Comparing Learning Theories

7/28/2019 Comparing Learning Theories

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Comparing Learning Theories ~ Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism & Humanistichi there...^_^

Learning Theories

ComparisonAmong

L. Theories

Behaviorism Cognitivism

List of KeyTheorists

B.F. SkinnerIvan Pavlov

Edward Thorndike

John B. Watson

Jean PiagetRobert Gagne

Lev Vygotsky

Role ofLearners

Learners are basicallypassive, just respondingto stimuli.

Learners process, store & retrieveinformation for later use - creatingassociations and creating aknowledge set useful for living.The learner uses the informationprocessing approach to transferand assimilate new information.

Role ofTeachers

Instructor designs thelearning environment.

Instructor shapes childsbehaviour by positive/negative reinforcement.

Teacher presents theinformation & thenstudents demonstratethat they understand thematerial.Students are assessed

primarily through tests.

Instructor manages problemsolving & structured searchactivities, especially with grouplearning strategies.

Instructor provides opportunitiesfor students to connect newinformation to schema.

Key Concepts Behaviourism is a theory ofanimal and human learningthat only focuses on objectivelyobservable behaviours and discountsmental activities. Behaviour theoristsdefine learning as nothing more than theacquisition of new behaviour.

Experiments by behaviouristsidentify conditioning as auniversal learning process.There are two different types ofconditioning, each yielding a differentbehavioural pattern:1.Classic conditioning

occurs when a naturalreflex responds to astimulus. The most

Cognitivism focuses on the brain. How humansprocess and storeinformation was very important in the process oflearning.

Schema - An internal knowledgestructure.New information is compared to

existing cognitive structurescalled "schema".Schema may be combined,extended or altered toaccommodate new information.

Three-Stage InformationProcessing Model input firstenters a sensory register, then isprocessed in short-term memory,and then is transferred to long-term


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popular example isPavlov's observation thatdogs salivate when theyeat or even see food.Essentially, animals andpeople are biologically"wired" so that a certain

stimulus will produce aspecific response.2.Behavioral oroperant

conditioning occurswhen a response to astimulus is reinforced.Basically, operantconditioning is a simplefeedback system: If areward or reinforcementfollows the response to astimulus, then theresponse becomes moreprobable in the future.For e.g. leading

behaviourist B.F.Skinnerused reinforcementtechniques to teach-pigeons to dance andbowl a ball in a minialley.

memory for storage and retrieval.o Sensory Register- receives input

from senses which lasts from lessthan a second to four seconds andthen disappears through decay orreplacement. Much of theinformation never reaches short

term memory but all information ismonitored at some level and actedupon if necessary.

o Short-Term Memory (STM) -sensory input that is important orinteresting is transferred from thesensory register to the STM.Memory can be retained here forup to 20 seconds or more ifrehearsed repeatedly. Short-termmemory can hold up to 7 plus orminus 2 items.STM capacity canbe increased if material ischunked into meaningful parts.

o Long-Term Memory & Storage

(LTM) - stores information fromSTM for long term use. Long-termmemory has unlimited capacity.Some materials are "forced" intoLTM by rote memorizationand over learning.Deeper levels of processing suchas generating linkages betweenold and new information are muchbetter for successful retention ofmaterial.

Meaningful Effects - Meaningfulinformation is easier to learn andremember. If a learner linksrelatively meaningless information

with prior schema it will be easierto retain.

Serial Position Effects - It iseasier to remember items fromthe beginning or end of a list ratherthan those in the middle of the list,

unless that item is distinctly different Practice Effects - Practicing or

Rehearsing improves retentionespecially when it is distributedpractice. By distributing practicesthe learner associates the materialwith many different contexts ratherthan the one context afforded bymass practice.

Transfer EffectsThe effects ofprior learning on learning newtasks or material.

Interference Effects - Occurs whenprior learning interferes with thelearning of new material.

Organization Effects - When alearner categorizes input suchas a grocery list, it is easier toremember.


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Levels of Processing Effects -Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of theirphysical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of theirmeaning. The more deeply a wordis process the easier it will be to

remember. State Dependent Effects - Iflearning takes place within acertain context it will be easier toremember within that contextrather than in a new context.

How DoesLearning TakePlace

Skinner Known for operant

conditioning A stimulus is provided A response is generated. Consequence to the

response is present.Type of consequence is

present.

Reinforcement isprovided which could bepositive or negative.

Pavlov Known for classical

conditioning. A spontaneous reaction

that occurs automaticallyto a particular stimulus.

To alter the naturalrelationship between astimulus & a reactionwas viewed as a majorbreakthrough in the studyof behaviour.

Thorndike Thorndike concluded that

animals learn, solely, bytrial & error, or rewardand punishment.

- All learning involves theformation of connections,and connections arestrengthened accordingto the law of effect.

Intelligence is the ability toform connections and

humans are the most

evolved animal becausethey form moreconnections than anyother being.

- The "law of effect"stated that when aconnection between astimulus and response ispositively rewarded it will

be strengthened and when it is

Piaget Human intelligence & biological

organisms function in similar ways. They are both organized systemsthat constantly interact with theenvironment.

Knowledge is the interactionbetween the individual and theenvironment.

Cognitive development is thegrowth of logical thinking frominfancy to adulthood.

Vygotsky

Vygotskys components of Cognitive Development: Mastering symbols of the culture

and developing the culturalforms of reasoning.

Complex functions begin as socialinteractions between individuals;gradually acquire meaning andare internalized by the learner.

Speech and other symbols are firstmastered as a form ofcommunication and eventuallystructure & manage a childsthinking.

Zone of Proximal Developmentfocuses on interactive problemsolving.


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negatively rewarded it will be weakened.Thorndike later revised this "law" whenhe found that negative reward,(punishment) did not necessarily weakenbonds, and that some seeminglypleasurable consequences do notnecessarily motivate performance.

- The "law of exercise"held that the more anSR(stimulus response)bond is practiced thestronger it will become.

As with the law of effect, the law ofexercise also had to be updated whenThorndike found thatpractice without feedback does notnecessarily enhance performance.Looking more specifically at academiclearning, i.e. the content of a lesson,rather than managing the behaviourwithin it,-Thorndike's "Theory of

Transfer of IdenticalElements" represents thecentral behaviouriststance, that the amount oflearning that can begeneralized between afamiliar situation and anunfamiliar one isdetermined by the numberof elements that the twosituations have incommon. He concludedthat education does notgeneralize easily and thatif it is to be preparation for

life beyond school, then itshould be as life-like aspossible.

Also Thorndike maintainedthat a skill should be introduced when alearner is conscious of their need for itas a means ofsatisfying some useful purpose.-Regarding material,Skinner specified that toteach well, a teacher mustdecide exactly what it isthey want to teach - onlythen can they present theright material, know whatresponses to look for andhence when to givereinforcement that usefullyshapes behaviour.

He suggested 3 principles whichteachers should use to promote effectivelearning:1) present the information

to be learned in smallbehaviourally defined


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steps.2) give rapid feedback to

pupils regarding theaccuracy of their

learning (learning beingindicated by overt pupilresponses)

3) allow pupils to learn attheir own pace.Building on these

development - problemsolving skills of taskscan be placed into 3categories:

Those performed independently by thelearner.Those that cannot be performed evenwith help.Those that fall between the 2 extremes,the tasks that can be performed withhelp from others.Seymour Papert

Matheticsthe art of learning. Guidelines for the art of

learning.1

stprinciple-Give yourself

time.2

ndprinciple-discussion.

3rd

principle-look forconnections.

The building ofknowledge is the goal.Decrease amountof teaching and increasestudent projects.proposed an alternativeteaching technique

called programmedlearning/ instruction &also a teaching machinethat could presentprogrammed material.

WatsonWatson believed that humans are bornwith a few reflexes and the emotionalreactions of love & rage.All other behaviour is establishedthrough stimulus-responseassociations through conditioning.

Relevance to

Educational

Technology/Implications

Identify possible

reinforcers by observing

behaviours of learners Select Stimulus Identify and describe the

terminal objectiveobservable behaviour

By a process of shaping& smaller steps achievegoals

Mastery learning is an egff behavioural approach

Cognitivists believe learners

develop learning through receiving, storing andretrieving information.

With this idea, it is important forinstructional designers to thoroughly analyse &consider the appropriate tasks needed in order forlearners to effectively & efficiently process theinformation received.

Likewise, designers must consider the relevant learnercharacteristics that will promote or impede the


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Behaviourism stillcontinues to play a largerole in motivation,classroom management,and special educationneeds.

Implications of Skinners OperantConditioning Theory in Teaching &Learning

1. Newly learned skill ortechnique ought to begiven continuousreinforcement.

2. Use of positivereinforcement whichglues present result ismore effective.

3. Extinction process bymeans of OperantConditioning & can be

used to modify pupilsundesirable behavioure.g. to withdraw thereinforcement which hasbeen given before.

4. Guide pupils to masterthe concept ofdiscrimination throughthe operant conditioningprocess so that they willacquire the knowledge &skill accurately.

5.Negatively reinforcementis also suitable & can beused to achieve and

desired behaviour.(Ifthe pupils did not followthe rules or discipline inthe classroom).

cognitive processing of information. Do task analysis & learner analysis Create tests Create learning materials

according to any one of theInstructional Design Models

Implications of cognitive theories:- Cognitive processes influence

learning.- As children grow, they become

capable of increasingly moresophisticated thought.

- People organize the things theylearn.

- New information is most easilyacquired when people canassociate it with things they havealready learned.

- People control their own learning.

PossibleLearningActivities

Instructional cues to elicitcorrect response

Practice paired withtarget stimuli

Reinforcement for correctresponses

Building fluency (getresponses closer andcloser to correct

response)

Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice)

Discrimination (recallingfacts)

Generalization (definingand illustrating concepts)

Associations (applyingexplanations)

Chaining (automaticallyperforming a specified

Explanations Demonstrations Illustrative examples Gestalt Theory Matched non-examples Corrective feedback Outlining Mnemonics Dual-Coding Theory

Chunking Information

Repetition Concept Mapping Advanced Organizers Analogies Summaries Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation Interactivity Synthesis Schema Theory Metaphor


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Learning Theories

procedure) Generative Learning Organizational strategies Elaboration Theory

ComparisonAmongL. Theories

Constructivism Humanistic

List of KeyTheorists

John DeweyJerome Bruner

Merrill Lev Vygotsky

Seymour Papert

Abraham Harold MaslowCarl Rogers

James F.T Bugental

Role ofLearners

Learning is an activeprocess in which learners

construct new ideas orconcepts based upontheir current/pastknowledge, socialinteractions & motivationaffect the construction.

- Learning is an activeprocess/pupils participate

actively in Learning activities- Pupils determine the learning

materials, method of learning,quantity of learning & values

- making a right or wrongchoice is entirely the pupilsresponsibility

Role ofTeachers

Educators focus on makingconnections between facts& fostering newunderstanding in students.Instructors tailor theirteaching strategies tostudent responses and

encourage students toanalyse, interpret & predictinformation.Teachers also rely heavilyon open-ended questionsand promote extensivedialogue among students.

Constructivism calls for theelimination of astandardized curriculum.Instead, it promotesusing curricula customizedto the students' priorknowledge. Also, itemphasizes hands-on

problem solving.

- facilitator and organiser tomotivate pupils to use theirown learning strategy toachieve self-perfection

- be aware of pupils needhelp pupils to acquireknowledge

- guide pupils so that theirpotentials can be develop tothe optimal level

- create non-threateningenvironment / condition

- teaching and learningstrategy should be designedto follow individual needs andemotional development

- teaching and learningactivities should be related toactual life experience to instilvalues of living skills amongpupils

- school provide opportunity

for pupils to discoverthemselves and masterreflective thinking skill toaccess their own self and toacquire the ability for selfdiscipline


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Key Concepts Constructivism focuses on how learnersconstruct their own meaning. They askquestions, develop answers and interactand interpret the environment.By doing these things, they incorporatenew knowledge with prior knowledge tocreate new meanings.

1. Multiple perspectives andRepresentations ofconcepts & content rpresented& encouraged.

2. Goals and objectives arederived by the student orin negotiation with theteacher or system.

3. Teachers serve in the roleof guides, monitors, coaches, tutors&

facilitators.4. Activities, opportunities,

tools &environments areprovided to encouragemetacognition, self-

analysis - regulation, -reflection & - awareness.

5. The student plays acentral role in mediating& controlling learning.

6. Learning situations,environments, skills,content & tasks arerelevant, realistic,authentic &represent thenatural complexities of the'real world'.

7. Primary sources of dataare used in order toensure authenticity & real-

world complexity.8. Knowledge construction &

not reproduction isemphasized.

9. This construction takesplace in individualcontexts and throughsocial negotiation,

collaboration & experience.10.The learner's previous

knowledge constructions,beliefs and attitudesare considered in theknowledge constructionprocess.

11. Problem-solving, higherorder thinking skills anddeep understanding areemphasized.

12. Errors provide theopportunity for insight intostudents' previous

knowledge constructions.13. Exploration is a favoured

approach in order to

Humanism focuses onrecognising humancapabilities in areas such as creativity,personal growth and choice.

1. Main concept: Humannature basically good &noble.

2. Theory of hierarchicalneeds is basically themotivation theory inhumanistic psychology.

3.Main core: Theory of Self-Actualization:

4. Education developmentshould be pupil-centred.- Teaching emphasized onindividual potentials ratherthan reading materials.- Meaningful & useful learning

experiences. Fostering of

true, sincere &mutual trustbetween teacher & pupil.


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encourage students toseek knowledgeindependently and to

manage the pursuit oftheir goals.

14. Learners are providedwith the opportunity for

apprenticeshiplearning in which there isan increasing complexityof tasks, skills andknowledge acquisition.

15. Knowledge complexity isreflected in an emphasison conceptualinterrelatedness &interdisciplinary learning.

16.Collaborative andcooperative learning arefavoured in order toexpose the learner toalternative viewpoints.

17. Scaffolding is facilitatedto help students performjust beyond the limits oftheir ability.

18. Assessment is authenticand interwoven withteaching.

Implication of constructivism- in teaching & learning the

role of the teacher is anadvisor, facilitator,planner,motivator and assistant

- the most suitable methodis to use cooperative andcollaborative model

- pupils knowledge &awareness are importantfactors that influence theprocess of cognitivedevelopment

- assist pupils to use theiracquired knowledge torelate & apply to thelearning of new knowledge

- foster intrinsic motivationfor pupils to learn on theirown initiative

- traditional evaluation isnot suitable

- the format and instrumentof evaluation used forknowledge acquisitionmust be constructed byteacher & pupils together

- pupils are encourage touse critical & creativethinking skills to solve


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problems- metacognitive skills are

emphasised- reflective thinking to

control, assess & makereflection on the result &achievement

How DoesLearning TakePlace

Constructivism promotes a more open-ended learning experience where themethods and results of learning are noteasilymeasured and may not be the same foreach learner.

Piaget

All knowledge is a humanconstruction.

The learner starts with ablank slate.

Not logical thinking.

1. Learning is an internalprocess that occurs in themind of the individual.

2. Cognitive conflict isessential to the learningprocess.

Dewey

Educations connectionwith society, outside world,life.

What we learn should havemeaningful relevancy.

Instruction should centrearound the childsexperience

Bruner Learner constructs new

ideas or concepts basedupon their current /past knowledge

Learning by discoverythrough developmentalstages.

Benchmarks reveal eachstage of childs

development, interaction &

discovery is learning. Education relevant to

students need, stages incognitive development

Merrill knowledge is constructed

from experience learning is a personal

interpretation of the world learning is an active

Bugental (1976)- Human experiences

psychology are different fromanimals

- Main team of research followclosely to the aim ofmeaningful human living.

- study of human behaviourscover subjective internalprocess & explicit behaviours.

- Humanistic psychology isbase on psychology theory& application of psychology.

- Basic consideration is

emphasize on individualdifferences.

- Research based on the ideaof contribution which willchange human living to become meaningful, peaceful &well being.

Carl Rogers- Every individual experience is

a logical phenomenon.- Form his own unique concept

through self-belief which aredifferent from others.

- Individual explicit behaviour isin accordance with his own self concept & belief.

- Experience & knowledgeacquire from the environmentwill enable the individual toform self concept (positive &negative).

- Behaviour which has beendisplayed reflects individualself concept & belief.

Principles Of Rogerss Approach InEducation.- Emphasize on learner

centred education.

- Emphasize on freedom tolearner.

- Rational & approach are :Learning is considered as acuriosity to know.

- Can only occur if the learningmaterials are meaningful aswell as with the objective.

- Effectiveness will only occurwhen pupils take their own


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process in which meaningis developed on the basisof experience

conceptual growth comesfrom the negotiation ofmeaning, the sharing ofmultiple perspectives & the

changing of our internalrepresentations throughcollaborative learning

learning should be situatedin realistic settings; testingshould be integrated withthe task and not a separateactivity

Vygotsky's theory presentsthree principles:1. Making meaning

the community places acentral role, and thepeople around the studentgreatly affect the way he

or she sees the world.2. Tools for cognitive

development - the typeand quality of these tools(culture, language,important adults to thestudent) determine thepattern and rate ofdevelopment.

3. The Zone of ProximalDevelopment

problem solving skills oftasks can be placed intothree categories:

i. Those performed

independently by thelearner.

ii. Those that cannot beperformed even with help.

iii. Those that fall betweenthe two extremes, thetasks that can beperformed with help fromothers.

Seymour Papert Matheticsthe art of

learning. Guidelines for the art of

learning.1

stprinciple-Give yourself

time.2

ndprinciple-discussion.

3rd

principle-look forconnections.

The building of knowledge

initiative & fully involvethemselves in the learningactivities.

Rogerss view on education- pupils participate actively in

learning activities.

- Pupils take their own initiativeand involve themselves fullyin learning activities thenlearning result attained wouldbe optimal.

- The most effective learning islearn the way how to learn(pupils acquire knowledge bymeans of own learning & notmuch from teacher.

- Learning materials ,method oflearning , quantity of learning& values should be determineby the pupils themselves.

- Teacher has to respect pupils

opinion & choice.- Games with creative

elements & art educationshould contain high ethical &aesthetical values.

- Activates the feeling &emotional of pupils , thusenable them to develop theirpotentials completely.

- School should provideopportunity 4 pupils 2 discoverthemselves $ master reflectivethinking skills 2 asses theirownself as well as 2 acquirethe ability 4 self-disipline.


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is the goal. Decreaseamount of teaching andincrease student projects.

Relevance toEducationalTechnology/Implications

As opposed to an objective approach tolearning, constructivism is moreopen-ended in expectation where theresults and even the methods of learning

themselves are not easilymeasured and may not be consistent witheach learner. Case-Based Learning Authentic situations Multiple cases to build

cognitive flexibility Social interactions,

collaborations Assessment of activity Shift teachers role to

scaffolding, modelling,coaching of learners.

Experiences are critical Shift from behavioural

objectives to activity goals Advance organizers- in teaching & learning the

role of the teacher is anadvisor,facilitator, planner,motivator and assistant

- the most suitable methodis to use cooperative andcollaborative model

- pupils knowledge &awareness are importantfactors that influence theprocess of cognitivedevelopment

- assist pupils to use theiracquired knowledge torelate & apply to thelearning of new knowledge

- foster intrinsic motivationfor pupils to learn on theirown initiative

- traditional evaluation isnot suitable

- the format and instrumentof evaluation used forknowledge acquisitionmust be constructed byteacher & pupils together

- pupils are encourage to

use critical & creative

thinking skills to solveproblems

- metacognitive skills areemphasised

- reflective thinking tocontrol, assess & makereflection on the result &achievement

- stresses the importance ofdeveloping individualpotentials

- strategy & method for

teaching & learning shouldbe orientated towards pupil-centred

- individual teaching method- inquiry-discovery- practical approach- enrichment and remedial

activities

Possible Modelling - Individual learning


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Behavioural psychologists

1. Learners need grades, gold stars, and other incentives as motivation to learn and to accomplish

school requirements.

2. Students should be graded according to uniform standards of achievement which the teacher sets

for the class.

3. Curriculum should be organized along subject matter lines that are carefully sequenced.

Cognitive psychologists

1. Teachers need to determine what students are thinking about while solving math problems.

2. The teacher should help students to monitor and control their own learning behaviour.

Humanistic psychologists

1. Learners can be trusted to find their own goals and should have some options or choices in what

they learn at school.

2. Students should set their own individual standards and should evaluate their own work.

3. The school experience should help students to develop positive relations with their peers

LearningActivities

Collaborative Learning Coaching Scaffolding Problem-Based Learning Authentic Learning Anchored Instruction Cognitive Flexibility

Hypertexts Object-based Learning

- group activity with teacher asfacilitator.

- inquiry-discovery (science-observing the life cycle of afrog)

- discussion- brainstorming

- problem solving- simulation

Documents

Comparing Learning Theories