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Constructivism and Constructivist Learning TheoryOverviewConstructivist Learning Theory is founded on the epistemological belief system Constructivism which asserts that knowledge is not an absolute reality. Rather, knowledge is constructed by individuals as they integrate new knowledge into their existing knowledge and experiences. The Enlightenment era philosopher Giambattista Vico laid the ground work for Constructivism when he asked, Is truth appreciated as something experiential which depends on the perceptions of the knower and the observer for its definitive form? Or do educators hark back to hidebound notions of objective clarity? (p. 881 Peterson, 2012). It does not take much imagination to see how learning theories and the practical applications arising from Constructivism would differ significantly from educational theories and practices that arise from an epistemological belief system that asserts knowledge is absolute and can, therefore, be known outside of any specific experience or context. ContributorsJust as Vico was concerned with the question of knowledge as something constructed by the individual versus knowledge as an absolute reality, other philosophers and educational theorists have pondered the same questions. Jean Piaget posited that children are not blank slates waiting to have reality written upon them, but rather they actively process new information and experiences then assimilate it into their mind, thus constructing their own knowledge and understanding of the world (Flavell, 1996). Ernst Von Glasserfeld, a major proponent of the Radical Constructivist school of thought, outlined rather succinctly the Constructivist Learning Theory understanding on how learners do what he states Paiget described as the construction of a scheme. According to Glasserfeld, Piagets idea can be explained, albeit rather simply, that if a baby is given a rattle and upon shaking it discovers that it rattles, then the baby has recognized a certain situation (the rattle that can be grasped) and has associated that situation with activity (pick it up and shake it) and the resulting expectation (rattling). However, if the baby picks up a spoon and attempts to rattle it s/he will be disappointed. It is this disappointment that leads to cognitive change or recognition of certain conditions such as the difference between the rattle and other items and thus the baby constructs its own knowledge based in its own experience (Glasserfeld, 1989). Simply holding the items in front of the child and telling him/her what will happen is not an authentic learning experience because the child does not connect the learning to their own experience and, therefore, can neither develop knowledge nor a system of knowledge from the information because it lacks context. Vygotsky s work also supports Constructivism as a valid approach to learning and development but he stressed language and the social context in which development takes place more than the stages and processes that Piaget emphasized. Vygotsky described Zones of Proximal Development (ZPD) in which learners can learn from others who are more advanced in a subject or concept but whose abilities are still within grasp of the learner. Social Constructivism emphasizes the collaboration, social context and discussions that allow learners to construct their own knowledge by interacting with more advanced peers or making connections relevant to their own experiences. However, it must be pointed out that the current, popular conception and implementation of Vygotskys ideas and his actual intent may differ according to some degree (Gredler, 2012).

Major PrinciplesConstructivist Learning Theory is concerned with authentic learning experiences, or learning experiences that take place in a realistic context in order to foster deeper more meaningful learning. Authentic learning environments occur when students are encouraged to be autonomous and inquisitive as they search for meaning, problem-solve or create projects from the information they already have as well as new information and theories they are expected to analyze and integrate into their knowledge base. However, all of this is not just an academic exercise. In constructivist classrooms students are often encouraged to collaborate, discover, reflect and challenge one another as well as themselves. Learners will create projects or propose solutions and it is this process of analysis, creation, reflection and synthesis leading to the created artifact or proposition that enables the learner to think critically and learn authentically (Olsen, 1999). While behaviorism may be more concerned with the actual observable behavior of the learner, the constructivist understands that even if the learner is being asked to learn a new physical skill, real learning takes place in the mind and results from sensory input and the sense the learner makes of that input. This process involves language in that information is relayed, received and processed using language and all of this goes on within a social context (Constructivism, 2013).Constructivist Learning Theory also maintains that knowledge is necessary for additional learning because one must have enough information to understand and process new information. Simply put, if a student cannot understand new material they cannot integrate it and retain it. Because learning is a process it takes time, effort and motivation (Constructivism, 2013). Time and effort are essential because it takes both to reflect on new information and integrate it into existing knowledge so the learning is deep and lasting. Regardless of the manner in which new information is presented, little learning will take place if the learner is not motivated to engage in the process. ApplicationAdult learners can be motivated in a number of ways including relevancy and the perceived authenticity of the learning activity with which they are presented. In the case of nursing education, for example, students will be presented with a case study which is made up of a description of the patient, the patients history and current issues and a few key facts about a change in the patients condition. Students can then work in groups to answer questions that are intended to guide them to take relevant issues into account in order to create a course of action the practicing nurse might take. After some time the class reconvenes and the students will present their questions and their proposed nursing actions to the rest of the class. At this point students can interact, make suggestions, and learn from different approaches to the same problem. In some cases, the instructor can add some new information or announce changes in the patients condition that the students will then have to take into account and then revise their original plans. Other methods can be used such as WebQuests and Jigsaw activities, discussion boards and role play scenarios. In all of these cases learners must take the time and effort to seek out and then integrate new information into their existing knowledge and synthesize it all into new knowledge. When combined with elements of game theory that allow students to fail without consequence until they do reach the desired level of understanding or performance, the fear of failure is removed and students can experiment, ponder and learn deeply and authentically.ReferencesFlavell, J. (1996). Piagets legacy. Psychological Science, 7(4), 200-203.Glasserfeld, E.V. (1989), Cognition, construction of knowledge, and teaching. Synthese, 80(1), 121-140. Retrieved from http://www.vonglasersfeld.com/118Gredler, M. (2012). Understanding Vygotsky for the classroom: Is it too late? Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 113-131.Olsen, D.G. (1999). Constructivist principles of learning and teaching methods. Education, 120(2), 347-355.Peterson, T. E. (2012). Constructivist pedagogy and symbolism: Vico, Cassirer, Piaget, Bateson. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(8), 878-891.Cooper, S. (2013). Constructivism Learning Theory. Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/constructivism/constructivism.html