and each studiodeveloped a brand identity.50 As the studio system collapsed in the 1950s, in the wake ofthe 1948 Consent Decree, publicity departments could not rely on the same tools anymore and had to start creating awareness for each film;51 ‘marketing services’ started tobe tentatively created at the very end of the 1960s.52

In the 1970s, two films marked the establishment of marketing practices in Hollywood:Jaws (1975), which launched the concept of the saturation release, with ad campaignscentred on TV spots,53 and Star Wars (1977), which took the marginal practice of mer-chandising to previously unheard-of levels and turned it into a staple practice inHollywood.54 By the late 1970s, marketing had officially set foot in Hollywood, and ‘pub-licity departments gradually evolved into “multi-disciplined” marketing departments, whichinclude specific divisions for publicity, creating advertising, media buying and promotion(including product placement and tie-in activities)’.55 At the same time, market researchsurged to become ‘integral’ to the film industry, in an era when conglomerate-owned stu-dios wanted reassurance against unpredictability.56 Today, marketing considerations guideproduction decisions in the Hollywood system. Janet Wasko defines this as a ‘bottom-lineor box-office mentality’.57 With the development of marketing practices came the recurrentissue of constantly expanding marketing costs. Whereas studio era advertisers reliedmostly on free publicity, P&A costs today represent about one third of a film’s total cost bya major Hollywood studio. For big franchises, the cost can be much higher. In 1995,GoldenEye’s marketing costs reached 125 per cent of its production costs. In 2013, Skyfallkept them at 100 per cent, and relied on externalised publicity (tie-ins).

Beyond HollywoodGiven the capitalistic orientation of the US film industry, marketing found a ready groundin Hollywood. Film marketing, however, is used in film industries all over the world, as thefollowing examples show.Promotion of Bollywood movies has existed since the 1913 release of Raja

Harishchandra, but film marketing actually developed in the mid-1990s, when the pro-ducer of Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994) decided to promote his film on television. Prior tothe 1990s, aggressive campaigns had never seemed necessary as filmgoing was the mainentertainment in the country. Since then, integrated marketing strategies have been com-monly used, with previews, television appearances and dedicated websites.58 The largestMumbai-based distributors have adopted Hollywood-style standardised methods to pro-mote their films in India and abroad, with P&A costs at about 10 per cent of a film’s totalbudget.59

In France, another important film-making country, film marketing was first met with dis-trust, with cinema primarily considered as an art form and largely supported by the state.In the mid-90s, marketing was generally looked down upon by film professionals for ide-ological reasons: adopting marketing would mean giving in to US-style commodification,conglomeration and more generally to ‘supermarket culture’.60 The structure of the Frenchfilm industry was also a factor explaining the slow adoption of marketing practices. Withthe exception of major companies Gaumont, Studio Canal and EuropaCorp., producersmostly work on a single project.61 This cottage industry organisation does not allow for theallocation of large funds to marketing. The importance of state support, through French orEuropean aid programmes, also tends to lessen the focus on the consumer in production

Introduct ion 7


decisions. In the 2000s, however, the development of wider releases and a cannibalisationphenomenon in peak season led to fierce competition, which pushed distributors toincreasingly adopt a market logic focused on the consumer.62

In several countries, theatrical film marketing cannot exist as such. In Algeria, for exam-ple, the exhibition sector has collapsed over the past three decades, and only two com-mercial movie theatres still stand. Run by civil servants, these theatres, as well as theexisting cinémathèques circuit, have no incentive to attract customers and simply post theday’s programme outside the theatres.63 In Nigeria, theatrical exhibition is also virtuallynon-existent and a flourishing local video film industry has developed since the 1990s,64

with specific marketing practices. In recent years, Nollywood’s push towards the interna-tional market has taken the form of advocacy marketing efforts, notably with the LosAngeles Nollywood Foundation.65

The development and range of film marketing practices can thus be correlated to eachcountry’s film production structure and culture: cottage industry vs integrated industry, artvs industry. One cannot, however, generalise, as within each country a variety of film pro-duction and marketing practices coexist. South Korea is, for example, home to both world-wide distributed, internationally co-produced sci-fi actioner Snowpiercer (2013) and tofilm-festival distributed, art-house Moebiuseu (2013). This volume will mostly concentrateon the marketing of English-language films, but seeks to provide reflection which can beof theoretical and practical use in various contexts around the world.

Film Marketing into the Twenty-First CenturyThrough academic articles and case studies, as well as interviews with professionals, thisvolume explores current film marketing issues, which take their roots in the 1980s wave ofglobalisation, characterised by 1) the opening of borders to financial, trade, population andculture flows and 2) the development of new information and communication technologies.As borders opened, notably with the collapse of the Communist bloc, globalisation influ-

enced the way identities were created, experienced and perceived. The easy circulation ofcultural products led to the idea of the development of a ‘global culture’,66 in which every-one became ‘citizens of the world’. Rapidly, however, local identities claimed their placewith renewed vigour.67 Part I explores the current relevance of culture – with its diversemeanings – in film marketing decision-making and practices.This part starts with an interview with former president of United International Pictures,

Michael Williams-Jones, who shares his views on international marketing, stressing theimportance of ‘understanding your market and understanding your movie’, and stronglydefending the value of local expertise. Two articles then explore the implication of culturaldifferences for film marketing. Comparing the US and Greek campaigns of two Greek-ori-ented films, My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) and My Life in Ruins (2009), Tzioumakisand Papadimitriou contrast ‘indie’ and ‘indiewood’ marketing strategies in two differentnational contexts, and interrogate the use of stereotypes and localisation.Stereotypes and national clichés are also at the centre of Tirtaine and Augros’ article

on the selling of British comedies in France. Their analysis of the main differencesbetween the two markets and the choices made by distributors in terms of film titles andposters shows that Britishness has tended to be a major selling point when marketingBritish comedies in France, especially as from the 1990s.In a case study, Mingant offers further reflexion on the localisation of campaigns

through dubbing. Taking the example of the Ice Age franchise, she shows how the choiceof famous local voices is a marketing asset for professionals in the USA and abroad.



Two essays then explore the major Hollywood studios’ efforts to market their films inter-nationally. Mingant examines Hollywood’s renewed interest for non-US audiences sincethe mid-90s and brings to light the place of international marketing professionals and theirrole in the transformation of Hollywood big-budget films into highly marketable global-local films. Curtin, Jacks and Li reflect on the specific cultural and political challenges ofthe Chinese market, and show Hollywood operating in a highly constrained environment,by allying with local partners and relinquishing control of their products to online players.Another market where distribution is deeply constrained by local circumstances is

Nigeria. Nollywood – the Nigerian film business – is a predominantly non-theatrical indus-try. Jedlowski’s case study shows that Nollywood, because of this, has a unique model offilm marketing, which is based mostly on point-of-sale marketing strategies.Taking a different view, the final chapter leads the reader to consider cinema as a

specifically constructed culture. By detailing the marketing campaign led by Warner Bros.and Peter Jackson around The Hobbit 2012 and 2013 opuses, Ross shows how new tech-nologies that revolutionise our understanding of realism can be rejected by audiences andcreate a marketing conundrum. This part concludes with an interview with film marketerClaudia Zavaleta, who discusses playing on audiences’ expectations when distributingBollywood films in Peru.The second major issue since the 1980s has been the development of new communi-

cation technologies, notably the internet. In the past decades, the rapid development ofsocial media has had a deep influence on the relationship between products and their con-sumers. The capacity to exchange opinion through Facebook, Twitter, YouTube or Vine hasturned internet users (especially bloggers) into main players in the marketing process.Social media has made Alvin Toffler’s 1980 concept of ‘prosumer’ – the combination of‘producer’ and ‘consumer’ – a truism. Part II brings to light the opportunities and challengesoffered by social media and user-generated content for film marketing.Augros opens this part with a short reflexion on the interplay between official and non-

official internet presence of the distributors, insisting on the blurry area of ‘leaked’ infor-mation. Tracing buzz-creating strategies back to the 1920s, he opens a vista on how wordof mouth turned into e-WOM.Equally insisting on the mixing of old and new strategies in the era of media conver-

gence, Trowbridge shows how independent film-makers can tap into the internet’s ‘partic-ipatory culture’68 to develop grassroots financing and distribution strategies away from themain gatekeepers.Two shorter texts provide further case studies of marketers’/consumers’ collaboration

through social media. Aaron Williams relates how his SocialSamba website users canexperience film and television-branded stories, as well as write their own versions of theseprogrammes, in an example of viral marketing practice. Lozano Delmar and Muñiz-Velázquez’s case study analysis of the video social network Vine shows both the opportu-nities offered by new technologies and the hesitations and learning processes for thedistributors.Lobato, indeed, warns that using consumers as promotional players can be ‘double-

edged’. He shows how distributors have to balance their desire to create e-WOM withefforts to prevent pirate access to their films through platforms such as BitTorrent.Two final essays then take a more theoretical stand, offering new methodologies.

Aiming to evaluate the value of e-WOM and user-generated content, Yecies, Yang,Berryman and Soh take the example of comments on Australian horror film Bait (2012)on China’s Douban internet platform to propose a novel platform for social media data

Introduct ion 9


processing. In their chapter, based on a participant observation at the ScottishDocumentary Institute, Franklin, Stoyanova Russell and Townley show how the analysis ofDigital Engagement Metrics, such as Facebook Likes, influence the market, thus bringingto light the performative characteristics of social media.Part I and II analyse the realms of culture and new technologies, focusing on the rela-

tionship between 1) the producer/film-maker/marketer and 2) their customers. An explo-ration of film marketing issues today, however, would have seemed incomplete withoutacknowledging B-to-B practices, to which a postscript is dedicated. Kitsopanidou presentsthe relationship between film-makers/producers and exhibitors through the case of Avatar(2009), focusing on Cameron’s efforts in the adoption of 3D. The final article deals withan even less visible practice; Goldsmith offers insight into the work of film commissionsaround the world and their efforts to advertise their regions as ‘film-friendly’ locations forinternational shoots, in order to boost local economic activities. From national to virtualenvironments, from a culturally constructed spectator to an active prosumer, from B-to-Cto B-to-B, this book proposes a journey through film marketing issues in the first decadesof the twenty-first century.

Notes1. Jean-François Camilleri, Le Marketing du cinéma (Paris: Dixit, 2006), p. 43.2 Laurent Creton, Economie du cinéma: Prespectives stratégiques (Paris: Armand Colin

Cinéma, 2005 [1994]), p. 162.3. Camilleri, Le Marketing du cinéma, p. 44.4. Nolwenn Mingant, Hollywood à la conquête du monde: Marchés, stratégies, influences

(Paris: CNRS Editions, 2010), p. 76.5. Robert G. Friedman, ‘Motion Picture Marketing’, in Jason E. Squire (ed.), The MovieBusiness Book (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992 [1983]), p. 293.

6. Robert Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers: A Handbook of Strategies and Tactics(Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2013, 3rd edn), p. 2.

7. Edward J. Epstein, The Hollywood Economist (New York: Melville House, 2010), p. 187.8. Mark Litwak, Reel Power: The Struggle for Influence and Success in the New Hollywood

(New York: William Morrow, 1986), p. 84.9. Raymond Williams, quoted in John Tomlinson, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), p. 5.10. Hélène Laurichesse, Quel marketing pour le cinéma? (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2006), pp. 44–7.11. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (New York : Verso, 1991 [1983]), p. 6.12. Warren J. Keegan, Global Marketing Management (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall,

2002, 7th edition), p. 2.13. Carmel Camilleri and Margalit Cohen-Emerique (eds), Chocs de cultures: Concepts et

enjeux pratiques de l’interculturel (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1989), p. 27.14. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 399.15. ‘Trekkies’ are fans of the Star Trek universe.16. Creton, Economie du cinéma, p. 162.17. Finola Kerrigan, Film Marketing (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2010), p. 10.18. Ibid.19. The SWOT analysis is a strategic management technique developed in the USA in the

1960s and 1970s.20. Toby Miller, Nitin Govil, John McMurria and Richard Maxwell, Global Hollywood (London:

BFI, 2001), p. 153.



21. Tiiu Lukk, Movie Marketing: Opening the Picture and Giving it Legs (Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, 1997), p. 5.

22. ‘Rejigged Marketing Helps US Pics Soar’, Variety, 28 October 2002.23. Joël Augros, L’Argent d’Hollywood (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1996), p. 168.24. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 222.25. Janet Wasko, How Hollywood Works (London: Sage, 2005), pp. 193–6. Philip Drake,

‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, in Paul McDonald and JanetWasko (eds), The Contemporary Hollywood Industry (Malden: Blackwell, 2008), p. 74.

26. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 198.27. Lukk, Movie Marketing, pp. 217–32.28. See the Ice Age case study in this volume.29. Jean-Marc Lehu, Branded Entertainment: Product Placement & Brand Strategy in the

Entertainment Business (London: Kogan Page, 2007), p. 4. See also Kerry Segrave,Product Placement in Hollywood Films: A History (Jefferson: McFarland & Co., 2004).

30. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 155.31. Ibid., p. 154. ‘The Skyfall’s the limit on James Bond marketing’, Guardian, 23 October 2013,

www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/oct/23/skyfall-marketing-james-bond32. Studies on audience motivation can be traced back in Hollywood to the late 1920s. For the

role of George Gallup and Audience Research Inc. in the 1940s, see Susan Ohmer, GeorgeGallup in Hollywood (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006).

33. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 38.34. Ibid., pp. 32–58.35. Barry Litman and Hoekyun Ahn, ‘Predicting Financial Success of Motion Pictures:

The Early ’90s Experience’, in Barry Litman, (ed.), The Motion Picture Mega-Industry(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p. 176.

36. Arthur De Vany, Hollywood Economics: How Extreme Uncertainty Shaped the Film Industry(New York: Routledge, 2004).

37. Miller et al., Global Hollywood, p. 155.38. Justin Wyatt, High Concept: Movies and Marketing in Hollywood (Austin: University of

Texas Press, 2003 [1994]).39. Marich, Marketing to Moviegoers, p. 33.40. Miller et al., Global Hollywood, p. 161.41. Friedman, ‘Motion Picture Marketing’, p. 293.42. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 189.43. Drake, ‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, p. 71.44. NRG has the same parent as trade publication The Hollywood Reporter, VNU. In 1997

NRG was integrated into the Nielsen Entertainment unit at VNU.45. Cecilia Tirtaine, ‘Le Nouvel essor du cinéma britannique (1994–2004): Facteurs

conjoncturels et structurels’, PhD Dissertation, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre, 2008, pp. 82–4.

46. Kerrigan, Film Marketing, pp. 115, 155.47. David Bordwell, Janet Staiger and Kristin Thompson, The Classical Hollywood Cinema:

Film Style & Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), p. 144.

48. Cathy Klaprat, ‘The Star as Market Strategy: Bette Davis in Another Light’, in Tino Balio(ed.), The American Film Industry (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), pp. 351–76.

49. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 188.

Introduct ion 11


50. Drake, ‘Distribution and Marketing in Contemporary Hollywood’, p. 67.51. Ibid.52. Mingant, Hollywood à la conquête du monde, pp. 224–5.53. Joël Augros and Kira Kitsopanidou, L’Economie du cinéma américain: Histoire d’une

industrie culturelle et de ses stratégies (Paris: Armand Colin Cinéma, 2009), pp. 124, 174.The national saturation technique was first experimented with by Warner Bros. with BillyJack (1971).

54. Augros, L’Argent d’Hollywood, p. 286.55. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 189.56. Wyatt, High Concept, pp. 155–60.57. Wasko, How Hollywood Works, p. 54.58. Camille Deprez, Bollywood: Cinéma et mondialisation (Villeneuve d’Ascq: Septentrion,

2010), pp. 77–9, 142.59. Ibid., p. 72.60. Creton, Economie du cinéma, p. 163.61. Alejandro Pardo, The Europe–Hollywood Coopetition: Cooperation and Competition in the

Global Film Industry (Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 2007), p. 45.62. Laurichesse, Quel marketing pour le cinéma?, p. 3.63. Nolwenn Mingant, ‘A Peripheral Market? Hollywood Majors and the Middle East/North

Africa Theatrical Market’, Velvet Light Trap vol. 75, 2015.64. Ramon Lobato, Shadow Economies of Cinema: Mapping Informal Film Distribution

(London: BFI, 2012), p. 57. Kerrigan, Film Marketing, p. 78.65. Lobato, Shadow Economies of Cinema, p. 63.66. Armand Mattelart, ‘La nouvelle idéologie globalitaire’, in Serge Cordellier (ed.),

La Mondialisation au-delà des mythes (Paris: La Découverte/Poche, 2000), p. 86.67. Benjamin Barber, ‘Jihad vs McWorld’, The Atlantic Monthly, March 1992.68. Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture: When Old and New Media Collide (New York:

New York University Press, 2006), p. 331.



3D cinema 10, 24, 81–3, 163–9history 163–5, 171n20increased ticket prices 81, 164,170n13

marketing of concept 165–7scarcity of screens 164

(500) Days of Summer (2009) 40

About a Boy (2002) 49tAbrams, J. J. 99Academy Awards, timing of

releases to fi t in with 3, 15Acland, Charles 163, 169action fi lms, international popularity

31–2Actor Network Theory (ANT) 148advertisingconsumer-generated 118–20online 79n16, 117–20on television 4, 7, 39, 79n10, 100n7

affi nity groups 1Afghanistan, showing of US fi lms

in 125Ahn, Hoekyun 4‘Ain’t It Cool News’ (website)

97–8Airbnb (website) 118Aladdin (1992) 61Alberta Film 174–5Algeria, collapse of exhibition

sector 8Ali G Indahouse (2002) 59n15Alice in Wonderland (1953)

172–3n50Alice in Wonderland (2010) 166Aliens of the Deep (2005) 165All for Love (2012) 145n7The Amazing Spider-Man (2012)

67The Amazing Spider-Man 2 (2014)

68Amelia (2009) 40America, America (1963) 37American Pie (1999) 61American Ultra (2015) 127Anderson, Benedict 1animation fi lms, in 3D 164–5, 166anime 124Anne of Green Gables (Canadian

TV 1985) 184n34Another Year (2010) 50tAnsari, Aziz 61, 62

Antichrist (2009) 14Arizona see Monument ValleyArmstrong, Shayne 133Aronofsky, Darren 14art-house fi lms 3, 14, 35n43,

51–2, 57Asano, Tadanobu 32Asia, emerging markets in 23, 26,

28Association of Film Commissioners

International (AFCI) 178Atkinson, Rowan 55attendance fi gures, estimation of

13–14audiences, targeting 1–2, 14, 24Australia, fi lm industry 133Australian Film Commission 182Avatar (2009) 10, 81, 82, 88n15,

163–9‘Avatar Day’ 167, 168, 169marketing strategy 165–9posters 167–8, 168release 168–9, 172n43,172n45

trailers 167–8The Avengers (2012) 127

B-to-B (business-to-business)practices 10

Baba qu nar? (2014) 69Back to the Future, Part III (1990)

28bad fi lms, problems of marketing

23Baidu (search engine) 71Bait (2012) 9–10, 132–44analysis of online responses:method 137–41; results 141–4

box-offi ce success 133cast/crew 133Chinese version 133release dates 146n19star power 135, 140

Bardem, Javier 30Barnes, Brooks 32Battle of Britain (1969) 53tBaym, Nancy 148Bean (1997) 49tBeautiful Thing (1996) 50tBelton, John 80, 85The Benny Hill Show (TV) 47,

58n3

The Best Exotic Marigold Hotel(2011) 49t

Bhaji on the Beach (1993) 55, 56,60n25

Bienvenue chez les Ch’tis (2008)6, 59n12

The Big Bang Theory (2007–) 61Bilginer, Haluk 62Billy Elliot (2000) 49tBilly Jack (1971) 12n53Black Swan (2010) 14audience targeting 14SWOTs 15

The Blair Witch Project (1999) 99,99, 104, 109n15

Blue Jasmine (2013) 72Bluhdorn, Charles 21The Boat that Rocked (2009) 53t,

54Bollywood 7Peruvian distribution/marketing

92–4Bond fi lms 4, 22, 31Boon, Dany 6Bourne franchise (2002–12) 31The Bourne Legacy (2012) 145n7Bourvil 48Boyle, Danny 60n33Boys Don’t Cry (1999) 14Bradshaw, Peter 87brand names, featuring in

fi lms/advertising 4Brave New Films 103, 106–8,

109n5Brave New Foundation 103, 106,

109n5Bridget Jones: The Edge of

Reason (2004) 49t, 60n30Bridget Jones’s Diary (2001) 49t,

57, 60n30British comedy/ies 47–58accents in 51audience appeal 48differing reception in UK andFrance 50–2, 50t

French marketing strategies55–8

French titles 52–5, 53toutput 48, 59nn9–10posters 55–8, 56(problems of) defi nition 47success in France 48–50, 49t

British Film Commission 181

Index

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate detailed analysis. Those in italic refer to illustrations.n = endnote. t = table/diagram.


Index 195

Broderick, Peter 105, 107Broomfi eld, Nick 106Bruno (2009) 59n15Buckskin Joe (town) see Coloradobudget, impact on marketing

strategy 2–3Buice, Susan 107, 108Burroughs, Edgar Rice 98Burton, Tim 166The Butterfly Effect (2004) 14

Calendar Girls (2003) 49tCameron, James 10, 82, 88n15,

163, 164, 165–9, 171n33Camilleri, Jean-François 1Canal + (TV channel) 119Canclini, Nestor Garcia 126Cannes Film Festival 15, 51Captain America: The Winter

Soldier (2014) 68Captain Corelli’s Mandolin (2003)

37La Cara del Diablo (2014) 92, 93Carrey, Jim 59n15, 63, 64n7Carrie (2013) 118–19Carry On series (1958–92) 59n13Cassavetes, John 105–6Cassel, Vincent 14cast, involvement in marketing 6Cat Ballou (1965) 177Cedric the Entertainer 62Chabat, Alain 61Chaffey, Dave 109n6Chan, Jackie 33Charlie Wilson’s War (2007) 37Chef (2014) 120Chen, Ashton 133, 135, 145n5Chennai Express (2013) 92, 93,

94Chicken Little (2005) 81, 164,

166, 171n24Chicken Run (2000) 49tChina 65–73, 132–443D in 169expansion of fi lm markets 65,70, 72

leading box-offi ce fi lms 145n7marketing diffi culties 66–9,72–3

online & mobile (O&M) marketing 65, 70–1

social media 9–10social/political change 65stages of marketing process65–6

state control of media 6, 9, 65,66–8

SVoD releases 65–6, 69–70China Film Group Corporation

(CFGC) 66–7A Christmas Carol (2009) 164circulation, concept of 107–8Close, Glenn 27Closer (2004) 14Cloverfield (2007) 99–100A Cock and Bull Story (2005) 53t,

54

Cohen, Sacha Baron 59n15Colorado, location fi lming in 177Comes a Horseman (1978) 177communication technology,

developments in 9, 24Confetti (2006) 50tConsent Decree 1948 (USA) 7‘conversion marketing’ 163, 165,

170n7, 171n21Corbett, John 38Corden, James 55Corliss, Richard 87costs, marketing vs production 7Cotillard, Marion 30Covered Affairs (TV 2010–12)

112, 116n3The Cowboys (1972) 177Cripps, Andrew 30cross-cutting practices 4crowdfunding 106crowdsourcing 106–7Croxson, Karen 123Cruise, Tom 5, 31Crumley, Arin 107, 108Cruz, Penelope 30The Cult (2013) 93culture 1, 8Curse of the Blair Witch (1999)

104Curtil, Emmanuel 59n15, 64n7Curtis, Richard 57

Dallas Cowboys 167The Damned United (2009) 50tThe Dark Knight (2008) 100The Dark Knight Rises (2012) 67,

127Davis, Bette 1, 26The Day They Robbed the Bank of

England (1960) 53tDe Laurentiis, Dino 177De Vany, Arthur 4Death at a Funeral (2007) 50t, 55Delaney, Corey 127Derrière les murs (Behind the

Walls) (2011) 145n7The Descendants (2011) 16Despicable Me (2010) 166Despicable Me 2 (2014) 69Desproges, Pierre 47, 58n1Dhoom 3 (2013) 31, 93The Dictator (2012) 59n15Die Another Day (2002) 4digital engagement metrics

(DEMs) 10, 147, 156means of calculation 148, 149,154

digital technologyconversion of cinemas to 80,88n11, 163, 172n46

fi lm-makers’ use of 80, 81–2,85

impact on fi lm revenues 147impact on marketing/distribution 147–56

relationship with 3D 164see also 3D; high frame rates

directors, involvement in marketing6

distribution companies 5–6District 9 (2009) 83, 100Distrify player 153, 153–6, 155,

156DIY fi lm-makers 102, 108n1DMG Entertainment (Beijing)

67–8documentaries 147–56problems of marketing 149

Dolphin Tale (2011) 114, 115Donnie Darko (2001) 104Don’t Go Breaking My Heart

(1999) 50tDouban (social network) 132,

134–5, 136, 141–3Douglas, Michael 27Downey, Robert, Jr 68Dragons (2009) 164Drake 61, 62The Draughtsman’s Contract

(1982) 53t, 54DreamWorks Animation 164Dreyfuss, Richard 40Dubai Film Festival 31Dwyer, Tim 103–4

‘e-guanxi ’ 132–3, 135, 141–3East Is East (1999) 54, 60n23Eastern Europe, emerging markets

in 8, 26, 28Easy Virtue (2008) 55Edinburgh Festival 150tElf (2003) 30Elizabeth II 52Elton, Ben 55England, My England (1995) 53tThe English Patient (1997) 53tThe Englishman Who Went Up a

Hill But Came Down aMountain (1995) 52, 53t

Entwistle, Joanne 156Espejel, Carlos 62Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless

Mind (2004) 38European Film Commission

Network (EUCN) 178Evans, Robert 1Everybody Loves Raymond (TV

1996–2005) 61The Exorcist (1973) 37The Expendables 2 (2012) 67

Facebook see social mediaThe Faculty (1998) 98Falling Skies (TV 2011–13) 116n4Una familla con suerte (Mexican

TV) 62Fargo (1996) 48–50The Fast Lady (1963) 53tFatal Attraction (1987) 27, 27Japanese version 29, 34n30

Favreau, Jon 30La fea más bella (Mexican TV) 62Les Femmes du 6ème étage

(2010) 15



Fever Pitch (2005) 50tFielding, Helen 60n30fi lm commissions 174–5, 178–83activities/services 179–82establishment/early examples177

range of areas represented by178

training/accreditation 178Film Friendly Michigan 177Film London 178Film NZ 179Finney, Angus 2Finnish Lapland Film Commission

179Firth, Colin 60n30A Fish Called Wanda (1988) 49tThe Flash (TV 2014–) 120Flashdance (1983) 5, 27Flushed Away (2006) 49tFord, Harrison 22Ford, John 177Ford, Sam 107, 126, 157n5Four Eyed Monsters (2005) 107Four Lions (2010) 57Four Weddings and a Funeral

(1994) 2, 3, 48, 49t, 54, 55,57

Fox, Kate 58n2Fox, Michael J. 63frame rates see high frame rateFrance 13–17fi lm festivals 58 (see alsoCannes)

fi lm marketing regulation 4, 6fi lm posters 22–3marketing history 7–8marketing of British comedies55–8

marketing/release of US fi lms15–16, 169, 172n45

popularity of British comedy 47,48–52, 49t, 50t

retitling of British comedies52–5, 53t

shooting of foreign fi lms in180, 182

view of British culture 52, 54–5

Frears, Stephen 51, 57, 60n29Freeman, Martin 84Frost, Nick 50, 51Frozen (2013) 69–70, 72The Full Monty (1997) 13, 48, 49t,

54, 55, 57Funès, Louis de 48Future My Love (2013) 150–6market action schedule 150–1tspecifi cs of screening 155, 156

Gambit (2012) 53tGame of Thrones (TV 2011–) 119Gamos ala ... Ellinika (1964)

46n14Gavin & Stacey (TV 2007–10) 55Georgiadis, Vassilis 46n14Ghost of the Abyss (2003) 165,

171n23

Ghostbusters (1984) 27GI Joe: Rise of the Cobra (2009)

30–1, 33Goetzman, Gary 37GoldenEye (1995) 7Goldsmith, Ben 176Good Morning Vietnam (1987)

54Gorber, Jason 87Goulding, Harry 177La Grande vadrouille (1966) 48,

59n12Grant, Hugh 52, 57–8, 60n30Gravity (2013) 33Gray, Jonathan 4, 125Grease (1978) 27Greece, fi lm marketing in 8,

36–45, 167Greeksdepictions in Hollywood fi lms37

presence in US society 36Green, Joshua 107, 126, 157n5Greenberg, Randy 28, 32Greenfingers (2000) 52Greenwald, Robert 103, 106–8,

109n5Les Guignols (TV 1988–) 15,

17n2

Hall, Peter 176–7Han Sanping 67–8Hanks, Tom 37, 38, 44Hannibal (TV 2013–) 120Happy-Go-Lucky (2008) 50tHappy New Year (2014) 93Harry Potter series (2001–11) 28,

98Heaven’s Gate (1980) 21Heine, Cariba 133‘high-concept’ fi lms 5, 27–8high frame rate (HFR) 80–7critical responses 85–7, 89n29historical background 80–1

Hills, Matt 107Hitchcock, Alfred 23The Hobbit: An Unexpected

Journey (2012) 9, 80, 84choice of viewing speeds 83–5, 88n13, 89n29

critical responses 85–6, 87,89n29

The Hobbit: The Desolation ofSmaug (2013) 9, 80, 83

critical responses 87frame rates 86–7

The Hobbit trilogy (2012–14) 9,80–7

Hollywood‘Americana syndrome’ 30, 31casting 30–1, 33, 35n51characterisation of Europeans26, 37

editing of fi lms for foreign market 29, 32

genres 31–2infl uence of foreign markets onfi lm content 30–3

international co-productions 33international marketing 26,

28–33, 36–45, 65–73location fi lming 31, 175–7, 179

marketing history 6–7, 26–30,34n21

mergers/conglomerates 27online marketing 97–100Production Code 26relationship with Press 97‘runaway production’ 175–6studios 5word-of-mouth marketing 97–8

home video, share of market 164,170n12

homogenisation (of global market)29

Hopper, Hedda 98Horne, Matthew 55Hot Fuzz (2007) 49t, 50, 61How Do you Know (2010) 15How to Lose Friends & Alienate

People (2008) 53t, 54How to Train Your Dragon (2010)

166Hua pi 2 (Painted Skin: The

Resurrection, 2012) 67Hum Aapke Hain Kaun (1994) 7The Hunger Games (2012) 114Hutchinson, Tom 104

I Am Breathing (2013) 150–6analytics data 153, 154t, 155market action schedule 150–1t

specifi cs of screening 155,156

I Give It a Year (2013) 53t, 57–8,60n31

Ice Age (2002) 64n2Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012)

61, 64n2Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

(2009) 64n2, 166Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas

(TV 2009) 64n2Ice Age: The Meltdown (2009)

64n2Ice Age franchise (2002–) 8,

61–3dubbing of foreign versions62–3, 64n7

voice casting 61–2Ile-de-France Film Commission

178, 179The Inbetweeners (2011) 49t,

50independent cinemadigital marketing 147–56in USA 37–40, 44, 45n3see also low-budget fi lms

Independent Film & TelevisionAlliance 5

India, marketing of foreign fi lms in29

see also Bollywood


Index 197

internetadvertising on 79n16, 118–19contradictions 122impact on marketing 9, 16, 24,97–8, 103

mobile apps 71regulation 71spread of opinion via 97–100see also online & mobile marketing; piracy; socialmedia; SocialSamba; Vine;viral marketing; Web 2.0;word of mouth

‘internet aborigines’ 132, 143Intruders (2011) 92Iordanova, Dina 103Iraq for Sale (2006) 103, 106Iron Man (2008) 32Iron Man 3 (2013) 32, 66, 68, 144

The Jacket (2005) 14Jackson, Peter 9, 82–7, 89n23Jamaica Film Commission 178Japan, marketing of western fi lms

in 22, 29, 169Jaws (1975) 7, 98Jegeus, Tomas 165Jenkins, Henry 103–4, 107,

109n10, 124, 126, 157n5Jespersen, Otto 62Jet Li 67Jian guo da ye (The Founding of a

Republic, 2009) 67–8Johnny English (2003) 49t, 52,

53tJohnny English Reborn (2011) 53tJohnston, Keith M. 4Journey to the West: Conquering

the Demons (2013) 31Joyful Noise (2011) 114Juno (2007) 40Jurassic Park (1993) 28Hindi version 29

Kapoor, Aman 92, 94n5Karagarga 126The Karate Kid (2010) 33Katzenberg, Jeffrey 164–5Kazan, Elia 37Kernan, Lisa 4Kerrigan, Finola 2, 28, 108n3Kevin & Perry Go Large (2000)

50tKhan, Shah Rukh 92–3, 93, 94n3Khan-Din, Ayub 60n23Kim, John 133King, Geoff 102King Kong (2005) 83, 89n22,

166Kipling, Rudyard 60n23Klinger, Barbara 125Knowles, Harry 97–8Knoxville, Johnny 59n15Koch, Bill 177Kopan, Yekta 62–3Kozuka, Masayuki 169Krause, Shane 133Kroll, Colin 117

Lacourbe, Roland 47, 59n6The Land Girls (1998) 53t, 54Landau, Jon 165, 167Landy, Marcia 47, 59n6Last Night (2010) 15The Last of England (1987) 53tLatifah, Queen 61, 62Latin America, piracy in 126

see also PeruLaurie, Hugh 55Laverty, Paul 57Leary, Denis 61Lee, Byung-hun 30, 33Lee, Sam 63Lefèvre, Raymond 47, 59n6Leguizamo, John 61, 62, 63Leigh, Mike 51–2, 57Leno, Jay 61, 62Lesbian Vampire Killers (2008)

55, 60n24Lethal Weapon (1987) 127Leung, Edmond 63Lewis, Lincoln 133Li Bingbing 68Lim, Dennis 111n43limited release strategy 108n3Litman, Barry 4Live with Regis and Kelly (TV) 39Living in Bondage (1992) 76Loach, Ken 51–2, 57Lobato, Ramon 108locations 174–83association with particularfi lms/series 182, 184n34

competition between 175design vs location interest 176‘fi lm friendliness’ 179–82fi nancial incentives to use 180history 176–7increased use 175–6, 178–9reversal of national attitudes to180, 182

‘split’ 176see also fi lm commissions

Lock, Stock and Two SmokingBarrels (1998) 50, 55–7,60n26

The Long Good Friday (1980) 57Long kohng (2005) 92Looking for Eric (2009) 50tLooper (2012) 68Lopez, Jennifer 61The Lord of the Rings trilogy

(2001–3) 80, 82–3, 86,89n21, 98–9

Louisiana, location fi lming in 180–1

Love Actually (2003) 49t, 57low-budget fi lms 102–8diffi culties of marketing 102–3impact of internet 103impact of media convergence103–4

innovative marketing strategies103, 105–7

limited release strategy 108n3Lucas, George 164, 166Lucky Break (2001) 50, 50t, 55

Lukk, Tiiu 2, 4Lumière brothers 176Lyngbe, Dagfi nn 62

MacKenzie, Donald 148Madagascar 3: Europe’s Most

Wanted (2012) 31Malawi, piracy in 125Mamma Mia! (2008) 37, 44, 48The Man From Earth (2007) 128The Man with the Iron Fists (2013)

92Mañana te cuento (2005, 2008)

93Mangold, James 119Marich, Robert 2, 4market research 6marketability 4–5marketingadaptation to national audi-ences 15–16, 21

costs 7cultural 1diffi culties 23emerging markets 23, 28fi lm-makers’ disapproval of 7future challenges 24–5handbooks 2history 6–8industrial 5innovations 102national variations 7–8, 22–3operational 3–4players 5–6practitioners’ comments 1preliminary work 13–14seasonal 3, 15strategies 2–3vocabulary 16–17see also audiences; digital technology; marketability;online & mobile marketing;target groups; viral marketing

Marsden, Rhodri 106Martha Meets Frank, Daniel and

Lawrence (1998) 51Maybe Baby (2000) 53t, 54, 55,

56, 60n25McCarthy, Todd 86, 87McGillis, Kelly 5McMahon, Julian 133media convergence 103–4,

109n10Meet the Robinsons (2006) 164Melancholia (2011) 15Melero, Berni 119, 120Mély, Benoît 13–17Memento (2001) 40Men In Black 3 (2012) 32merchandising 7Michigan, location fi lming in 177,

180–1Middleton, Catherine (now

Duchess of Cambridge) 52Mike Bassett: England Manager

(2001) 52, 53tMiller, Toby 125Minaj, Nicki 61



Minnesota Film and TV 175, 175Minority Report (2002) 2Les Misérables (2012) 59n15Miss Congeniality (1999) 40Mission: Impossible III (2006) 31Mission: Impossible – Ghost

Protocol (2011) 31, 33, 127Moab and Monument Valley Film

Commission 177Moebiuseu (2013) 8Momentum (1992) 81Monster (2003) 14Monster House (2006) 164Monsters vs Aliens (2009) 164,

165, 166, 170n9, 172–3n50Montgomery, L. M. 184n34Monty Python’s The Meaning of

Life (1983) 49tMonument Valley, AZ 177Moretti, Franco 31Morning Glory (2010) 15Mot i brøstet (Norwegian TV) 62Motion Picture Association of

America (MPAA) 5motivations (of fi lm-makers) 129Moulin Rouge (2001) 29Mr Bean (TV 1990–5) 47Mr Bean’s Holiday (2007) 49tMulachy, Russell 133Muller, Stuart 85‘mumblecore’ 107, 111n43Muppets Most Wanted (2014) 119My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002)

8, 36–45box-offi ce success 37, 39,41–2, 45

cast/production team 37compared with My Life in Ruins37–8, 41, 44

distribution 37–8, 41–2Greek marketing campaign41–3

poster 39trailers 39–40, 42–3US marketing campaign 38–40

My Life in Ruins (2009) 8, 36–45box-offi ce response 37, 41cast/production team 37compared with My Big Fat

Greek Wedding see abovedistribution 37–8Greek marketing campaign43–4

posters 41, 43–4trailer 41US marketing campaign 40–1

My Man is a Loser (2014) 93My Name Is Khan (2010) 33, 92My Sucky Teen Romance (2011)

98Myers, Mike 59n15, 64n7

National Film Fund 153natural language processing 136,

144, 146n17The Navigators (2001) 51Nayyar, Kunal 61, 62

Need for Speed (2014) 69New Zealand, (incentives to)

location fi lming 179, 180Ng, Joe 145n4Nielsen surveys 97, 117, 118, 124,

143Nigeria 9population 79n6social/economic problems 76television 79n10video fi lm industry 8see also ‘Nollywood’

Night at the Museum: Battle of theSmithsonian (2009) 61

Nightingale, Victoria 103–4Nnebue, Kenneth 76‘Nollywood’ 9, 76–8distributional outlets 77–8London premieres 79n16moves into international market8

objections to use of term 78n1online advertising 79n16(reduced) role of religion 77TV promotion 79n10

Nordin, Sven 62Nothing Left to Fear (2013) 93Notting Hill (1999) 49tNourizadeh, Nima 127

O Brother, Where Art Thou?(2000) 40

Ocean’s Eleven (2004, andsequels) 31

Ochoa, Jesús 62Oh, Alex 145n4Olympic Games 60n33online & mobile (O&M) marketing

65, 69–71advertising 71choice of material 72expansion 70leading providers 70–1programming strategies 71–2regulation 71revenues from 70

Ontario Media DevelopmentCorporation 178, 181

The Oprah Winfrey Show (TV) 39O’Regan, Tom 176Oresund Film Commission 178Oscars see Academy Awards

P2P (peer-to-peer) screenings127, 128

Pace, Vince 163Pacific Rim (2013) 33The Page Turner (2006) 15Pakistan, showing of Indian fi lms in

125Palin, Sarah 106Palmer, Keke 61Panama Film Commission 175Pang, Adrian 133Paranormal Activity (2007) 100,

104–5, 110n16, 110n21Parsons, Louella 98Pathé-Frères 176

Paul (2011) 51Pearl Harbor (2001) 29, 32Pegg, Simon 50, 51, 61Pendlebury, Ty 85Perren, Alisa 38Perry, Matthew 59n15, 64n7Perudistribution/marketing of foreign fi lms 92–4

domestic fi lm industry 93preferred genres 92–3

Pesce, Mark 108Petrie, Donald 40, 44Philippines, piracy in 126The Piano (1993) 14The Piano Teacher (2001) 14Pina (2011) 88n8Piolín pol la Mañana (Mexican

radio) 61Piolin Sotelo, Eddie 61, 62piracy 65, 122–30impact on box-offi ce revenues147

and market variables 125–6polarisation of views on 122–3,129–30

positive impacts 124, 125–6,130

sleeper hits 126–8and textual/audience variables126–7

theoretical analyses 123–5and translation 126values/motivations 129–30

The Pirate Bay 122, 128Pitt, Brad 30Polar Express (2004) 81, 164Por ella soy Eva (Mexican TV) 62Portman, Natalie 14, 14The Postman Always Rings Twice

(1941/1981) 37Powell, Amy 105PoyrazogIu, Ali 62previews 22El Privilegio de mandar (Mexican

TV) 62Project X (2012) 127, 127–8Prometheus (2012) 67Purse, Lisa 81

Qi Yuwu 133Quiapo (pirate marketplace) 126

Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)21–2

Raja Harishchandra (1913) 7Red Dawn (1984) 30Red Dawn (2012) 30Reichenbach, Harry 97, 100Reiss, Jon 2, 129release dates 3, 15Rendall, Kimble 133, 140Requiem for a Dream (2000) 14Reservoir Dogs (1992) 57Rethink Afghanistan (2009) 103,

106, 107, 108revenues, fall in 147Ritchie, Guy 50


Index 199

Roberts, Julia 1, 58Robots (2005) 166Rockwell, Norman, The Gossips

97Rocky Balboa (2006) 15–16Rodriguez, Robert 98, 164Rogers, Everett M. 172n42Romano, Ray 61, 62Rosemary’s Baby (1968) 15Rush Hour (1998, and sequels)

33Russell, Alex 133

Sabotage (2014) 119SagaWriter (website) 114Sai Yin 70Samuel, Xavier 133Sarah Palin: You Betcha! (2011)

106saturation release 2–3, 7, 110n21Saving Grace (2007) 55Scott, Seann William 61Scottish Documentary Institute

(SDI) 10, 149–56funding 153market research 151–3

Screen Flanders 178Screen New South Wales 178seasons, releases timed in accor-

dance with 3, 15Secrets and Lies (1986) 49t, 50,

50t, 51–2Semoun, Elie 63Sendel, Sergio 62Sex and the City (TV 1999–2005)

38sexual metaphors, applied to

marketing 1Shadows (1959) 105–6Shallow Grave (1994) 49t, 54, 55Shao Yezhan 63Shaun of the Dead (2004) 49t,

50, 51, 61Shi Xiaolong see Chen, AshtonShilts, Matthew 112Shooting Fish (1997) 57Showscan 81Shrek Forever After (2010) 166Sideways (2004) 38Silver, Joel 127Singapore, (fi rst) co-production

with Australia 133The Sins of the Father – A Very

British Gangster II (2011)53t

Skäber, Linn 62Skyfall (2012) 4, 7Slash (guitarist) 93Slater, Don 156Sliding Doors (1998) 49tSlumdog Millionaire (2008) 40SMART data analysis 135–7components 135–6, 136tdata structure 136–7, 136t

Smashing Time (1967) 53t, 54Smith, Jeremy 85Smith, Karol 177Smith, Michael D. 123

Snatch (2000) 49t, 50Snowpiercer (2013) 8So Young (2013) 66, 68social media 9, 71–2, 115–16,

157nn6–8data derived from 148, 152,153–4, 156

distribution via 106–7see also Douban; SocialSamba;Vine

SocialSamba (website) 112–16Soderbergh, Steven 31South Koreafi lm industry 8location fi lming/exhibitions 179

Spaced (TV 1999–2001) 50Spainlocation fi lming/exhibitions 179social media 117–20

The Spanish Prisoner (1998) 40Spider-Man franchise (2002–) 22Spitting Image (TV 1984–96)

17n2Stagecoach (1939) 177Stallone, Sylvester 15–16Stamos, John 93Star of Midnight (1935) 26Star Trek Into Darkness (2013) 32Star Wars (1977) 7, 48–50, 166Star Wars: Episode I – the

Phantom Menace (1999) 14,81

Star Wars: Episode II – Attack ofthe Clones (2002) 14

Star Wars: Episode III – Revengeof the Sith (2005) 14

state(s), intervention in fi lm marketing/distribution 7–8

see also ChinaStewart, Kristen 127Still Crazy (1998) 55, 60n24Stiller, Ben 59n15, 64n7studios 5Submarine (2010) 57SWOTs (Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities and Threats)14

assessment 2, 15defi ned 15

Sykes, Wanda 61

Tai Chi Hero (2012) 145n7Taken 2 (2012) 145n7Tamara Drewe (2010) 50ttarget groups 1–2affi nity-based 1different, for same fi lm 2minority-interest 24

Tatum, Channing 30technology, developments in 9, 24

see also communication technology; digital technol-ogy; internet

Teen Wolf (TV 2011–) 115Telang, Rahul 123televisionadvertising on 4, 7, 39, 79n10,100n7

increasing availability 24promotional appearances on39

Thalberg, Irving 22Theia apo to Chicago/The Aunt

from Chicago (1957) 42This is 40 (2013) 92This Is England (2007) 53tThis Year’s Love (1999) 52, 53tThompson, Anne 105Tiny Times 3.0 (2014) 144n1Titanic (1997) 98, 125, 165To Paris With Love (1955) 53tToffl er, Alvin 9Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) 33Tonkin, Phoebe 133Top Gun (1986) 5, 5, 27Top Hat (1935) 26TorrentFreak (website) 126–7Total Recall (2012) 145n7Toy Story 3 (2010) 166trailers 3–4, 39–40spreadable 147studies 4US vs European 23

Trainspotting (1996) 49tTranscendence (2014) 68Transformers (2007) 99Transformers 2 (2009) 166Transformers 4: Age of Extinction

(2014) 68, 72, 144translation, into minority languages

126The Tree in the Rain (2012)

145n7Tron (2010) 15True Grit (1969) 177True Grit (2010) 15Trumbull, Douglas 81Tryon, Chuck 106, 107The Tunnel (2011) 128Twilight (and sequels) (2008–) 1The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn

– Part 1 (2011) 145n7Twitter 117Tzioumakis, Yannis 105

Uncovered: The Whole Truth aboutthe Iraq War (2003) 106,106

United Artists 23United Kingdomcinematic competition with USA48

state support for fi lm industry6

see also British comedyUp! (2009) 166USAethnic minorities 36state fi lm commissions 174–5,177, 180–1

see also Hollywood; names ofindividual states

Utah, location fi lming in 177

Vale, Angélica 62Valiant (2005) 49t



value, concept of 129Vardalos, Nia 37, 38, 41, 43Vasey, Ruth 26Vélez, Humberto 64n7A Very British Gangster (2007)

53tvideo on demand (VoD)revenues 147user technology 153–6

Vine (social network) 9, 117–20advertising 118

Vinson, Sharni 133, 145n5viral marketing 97–100, 104–5,

113–14The Virgin of Stamboul (1920) 97Vonderau, Patrick 148

Waalkes, Otto 63, 63Wagon Master (1950) 177Waldfogel, Joel 123Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of

the Were-Rabbit (2005) 49tWanger, Walter 177warlike metaphors, applied to

marketing 16–17Washington, Denzel 30Wasko, Janet 7Wasserman, Lew 21

The Way Back (2010) 15Web 2.0 103, 109n6, 117, 132Weinstein, Bob 21Weinstein, Harvey 21Wellington (NZ), Embassy Theatre

88n13Wenders, Wim 88n8Wentworth Heritage Village

(Ontario) 184n34Westerns, location fi lming 177Weta (digital effects company)

89n23Whip It (2009) 40White, George E. 177Wild Target (2010) 52, 53tWilliam, Prince (Duke of

Cambridge) 52Williams, Aaron 9, 112–16Williams, Robin 61Williams-Jones, Michael 8, 21–5Wilson, Rita 38, 44The Wolverine (2013) 119word of mouth, marketing via 104,

132history 97online 97–100, 104–5, 132–3,134–5, 140–3, 147

potency 97

Word of Mouth MarketingAssociation (WOMMA) 97

Working Title Films 52, 57, 60n20

World Cup (soccer) 16The Wrestler (2008) 14Wright, Edgar 50Wu Ershan 67Wyatt, Justin 27Wyllie, Dan 133

X-Men: Days of Future Past(2014) 68, 119, 144

Xi you ji: Da nao tian gong (2014)69

Yeoh, Michelle 33

Zavaleta, Claudia 9, 92–4Zellweger, Renee 60n30Zemeckis, Robert 164Zhang Zhao 144n1Zhao Wei, Vicki 68Zhi wo men zhong jiang shi qu de

qing chun see So YoungZidane, Zinédine 16Zorba the Greek (1963) 37

List of IllustrationsWhile considerable effort has been made to correctly identify the copyright holders, this has not been possible in allcases. We apologise for any apparent negligence, and any omissions or corrections brought to our attention will beremedied in any future editions.

Four Weddings and a Funeral, © PolyGram Filmproduktion GmbH; Top Gun, © Paramount Pictures Corporation;Black Swan, © Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation/Dune Entertainment III LLC; Bhaji on the Beach, ChannelFour Films/Umbi Films; Maybe Baby, © Carlton Jarvis/© Pandora Investment S.a.r.l.; Ice Age Live, © RadioHamburg; Fatal Attraction, Paramount Pictures Corporation; The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, New LineCinema/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/WingNut Films; The Blair Witch Project, © Haxan Films Inc.; Uncovered: The WholeTruth About the Iraq War, © Carolina Productions; Project X, Green Hat Films/Silver Pictures; Avatar, © TwentiethCentury-Fox Film Corporation/Dune Entertainment III LLC.


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Contents€¦ · ‘product/market couples’.2Amorous metaphors thus abound, with film marketing depicted as ‘large-scale flirting’3or ‘seduction thanks to packaging’.4Quick