Upload
domien
View
277
Download
6
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ANXIETY,
AGGRESSION AND EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE AMONG TEAM AND
INDIVIDUAL SPORTSMEN
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY
SHIMLA
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION (2012)
SUPERVISED BY: SUBMITTED BY:
DR.HARI SINGH SUNIL VICTER DEPARTMENT OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY SHIMLA-171005
DEDICATED TO MY GREAT FAMILY
MY FATHER SH. RAMESHWAR SINGH, MY MOTHER
SMT. SUSHEELA CHAUHAN
&
MY DAUGHTER SAYRA (ANNI),
SISTER’S SULAKSHNA, DIKSHA, ARUNA,
&
MY WIFE PROMILA (ANJALI)
SPECIAL THANKS TO MY WIFE PROMILA VICTER (ANJALI)
&
MY DAUGHTER SAYRA (ANNI),
WITHOUT THEIR SUPPORT & ENCOURAGEMENT, THIS RESEARCH
WORK WOULD NOT HAVE COMPLETED.
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Dissertation entitled, “Comparative Study Of Anxiety,
Aggression And Emotional Intelligence Among Team And Individual
Sportsmen,” submitted by MR. SUNIL VICTER has been carried out under my
supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge, this is an original work
undertaken by the candidate and has not been submitted elsewhere in full or
parts for the award of any other degree. The data and references used in the
present study have been duly acknowledged.
I recommended the thesis for evaluation.
Place: Shimla (Dr. Hari Singh)
Dated: 28/04/2012
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,
HIMACHAL PRADESH UNIVERSITY,
SHIMLA-171005.
Dr. Hari Singh Assistant Professor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present study has been completed with the active assistance and
guidance, of various individuals. Many teachers, friends, relatives, and professionals
have rendered their invaluable help at various stages. Though it would not be
possible to mention all the names of those, who rendered their valuable and
generous help in their own way, yet it would be being under grateful, if I do not
acknowledge thanks to some of those without assistance of those it would not have
been possible to conduct this study. I owe due apologies to all those, whose
contribution I have not been able to recount. However, I cannot afford not to
mention a few.
I have no words to express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. Hari singh,
assistant Prof. Department of Physical Education, Himachal Pradesh University,
Shimla, my research supervisor and esteemed teacher for his valuable guidance in
my research work. The research work would not have completed, had it not been for
constant and keen interest and initiative taken by my supervisor. I take this
opportunity to express my indebtedness to him.
I express special thanks to Dr. Surender Kumar Sharma, associate Prof.
Department of Physical Education Himachal Pradesh University Shimla, and
Esteemed teacher for his valuable guidance and support in my research work.
I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. Ramesh K. Chauhan Chairman
Department of Physical Education H.P.U Shimla, Prof. Y.P. Sharma and Dr. Sanjay
Sharma, non teaching staff sr. Assistant Rakesh Sharma and office staff sh. Madan
and Kanti lal jee Department of Physical Education Himachal Pradesh University
Shimla for encouragement and support in every field of the study.
I would like to thank my teacher who is not with us, Prof. Late. Sh. Chaman
Lal Gupta for his Guidance & encouraged me for this Higher Degree.
I express my special appreciation for encouragement, support and eternal
inspiration of my family members. My great father Sh. Rameshwar singh mother
Smt. Susheela Chauhan, my wife Promila (Anjali) little Daughter Sayra (Anni), Sister
Sulakshna Negi and her husband Arvind Negi, Diksha Negi and her husband Karnal
Negi, and Aruna chauhan,my nephew Aura negi. Thanks to my Uncle jee Sh.
Kushal Singh Verma I take this opportunity to express my heart-felt gratitude to
them.
I would like to thank my wife Promila (Anjali) once again my little daughter
Sayra (Aeni) without their moral support and encouragement, this research work
would not have completed.
Thanks to Prof. Balkrishan (Bali) for analysis of data. Department of
Commerce Himachal Pradesh University Shimla and thanks to Prof.Satish Shrama
Department of Physical Education Lovely P. University Jalandhar.
Thanks to my Mama Ji Dy. Director Law S.M. Chauhan, Dept. I & Ph. Shimla
Himachal Pradesh.
I express Very-2 Special Thanks to Prof. Satish Chand Badwal for his
valuable guidance, Interpretation and analysis of data Department of Education
Himachal Pradesh University Shimla. The research work would not have completed,
without his constant keen interest and initiative taken by him and assistant Prof.
Vimal Kishor Krishma B.ed. college Mandi.
My warmest gratitude is due to Uncle Anil Shyam & my friends Pardeep
thakur, Bhart Bhushan Banshtu, Dr. Vikram Singh Banshtu, Vriender Banshtu, Kapil
(K.D), Manu, Amit Negi, Vrender Negi, Anil Chudhary, Anshual Bishambra, Akshay
Chauhan, Rocky, Goldy Sood, Vinod thakur, Kamander singh, Ajay chambyal, Rekha
verma etc. and all physical education lecturers and coaches of related team and
individual events in my research.
Dated: 28-04-2012 Sunil Victer
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii-iii
CONTENTS iv-viii
LIST OF TABLES ix-xi
FIGURES xii-xiii
CHAPTER TITLE
1 INTRODUCTION 1-62
1.1 Statement of the Problem 52
1.2 Significance of the Study 52-53
1.3 Objectives of the Study 53-55
1.4 Hypothesis 55-56
1.5 Delimitations of the Study 56
1.6 Operational Definitions of Key terms 57
References Used in Chapter one 58-62
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 63-109
2.1 Anxiety 63-80
2.2 Aggression 80-92
2.3 Emotional Intelligence 92-108
2.4 Overview 108-109
3 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE 110-122
3.1 Sampling 110
3.2 Data of the team & individual events 111
3.3 Selection of Variables 112
3.4 Tools used 112
3.5 Description of Test, Anxiety 112-113
3.6 Method of scoring 113-114
3.7 Interpretation and classifications of Scores 114
3.8 Description of Test, Aggression 115
3.9 Method of scoring 115-116
3.10 Interpretation and classifications of Scores 116
3.11 Description Test, Emotional Intelligence
Inventory
117
3.12 Factorial approach 117
3.13 Criterion related approach 118
3.14 Method of scoring 119
3.15 Interpretation and classification of scores 120
3.16 Scoring procedure 120-121
3.17 Administration 121
3.18 Tabulation of Data 122
3.19 Statistical technique used 122
4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 123-175
4.1 Comparison of sportsmen participating in
team and Individual events on different
variables using Frequency distribution
123
4-1.1 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Anxiety among Sportsmen Participating in Team
Events
124-126
4-1.2 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Anxiety among Sportsmen Participating in
individual Events
127-129
4-1.3 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Aggression among Sportsmen Participating in
Team Events
130-132
4-1.4 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Aggression among Sportsmen Participating in
individual Events
133-135
4-1.5 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal awareness (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
136-138
4-1.6 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal awareness (own emotions)
139-141
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
4-1.7 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal awareness (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
142-144
4-1.8 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal awareness (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
145-147
4-1.9 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal management (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
148-150
4-1.10 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Intra personal management (own emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
151-153
4-1.11 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal management (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in Team Events
154-156
4-1.12 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Inter personal management (others emotions)
among Sportsmen Participating in individual
Events
157-159
4-1.13 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Total emotional intelligence among Sportsmen
Participating in Team Events
160-162
4-1.14 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on
Total emotional intelligence among Sportsmen
Participating in individual Events
163-165
4-2 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Individual and Team Events on different
Variables using ‘t’-Test
166
4-2.1 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Anxiety
166-167
4-2.2 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Aggression
167-168
4-2.3 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Intra
personal awareness (own emotions)
168-169
4-2.4 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Inter
personal awareness (others emotions)
169-171
4-2.5 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Intra
personal management (own emotions)
171-172
4-2.6 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of Inter
personal management (others emotions)
172-174
4-2.7 Comparison of Sportsmen Participating in
Team and Individual Events with Respect to
their Mean Scores on the Variables of total
emotional intelligence
174-175
5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
176-201
Summary 176-177
5.1 Statement of the problem 177
5.2 Significance of the study 177-178
5.3 Objectives of the study 178-180
5.4 Hypothesis 180-181
5.5 Delimitations of the study 181
5.6 Operational definition of key terms 182
5.7 Limitation of the study 183
5.8 Sampling 183
5.9 Tools used 183-184
5.10 Analyses and interpretations of the data 184
5.11 Conclusion 184-199
5.12 Educational implications 199-200
5.13 Suggestion for further studies 201
BIBLIOGRAPHY 202-214
APPENDIX A. ANXIETY SCALE
APPENDIX B. AGGRESSION SCALE
APPENDIX C. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
INVENTORY
APPENDIX D. KEY USED
APPENDIX E. KEY USED
APPENDIX F. KEY USED
APPENDIX G. ROW DATA OF THE TEAM
EVENTS
APPENDIX H. ROW DATA OF THE
INDIVIDUAL EVENTS
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
NO.
3.1 Table of the team events 111 3.2 Table of the individual events 111 3.3 Classification and interpretation of scores 114 3.4 Scores and classification 116 3.5 Correlation matrix of the four areas of the inventory 118 3.6 Criterion related Approach 118 3.7 Classification of scores 119 3.8 Classification of emotional intelligence inventory in
terms categories 120
3.9 Classification of emotional intelligence inventory in terms of categories in four area
121
4.1 Frequency distribution for the scores on anxiety among sports men participation in team events
124
4.2 Classification of anxiety scale 125 4.3 Frequency distribution for the scores on anxiety among
sports men participation in individual events 127
4.4 Classification of anxiety scale 128 4.5 Frequency distribution for the scores on aggression
among sports men participation in team events 130
4.6 Classification of aggression scale 131 4.7 Frequency distribution for the scores on aggression
among sports men participation in individual events 133
4.8 Classification of aggression scale 134 4.9 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal
awareness (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
136
4.10 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
137
4.11 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
139
4.12 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
140
4.13 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
142
4.14 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of 143 4.15 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal
awareness (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual
145
events 4.16 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of
Categories 146
4.17 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
148
4.18 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
149
4.19 Frequency distribution for the scores on intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
151
4.20 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
152
4.21 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
154
4.22 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
155
4.23 Frequency distribution for the scores on inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
157
4.24 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of categories
158
4.25 Frequency distribution for the scores on total emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in team events
160
4.26 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
161
4.27 Frequency distribution for the scores on total emotional intelligence among sportsmen participation in individual events
163
4.28 Classification of emotional intelligence in terms of Categories
164
4.29 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on the variable of anxiety
166
4.30 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on the variable of aggression
167
4.31 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “intra personal awareness (own emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
168
4.32 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “inter personal awareness (others emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
170
4.33 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “intra 171
personal management (own emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
4.34 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on “inter personal management (others emotions)” component of emotional intelligence
173
4.35 ‘t’ value for the two groups of sportsmen on total emotional intelligence
174
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
4.1 Bar Diagram for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in team events
126
4.2 Frequency polygon for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in team events
126
4.3 Bar Diagram for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in individual events
129
4.4 Frequency polygon for the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
participating in individual events
129
4.5 Bar Diagram for the scores on aggression among sportsmen
participating in team events
132
4.6 Frequency polygon for the scores on aggression among
sportsmen participating in team events
132
4.7 Bar Diagram for the scores on aggression among sportsmen
participating in individual events
135
4.8 Frequency polygon for the scores on aggression among
sportsmen participating in individual events
135
4.9 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal awareness (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
138
4.10 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal awareness
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
138
4.11 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal awareness (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
141
4.12 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal awareness
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events
141
4.13 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal awareness (others
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
144
4.14 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal awareness
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in team
events.
144
4.15 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal awareness (others
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
147
4.16 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal awareness 147
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events.
4.17 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal management (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events
150
4.18 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal management
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in team events.
150
4.19 Bar Diagram for the scores on intra personal management (own
emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual events
153
4.20 Frequency polygon for the scores on intra personal management
(own emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events.
153
4.21 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in team
events
156
4.22 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating Team events
156
4.23 Bar Diagram for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating in individual
events
159
4.24 Frequency polygon for the scores on inter personal management
(others emotions) among sportsmen participating Individual
events
159
4.25 Bar Diagram for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating in team events
162
4.26 Frequency polygon for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating Team events
162
4.27 Bar Diagram for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating in individual events
165
4.28 Frequency polygon for the scores on total emotional intelligence
among sportsmen participating Individual events
165
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important missions of the international society of sports
psychology (ISSP) is to disseminate knowledge to advance the research and
practices with in our domain. Health related exercise has grown tremendously
since its beginnings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The formation of
national and international societies of sports psychology (ISSP) in 1965, and
department of sports science and kinesiology in universities around the world
(as well as psychology departments embracing sports psychology as a sub-
discipline), has contributed to this development. More than a decade ago, singer
Murphy, and Tennant (1993) published the first handbook of research in sports
psychology. Due to the rapid increase in the number of sophistication of research
endeavours, a second edition (handbook of research in sports psychology) was
published in 2001. (Singer, Hausenblas & Janelle, 2001) sports psychology are
properly concerned with the mental process, whether they are working in
research or application settings. However the scope of meaning of the phase
“mental process” differs from language to language. Most English speaking
colleagues considers “mental processes” to be synonymous with “psyche” or
psychic” (“psychological” indicates a scientific or disciplinary perspective) where
German speaking colleagues refer to specific cognitive processes (e.g. thinking,
imagination, attention, concentration). Sports psychology and psychology in
general would benefit from determining what forms of mental practice are
appropriate for particular purposes and activities. Specification of how each
model is used would allow even further gain. Appropriate distinctions would
allow guideline to be developed that could benefit research and minimize
inappropriate use in applied settings. (Rushall & Lippmann, 1998, p. 58).as the
field of sports psychology has evolved during the last 30 years to what we know
it to be today, a constant source of controversy has been the efficacy of mental
practice. A professional who considers themselves applied sport psychologists or
applied sports psychology consultants teach their clients a number of skill
interventional that are purported to enhance the mental and emotional aspects
of performance.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is a state of mind in which the individual respond with discomfort
to some event that has occurred or is doing to occur. The person’s worry about
events, their occurrences and consequence, in general are the sources of anxiety.
However, anxiety can be either somatic or cognitive in nature. The symptoms of
somatic anxiety comprise mental worries and fears. In simple words, it is a type
of emotional disturbance. The sports men like other athletes are anxiety prone
while participating in competitive sports. Anxiety is one of the most common
deterrents to good performance. At worst the effect of the anxiety gets the
athlete so tied up in knots that he is frozen in fear. At best anxiety subtly impairs
performance by distracting the attention. The purpose of the study was to
compare the anxiety levels of individual sports and team game.
The 20th century has been called “the age of anxiety”, but concern with
anxiety with anxiety phenomena is as the history of humanity. Anxiety is
currently explanatory concept in most theories of personality and psychological,
and it is also widely regarded as a principal cause of such diverse behaviour as
insomnia, debilitating psychological and psychosomatic symptoms, immoral and
sinful acts, and even instances of creative self-expression.
Athletes can learn to think very clearly about physical activity. Training
sessions need to combine thinking practice to develop the skill of controlling
one’s thought, so that it can be used in a competition. Mental functioning should
be trained to overcome physically stressful conditions. At all time, in practices
and competitions, an athlete should remain mentally calm. The initial stages of
developing this capacity will require concentrated effort, by the athlete (Rushall,
1995).
A great deal of research has been developed to the effects of anxiety on
sports performance. Researcher has found that competitive state anxiety is
higher for amateur athletes in individual sports compared with athletes in team
sports (Simon & Martens, 1977). Anxiety exerts a variety of athletic performance.
These effects vary based on sport, gender and level of experience. In order to
facilitate peak performances by athletes, sport psychologists must consider the
three different facts of anxiety: cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-
confidence.
Given the researcher that indicates that successful athletes who interpret
their anxiety as being facilitative is characterized by high scores on self-
confidence and low scores on somatic and cognitive anxiety, sport psychology
should work achieving this ideal state among their clients. Let us now turn our
attention to the variety of treatment that is available for the treatment of anxiety
within the athletic context. Stress is a state that results from the demands that
are placed on the individual which require that person to engage in some coping
behaviour (Jones 1990). Arousal can be considered to be a single to the
individual that he or she has entered a stressful state and is characterized by
physiological sigs (Hardy 1996). Anxiety results when the individual doubt his or
her ability to cope with the situation that causes him or her stress. Another
important point that needs to be clarified is the difference between state and
trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1966). While state anxiety can be considered to be
more situational in nature and is often associated with arousal of the autonomic
nervous system, trait anxiety can be thought of as a world view that an individual
uses when coping with situations in his or her environment (Spielberger, 1966).
Trait anxiety influence performance in that individual with high trait anxiety will
attend more to information related to state anxiety (Hardy 1996). Previous
research outside of sport and exercise psychology has indicated that individual
with high trait anxiety who are state anxious attend to threat related
information, while individual with low trait anxiety who are state anxious will
attend away from threat related information (MacLeod, 1990). Within the
context of the sports, those individual who are low trait anxiety and experience
high state anxiety would find it facilitative to a peak performance; but, those
individuals with who are high trait anxious and experience state anxiety will find
it debilitative to athletic performance
Hardy (1996). Anxiety is considered to be a normal relation to stress. It
helps deal with a tense situation in the office, study for an exam keep focused on
an important speech and on ground. In general helps one cope, but when anxiety
becomes an excessive, irrational deal of everyday situations. It has become a
disabling disorder. Anxiety is a psychological state characterised by cognitive,
somatic, emotion and behaviour components. Anxiety can be accompanied by
physical effects. Anxiety does not consist of physical symptoms. Anxiety is
distinguished from fear, are described and the concept of anxiety disorders is
elucidated. Anxiety is a pervasive and significant negative affect that is now
under intense invention it is an intriguing and complex phenomenon that lends
itself of cognitive analyses: Anxiety involve the inter play of vigilance, attention,
perception, reasoning and memory the very meat of cognitive processing.
Anxiety is the tense, under setting anticipation of a threading but vague event, a
feeling of uneasy suspense. It is a negative effect so closely related to fear that in
many circumstances the two terms are used interchangeably like an anxiety; fear
also is a combination of tension and unpleasant anticipation. The present
research examines the level of anxiety among teams and individual events.
The athletes who participate in individual sports also have been found to
experience more anxiety than those who play team sports. Common sense
suggests that being part of time alleviates some of the pressure experienced by
those who compete alone. Finally there is evidence that in team sports, when a
team plays at the venue of the opposition (known as an “away” game) anxiety
level tends to be higher than when playing at home. Again, common sense would
indicate that having greater fan support and more familiarity with the venue
plays a role in anxiety levels during competition.
Anxiety disturbs psycho – physical functioning of the organism in
numerous ways. For instance, anxious individuals are said to have reduced
intentional focus. During heightened activity (anxiety inclusive) attention cannot
remain one – pointed. It manifests benumbing effect on the individual’s
judgment. Anxiety often results in narrowing of the field of attention as relevant
cues are excluded (Kamlesh, 1998).
Hockey has become one of the most popular games in the world and of
the major games it is the only one that has remained entirely amateur, a status
which has been proudly preserved by all those who play or support the games. It
is believed that for hockey Persia (Iran) is the birth place of this beautiful game
originated around two hundred years ago. Today, hockey is essentially a team-
game and has developed into a fast and skilful one (Borrett, 1950).
Anxiety is a widely used concept within the psychological literature yet is
often used uncritically and to reflect diverse meaning. Terms such as fear,
phobia, neurosis and anxiety are often used interchangeably, with definitional
problems further complicated by the overlap in use of the terms anxiety and
stress. Historically, fear and anxiety were differentiated on the basis of presence
or absence of cues, although the terms are frequently equated in the more
recently psychological literature. Anxiety is not only presumed to underlie
‘anxiety disorders’ such as agoraphobia, panic disorder, obsessive – compulsive
disorder and post – traumatic stress disorder.
Anxiety is a personality characteristic of responding to certain situations
with a stress syndrome of responses. Anxiety states are then function of the
situations that evoke them and the individual personality that is prone to stress
(Simpson, 1980).
Anxiety itself needs no description; everyone has personality
experienced this sensation, or to speak more correctly this affective condition, at
some time or other. But in my opinion not enough serious consideration has
been given to the question why nervous persons in particular suffer from anxiety
so much more intensely, and so much more altogether then others. One thing is
certain, that the problem of anxiety is a nodal point, linking up all kinds of most
important questions: a riddle of which the solution must cast a flood of light
upon our whole mental life (Freud, 1969, p. 341)
Science the 1950s, however, as it became clear that the basic learning
theory paradigm could not explain all cases of anxiety reaction, it too has
undergone many revisions. Over the past decade there has been increasing
emphasis upon cognitively based theories. Initially these emphasised the
importance of mental events as intervening variables between an environmental
event and the reactions of the individual to this event. While there is a continuing
debt about mental events can be seen as casual or moderating variables or,
indeed, whether they are merely one component of an anxiety response, much
recent theorising has emphasised the importance of particular patterns of
thinking as casually implicated in the generation of anxiety. In describing and
discussing theoretical contributions to anxiety this historical trend will form the
basis for organising the presentation of material.
Bowlby (1973) considers anxiety as closely allied to fear, as is the case in
the psychoanalytic tradition and most of psychoanalytic tradition and most of
psychiatry, but he does not equate the two concepts. He thinks the two terms
refers to closely related state and share common cases and manifestations.
The profile for the high - anxiety subjects are quite consistent with
predictions on the basis of differential emotions theory. The highest means are
fear, interest, guilt, anger, and shame (shyness). The marked similarities in the
profiles for in the real and imagined anxiety conditions lend support to the
imaging technique in the study of emotions.
The concept of anxiety has occupied an important place in psychological
theory and research since Freud (1959) emphasized its role in neurosis. The
concept has suffered for lack of a clear and widely accepted definition. Most
definitions have tended to treat it as a unitary state (or trait) and failed to
recognize its complexity.
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by
somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural components. The root meaning of
word anxiety is ‘to vex or trouble’. In either presence or absence of psychological
stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness, and dread. Anxiety
is considered is to be a normal reaction to a stress or it may help someone to
deal. With a difficult situation by prompting them to cope with it. When anxiety
becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.
Anxiety is a generalized mood condition that can often occur without an
identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which is an
emotional response to a perceived threat. Additionally, fear is related to the
specific behaviours of escape and avoidance, where as anxiety is related to
situations perceived as un controllable of unavoidable.
Korchain (1998) explains that according to Freud “Anxiety (or dread)
itself needs no description; everyone has personally experienced this sensation
or to speak more correctly this affective condition at some time or other.”
According to Freud not enough consideration had been given to the question so
as to why nervous person in particular suffer from anxiety more than other.” He
believed that “the problem of anxiety is a nodal point, linking up all kind of
questions, a riddle of which the solution must cast a flood of light upon our
whole mental life.” Anxiety could be separated into realistic, moral and neurotic
forms according to Freud’s tripartite model. Realistic anxiety is a direct response
to real external threat and on its own cannot cause psychological difficulties.
Moral anxiety is associated with shame and guilt resulting from conflict between
ego and superego and neurotic anxiety compose of three element, focused
system such as phobic anxiety free floating feelings of displeasure causes by
many and varied stimuli and thirdly fully developed sensations of panic. Anxiety
can be viewed as an everyday word in miner sense, to what is in reality a
complex relationship occurring through time between the person and situation
one faces. Hallman (1994) refers to anxiety as the behavioural and psychological
responses directly induced by a situation, as an appraisal of the responses and
their effects, as a person’s intentions towards stimuli and as a person’s evolution
of the resources available for dealing with it.
Anxiety describes the individual’s level of emotionality. DeCecco &
Crawford (1977) believe since anxiety is an inferred emotional state of the
organism and cannot be directly observed; investigations of anxiety rely on
having the individual report his own emotional states under various stress
conditions. Educational psychologists have studied test anxiety, or the emotional
states the students experience under the stressful conditions of taking a test.
According to Sarason (1972, 1978) test anxiety may be conceptualized as a
proneness to emit self-centred interfering responses when confronted with an
evaluative situation.
Sarason & Mandler, (1952) the student may fall in the anxious group for
whom tests arise anxiety, who make test irrelevant responses such as worrying
about failing, their inadequacies, anticipating punishment and blocking on
question responses which lead to poor test performance and those individual
who are without such tendencies and therefore improve their performance.
Test anxiety is experienced when the characteristics of anxiety are
associated with academic or evaluative situation. Spielberger, Anton and Bedell
(1976) conceptualized as a state, trait and a process, and detailed analysis of test
anxiety as a process is more productive as observed.
The construct of test anxiety was originated by Mandler & Sarason
(1952). Sarason & Mandler held that test anxiety was a learned “drive” which
results in responses which related to task completion. These latter responses
include “feeling of inadequacy.” Helplessness, heighted somatic reaction,
anticipation of punishment or loss of status and esteem and attempts at learning
the test situations (Mandler & Sarason 1952 P. 166)
Test anxiety has been defined as a situation specific personality trait
(Speilberger-1972) as a special case of general anxiety. It refers to those
phenomenological, psychological and behavioural responses that accompany
concern about possible failure. Test anxious individual perceive evaluative
situation as personally threatening and responds to them with intense emotional
reactions. Evaluative situations also evoke task irrelevant self-centred worry
responses that interfere with effective performance on cognitive intellectual
tasks.
Mandler & Sarson (1952) interpreted the differences in performance of
high test anxious, (HTA) and low test anxious (LTA) on the basis of learned
psychological drives. Two kinds of learned drives are said to be evoked by test
situation. First are task- directed drives these stimulate behaviours to reduce the
drive by completing the task, second are learned anxiety drives.
These stimulate two opposite and incompatible behaviours.
(a) Task-relevant efforts to finish the task and thereby to reduce the anxiety.
(b) Self- directed, task irrelevant responses manifested by “feeling of
inadequacy, helplessness, heightened somatic reaction, anticipation of
leave the testing situation.”
This is double. The next time test-phobic individuals face a test, they not
only become anxious about making it, they become anxious about getting
anxious. I know I’ll be nervous. I always get nervous I can’t help it.
The moment people say, “I can’t help it. They institutionalize helplessness,
hopelessness and self-pity on guarantee failure. The result is further self
downing and depression.
Although different authors have emphasized various aspects of cognition,
the major thrust of cognitive theories of test anxiety are that (a) test anxiety is
associated with anticipation of negative out comes, negative appraisal of one
coping skills, negative evaluative of performance and excessive attention
towards social evaluative treat material, and (b) these cognitive activities lead to
performance decrements, although it is not clear whether this effect result from
information processing or motivational influences. Gibbons (1991) suggested
that a vicious cycle develops, whereby excessive self-directed attention and
pessimism serve to increase anxiety and to impair task performance. Poor
performances in turn serve to further increase belief regarding negative
outcomes expectancies.
On the basis of factor analysis of test anxiety questionnaire (TAQ), Liberty
and Morris (1967, 1969, and 1970) proposed that debilitating test anxiety is
bidimentional consisting of worry and emotionality components.
(i) Worry component is any cognitive expression of concern about one’s
performance i.e. the consequences of failure.
(ii) Emotionally component refers to “autonomic reactions” that are evoked
by evaluative stress for test situation.
Following are the symptoms of test anxiety:
a) Physical: Headaches, nausea or diarrhoea, extreme body temperature
changes, excessive sweating, shortness of breath, light headedness or
fainting rapid heartbeat and dry mouth.
b) Emotional: Excessive feeling of fear, disappointment, anger, depression,
uncontrolled crying or laughing, feeling of haplessness.
c) Behavioural: Fidgeting, pacing, substance abuse, avoidance.
d) Cognitive: racing thoughts, going blank, difficulty concentrating negative
self talk, feeling of dread. Comparing yourself to others, difficulty
organizing your thoughts.
Most important anxiety arousing situation for a student is examination
stress. Sarason (1959) states that we live in a test conscious, test giving culture
in which the lives of people are in part determined by their test performance.
Test anxiety is a pervasive problem on the sportsmen and non-sportsmen
Mandler and Sarason (1952) assumed that two kinds of learned drives
are said to be evoked by test situation:
(a) Learned task drive or task directed drives. These are elicited by demand
characteristic of task. They stimulate the task relevant behaviour that
facilitate the performance and lead to reduction of drives by task
competition.
(b) Learned anxiety drives: These Stimulate two apposite and incompatible
behaviour.
1) Task relevant behaviour i.e. effort to finish the task and thereby to reduce
the anxiety. In this manner they are functionally equivalent to learn task
drives.
2) Task relevant responses self- directed responses, manifested by feeling of
inadequacy, helplessness, heightened somatic reactions, anticipation of
punishment or loss of status, esteem and implicit attempts to leave testing
situation (Mandler and Sarason, 1952).
Anxiety is a physiological response to a real or emarginated threat. It is a
complex emotional state characterized by a general fear or foreboding usually
accompanied by tension. It is related to apprehension and tear and is frequently
associated with failure, either real or anticipated. It often has to do with inter-
personal relations and social situations. Feeling of rejection and insecurity are
usually a part of anxiety. According to Frost (1971), anxiety is “an uneasiness and
feeling of foreboding often accompanied by a strong desire to excel”. Hence,
anxiety state arises from faulty adaptations to the stress and strains of life and is
caused by over actions in an attempt to meet these difficulties. Various aspect of
the self-concept have been correlated with be general test anxiety. In a study of
the relationship between a self-esteem and test anxiety in grades 4 through 8,
many and many 11 (1975) found statistically significant negative correlations
between the measures of self esteem and each of the measures of general and
text- anxiety, when scores were analyzed by total groups, grade level, and sex.
Chand and Grau (1977) have investigated the relationship of perceived self and
ideal self ratings with high and low levels of anxiety in collage women. Subjects
with a high degree of anxiety were found to have a significantly greater
discrepancy between their perceived self and ideal self concept than subjects
who has a discriminate analysis of self ratings collage students having
Differential manifest anxiety by Mukherjee (1969) has revealed that those with
high scored on the manifest Anxiety scale tend to rate themselves lower on
Perseverance and higher on perfection dimensions than those scoring low. A
multivariate analysis that the high group expressed an overall inferior self-image
than the low group. Though some earlier studies had reported no significant
difference in terms of Anxiety level between groups of actualized and non-
actualized subjects.
Wilkins et al (1977) found a confirmation of a hypothesis inverse relation
between levels of self-actualization and anxiety. These latter workers discussed
their results in relation to conceptual distinction between debilitating and
facilitating anxiety and their respective effect on psychological growth. On the
bases of their studies, Rokeachhis associates (Frucher et. al., 1959 Rokeach and
Frucher, 1959) concluded that dogmatism as related to anxiety. These initial
findings led to Rokeach’s contention that dogmatism “is nothing than a total
network of psychological defence mechanisms.” Although some inconsistent
results have been obtained, the general trend seems to confirm Rotech’s finding
by showing a positive relationship between dogmatism and anxiety (Bryneete et.
al., 1966; Castle 1971; Hauson & Bush 1971; Hauson Clune; Norman 1966; Castle
1971 Huason & Bush 1971; Hauson & Clune 1973; Norman 1966; Rebhum 1966;
Rokeach & Restle 1960; Smiltres 1970). Extraversion and neuroticism
dimensions of personality as I be Medley Personality inventory were correlated
with scores on the manifest anxiety Scale, in a study by bending (1957). The
correlations of anxiety with both Extroversion and neuroticism were found to be
significant. However, the direction of relationships in case of neuroticism
positive. The present investigator (1985) in one of his studies concluded that (i)
competitive Anxiety decreases with the increase in age in the case of the male
athletes but it increase in the case of female athletes, (ii) in the case of male and
female athletes, The competitive anxiety in the Indian athletes has no
relationship with their experience of participation in competition, (iii) the Indian
athletes have moderate Level of competitive anxiety as compared to the sample
norms proving the inverted U-shape the relationship between performance and
anxiety. In another study, he (1986) found that there were no significant
differences in the anxiety sources of athletes, whether male or females on the
basis of four different categories of athletes i.e. sprinters, middle and long
distance runners, throwers and jumpers. Also there were no significant
differences in the anxiety scores of hockey players whether males or females on
the basis of their playing position i.e. forwards, centre and backs.
The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological process
(Spielberger, 1972 b.) in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a
theory of anxiety that included stress, threat; and anxiety as fundamental
constructor variables. Thus, anxiety as process refers to a sequence of cognitive,
affective, physiological and behavioural events. This process may be initiated by
a stressful external stimulus that is perceived or interpreted as dangerous or
threading, or by a thought or idea that forecasts threat or that causes the
individual to recall an earlier danger situation. Cognitive appraisals of anger are
immediately followed by A-State reactions or by an increment in the level of A-
state intensity. It should be noted that while an anxiety state lies at the core of
the anxiety process, this process also involves stress, threat, physiological
changes, and behavioural reaction.
The common referents for anxiety words are listed in given the wide
range of meaning, it is safe to say that a variety of psychological and biological
processes are involved. Virtually all area of theoretical psychology is relevant-
innate biological defence, models of stress, self-conception, social evaluation,
skill and competence, cognition, problem-solving, learning and so on.
AGGRESSION
Sports competition without “Aggression” is body without soul.
Competition and aggression are twins. There is clear evidence that, in general
aggression is more boisterous games, help performance because it arouses
players overly to put in harder effort, and “do or die” for the success of the team.
Aggression comes from the Latin work aggress, ‘ad’ (to or toward) and greater
(walk). Literally then the word means to “to work towards or approach”.
Many professional psychologists have studied the effects of frustration
upon the elicitation of anger and the amount of anger required to lead to various
forms of aggression; direct or verbal aggression. Direct aggression might entail
shocking a person in a psychology lab with a buss aggression machine. Indirect
(or verbal) aggression might entail making some insulting comments to
someone, or even yelling at them. Any goal block-age, to use miller’s terminology,
which does not included cues of attack, such as shocks, exposed weapons,
aggressive films or insults by a superior held in high esteem who is visible to the
subject, frustrating. This sort of frustration produces an angry subject, but not a
directly aggressive one, according to Buss. Direct aggression, however, may be a
function of cues of attack if those cues are paired with some form of painful
stimulation, as well. In this regard shocks serve to heighten pain awareness in
the subject, who is “to retaliate aggressively by delivering shocks himself to the
instigator, experimenter, or another subject as confederate.
In real life situations subjects do have the opportunity to withdraw from
frustrating stimulation, or even aversive ones, more often than not; so that
aggression is often checked prior to erupting. The expression of hostility is often
able to eradicate the angry outburst, or to make it subside somewhat. The
laboratory approach seems inadequate for making continuous longitudinal
studies of aggression interaction between stressed dyadic pairs. E.G.,Burgess
insists in his Ph.D. dissertation that experimentation brings situational variable
under tighter control, important variables are as likely to be found during an
experimental as in the filed by ordinary observation, smaller groups allow one to
conceptualise at a higher more general level, the artificiality of the filed data
keyed to casual events is as debilitating as the artificiality of an experimental
setting, and since natural events tend to be cryptic, we require to make them
more readily visible by such things as experimental control, separation of sample
points, refinement of data and adumbration of measurement. All in all, burgess
considers experiment to be nothing more than a controlled observation. Any
hypotheses that hold in the real world must also hold in a simplified
environmental setting or laboratory need not hold up in the real world.
Sociology of aggression has just been propounded in the last two decade
by various sociologists, social psychologists and anthropologists in America.
Several divergent schools seem to be in evidence, as a consequence, including the
social historical school of coercive organisation the natural disaster school of
cohesion in the stressed groups under emergency conditions, the social (or
symbolic) intersectional school of learned aggression, through socialization or
culture factors, and the competition school of aggression.
It is common sense hypothesis that where there is no military
organization there is little direct aggression, as defined. Connected with
hypothesis is very sophisticated social psychology of group, directed behaviour
i.e. the leader of a group does not direct the group, but is simply the best
representative of the average person recruited to same, or the people in the
group, overall the leader reflects the needs of the group, rather than the group
taking on the features of the charismatic military leader also. The more coercive
a military organization, the more violent do its members become. Hence, the
more violent leaders in any military organisation, as well, become.
Notwithstanding the fact that only civilized man is capable of organized,
aggression, but unorganized (or spontaneous) aggression also occurs.
Palaeolithic and Neolithic man was fully capable of protracted aggression,
resulting in the elimination of Neanderthal man from western central Europe,
contents for the Daubing plains and southern France, and great wars in Asia
minor and the middle east. In these instances, social organisation alone, without
any military infrastructure, was to blame for the wholesale slaughter of peoples,
races, or even a species.
The dawn of civilisation after the birth of Egypt and summer results in
numerous wars between contending powers in the region of the Fertile Crescent.
The battle between Assyria and Egypt in particular, reached a new height of
destructiveness due to the introduction of the horsed chariot by both sides.
These battles were every bit as aggressive as those of Alexandra the great against
Persia, or of Yawn and Xerxes during the Greek Persian wars. War was on a
massive scale, because the entire population could be recruited for war –making
purposes, and often was, technically lethal weapons, however, was only in its
infancy. More importantly however, were the war of ancient china, involving
contending dynasties of alliances of the northern or the southern province and
territories of the eastern realm. The style of warfare was advanced in that it
revolved about horsemanship, larger congeries of soldiers or infantry divisions,
and the use of “military strategy,” not just the positioning of troops on the field,
the contending forces opposed to one. This was a signal advance over the mere
conglomerations of the ancient kingdoms. Yet, the Chinese armies still lacked the
tactical expertise of roman legions, and had many no – medic forces in their
midst. There was no concept here of the phalanx, which the very best soldier are
supposed to hold the canter.
Types of pre-modern military organisation have been studied by many
authors involving several levels of aggression organisation, used in Western
Europe from form 750 A.D. to 1600A.D. many more studies have emerged about
world war 2nd and the phenomenon of Nazi aggression, though little is known
about the causes and conduct of world war 2nd these levels of social organisation
included, throughout recorded history: the tribal level, tribal alliances, the
dynastic coalitions, the urban level, the inter-urban level, the provincial level,
provincial coalitions, the state level, national alliances, and the world level.
Hence, the very scope of war is useful parameters for predicting the amount of
potential violence that may result or has resulted in the past. The more
devastating the social (or military) organization, the more destructive the effects
of the war on the civilian population. But this is not the only the parameter
involved. The scope of warfare is also the results of the degree of technical
sophistication. The personalities of leaders and the amount of power invested in
command structures, and the historical context of war. There are national and
religious wars, e.g. Toynbee’s study of warfare in Universal states seems to
support this hypothesis resting upon the tacit assertion that organization in and
by itself is a source of aggression or that the mere mechanism of society, large
social groupings, and like, can encourage feelings of leading to open violence
against so-called weaker peoples. By social (or military) organisation, we have in
mind Spencer’s notion of “dynamic bureaucracy”, or even Weber’s concept of
military charisma”, which according to Lehman entails very few status levels and
highly concentrated authority. It is a traditional super-structure Also, the
Peloponnesian war resulted from too much unity in Athens and Sparta, which
silenced potential opponents to that gruesome war. Criticism against the city-
state was no longer tolerated in Athens and had never been tolerated in Sparta.
Hence, this was the end of the Greek system, as Hamilton has intimated in the
Federalist papers. In conference any citizen who was the against war was simply
shouted down, according to Thucydides, once the war was underway by virtue of
the machinations of Corinth, a member of the Aegean League. Little did they
know that they would effectively ruin Greece and lose in the bargain, control
over Sicily. This philosophical disagreement of the citizenry resulted in
distortion of the purposes of allies or enemies alike, resulting in an over harsh
reaction to same, ultimatums and precarious expeditions, usually under the
leadership of some young and inexperienced aristocrats if Athens. Undoubtedly,
the same situation must have take place in Sparta? Leadership during the war
was very poor, due to the ideological conformity demanded by the citizenry,
though Sparta was more successful in its early choice of generals. After Athens
has ostensibly won and Sparta had sued for an early peace, the war continued on
anyway, because of the economic greed of the higher classes of Athens. After
many more bloody years, and the death of the official historians, Thucydides,
Athens lost the war to Sparta and forfeited her dominion over Greece.
This is not the view we get the Roman Empire, however, by reading
Tacitus. Indeed, we see Roman fighting one another more often than not, on
foreign territory as well as at home, and recruiting the barbarians on occasion.
Hence, the Roman experience seemed to demonstrate that the Empire, rather
than being dominated by the Emperor, was run by the Senate, which got rid the
military riff-raff of society by sending them upon long arduous journeys. The
hatred of the ordinary solider for the Senate was due not only to his economic
plight, which was deteriorating rapidly because of a declining economy, but also
the lower social status he possessed in the Empire, by comparison to the early
days of the Republic.
It has been emphasized since few decades that aggression or aggressive
behaviour plays a vital role in different sports or games according to nature of
activity. Some time it gives good results and sometimes it may cause very
dangerous. Aggression directly effects on the sportsman’s performance.
Aggression is as old as human race. Beginning with Cain’s Murder of Abe
and expending through-out history, wars, world wise wars, religious wars and in
worldwide conflicts. Today man continues to do so. It appears that the technical
and cultural ‘advance’ of man has led to more violent and destructive behaviour.
What is aggression and why it is so commonly manifested by supposedly
higher form of intelligence such as man? Such as man, In lieu of this paper we try
to address some of these important issues as they related to sports. We begin by
defining aggressive behaviour and differentiating it from assertive behaviour in
sports contexts. The word aggression comes from Latin root aggedi ad (to or
toward) and grader walk, literally then t he word means to walk or approach, to
“move against” or to “move with intent to hurt or harm”. Most psychologists
describe aggression in terms of behaviour has been associated genital activity,
drug and alcohol addiction, sports and exercise, crying, completing waging war
etc.
Human beings are capable of a wide range of behaviour. On one hand,
they may show compassion and help each other; on the other hand, they may
seek harm to each other through aggressive actions. The term aggression in
sports has become all too common. Behaviour is obvious in sports and physical
activities. Motivation is a critical determinant of athletic success, most coaches or
athletes strive for high level of motivation to ensure maximum performance.
However, motivation, motivation can some time become too strong, misdirected
or uncontrolled. When this occurs motivated behaviour can easily turn into
aggressive and violent behaviour, which may results injury to another player. In
last twenty years sports, games and physical activity has become more violent.
Not at all aggressive sports behaviour is violent. In fact many forms of aggressive
behaviour are accepted and even promoted; often aggression is a part of game.
Aggression has many meanings in sports. In much publicized case, lateral
Sprewell, NBA star, was fired and suspended league for a year after he attacked
and threatened to kill his coach, P.J.Carlesimo. In another case, professional
boxer Mike Tyson become frustrated in ring and respond by biting off part of his
opponent’s ear. Unfortunately, incidents like these are well publicized and that
takes place through the sports world. We have all witnessed the increased
violence in our modern society.
Using term aggression to refer to such a wide range of behaviour can
cause confusion. We label violent and burst in sport as aggression buy also talk
about “aggression” player who takes chance in a close contest.
The moral and ethical social climate of sport may be at time condone
aggression while at sometime removing or lowering the guile of those who
aggress, both male and female who participated frequently in contexts do
encourage aggression. An athlete’s feeling about individual aggression
responsibility may be coupled with other conditions including aggressive
models, to produce aggressive behaviour. The lack of responsibility, an athlete
might feel for aggressive actions may also combine with situational factors to
heighten the probability of aggressive acts. Some researchers who have found
aggression of its participants, aggression that moulds the aggression of its
participants. Aggression in sports may also occur simply because a lot of people
are highly activated in conditions that are likely to produce negative judgements
if failure is experienced or perceived. The moods of players and athletes moulded
by whether they are wining ahead or losing, may also influenced by other sports
related various to produce aggression types. To be good in sports, you have to be
bad, or so many athletes, coaches and sports fans believe. Heavy weight
champion Larry Holmes, for example, revealed a key to his success during a one
hour interview with Morley Safer: before he enters the ring, he said, “I have to
change, I have to leave the goodness out and bring all the bad in”. He suggested
that normally inappropriate ways of thinking and acting are acceptable in sports.
He reported that you can feel clean hatred for your opponent.
Sports are “world with in a world” (with its own unique convention and
moral understanding). The Bruise brothers – “we do not want to hurt you, just
make you hurt”.
As social scientists, we are interested in the moral meaning athletes and
fans attach aggression in moral terms? Does maturity of athlete’s moral
reasoning influence their aggressive behaviour? What are unique characteristics
of sports morality and how does this “game reasoning” influence the perceived
legitimacy of aggression? We believe that aggression is more than convention; it
is moral issue which can be investigated as such. If this is true, there should be an
inverse relationship between the maturities of athlete’s moral reasoning and
their acceptance of aggression establishing a link between moral reasoning and
aggression is only the first step in understanding it. It is not clear why many
people find everyday aggression objectionable but have few moral qualms when
they or orders hurt a bean ball at batter. We can develop a more complete
portrait of sport aggression by exploring the unique patters of moral reasoning
that sport encourages.
Establishing a link between moral reasoning and sport aggression is only
the first step in understanding it. There several reasons may elicit an egocentric
style of game reasoning. The very nature of competition requires that self
interest be temporarily adopted while the athlete strives to win. In everyday life,
such pre-occupation with self almost inevitably leads to moral failings. But in
sports, participants are freed to concentrate on self interest by carefully
balanced rule structure that equalizes opportunity. Players are guarded the oral
defaults of others by protective rules and by officials who impose sanctions for
violations. Moral responsibility is thus transferred from the shoulders of players
to those of officials, enforces of rule and to coaches, whom the players learn to
see as responsible for all decisions.
Not in all sports, lack real implications. In boxing for example, where the
goal involves damage to another person, serious injury or even death is possible.
Collegiate and high school sports, where winners may receive prizes, bigger pay
checks, more perks or expanded educational and professional opportunities. The
moral implication of harm as sport goal and extrinsic reward contingent on
sports performance still need to be investigated. Does success today really
depend on how well an athlete or team has mastered the art of aggression? The
question usually answered more by ideology than by evidence. But there is more
fundamental question that needs to be asked: Is it really OK to be bad in sports.
In particular, is aggression an acceptable tactic or playing field? If it is morally
unacceptable, most recommendations for reducing sports aggression have
focused on rules and penalties against fighting, slugging and other forms of
violence. We believe, however, that reducing athletic aggression requires that the
transformation of external sports structures such as rules and penalties and
internal reasoning structures. To reduce aggression, we must first understand
the meaning athletes attach to it. There are several reasons sports may elicit on
egocentric styles of game reasoning. The very nature of competition requires
that self interest be temporarily adopted while the athlete strives to win. In
everyday life, such preoccupation with self almost inevitably leads to moral
failings, but in sports, participants are feed to concentrate on self-interest by a
carefully balance rule structure that equalizes opportunity. Players are guarded
against the moral defaults of others by protective rules and by officials who
impose sanctions for violations. Moral responsibility is thus transferred from the
shoulders of players to those of officials, the enforcers of the rules, and to
coaches whom the players learn to see as responsible for all decisions.
Physical strength and skill are no more the only factors determining the
outcome of any sports competition. The psychological variables also play an
important role in such outcomes and the psychologists conducting research in
sports are trying to study psychological characteristic which help in predicting
success in sports. Practical and theoretical questions of interest to sports
psychologist include how to maintain athlete’s mental balance in the midst of
competitive stress. Generally, sports psychology is concerned with structured
competitive sports in which the purpose is to outdo one’s opponent in
competitive encounters. The psychological preparation is planned and carried
out with aim of enabling the sports persons to be in an optimum psychological
state at the time of competition so that the athlete can achieve the maximum
possible performance. According to Jerson (1970) success in high level
competition is 10-20 % of physiological and 80-90 percent psychological. Cratty
(1989) is of the view that psychological preparedness differentials the best out of
the rest.
Alderman (1974) while emphasizing the significance of psychological
factors comments, “one essential point which must be stressed is that regardless
of how a person possesses for a particular task or sports, the success or the
quality of his performance will in the final analysis probably depends on his
particular psychological make-ups.
In the competitive setting an athlete has to put certain checks on his inner
self i.e. psycho regulate himself in order to produced best results. At the same
time he must counter the provoking stimulus rationally. Such experiences of
overcoming stress, strain and aggression may help him make the required
emotional adjustment in routine settings. In the game an athlete in action has to
in encounter numerous predictable and unpredictable situations. His
psychological technical and physical powerless help him adapt to these
situations. Many scholars have in the recent past, studied the psychological
make-up of athlete of the team and individual events involving closed and open
skills, wherein the performance must assess the situation, then chose the
movement to make and decide how best and to execute the movement. It is of
interest to note that closed and open skill attract different individuals to
participate and put different psychological demands on them for better results.
No other activity programme of physical education and sports is so
vigorously interesting up such qualities such as courage, self- confidence,
resilience etc. in the youth. There are simple contact which are held between two
individuals and three are mass contact in which team participate. In both case
the aim of the participants is to gain supremacy over the opponents. The
investigator has, therefore, chosen to explore the two very pertinent and
interconnected psychological variables i.e. aggression, anxiety and emotional
intelligence among the teams and individual events in the presents study.
Psychological factors like aggression can affect the performance of an
individual and of the whole team. The affect of aggression on motor performance
has become a major topic of interest to sports psychologist. The problems of
aggression have been considered important in all area of human activity
including sports. To the one and the same stimulus individual respond
differently and their anxiety level also varies. Psychology, and aggression are
very important phenomena.
The last few decades have evidenced renewed interest in the phenomena
of violent and aggression behaviour in sports. Aggressive behaviour in sports has
been investigated by many scholars from different filed of behavioural sciences.
What follow is a review the origins and characteristics of aggressive behaviour.
Aggression is a term that used in extensively in sports. If coaches for the
people in sports are surveyed and asked to identify the characteristics of
successful athletes, aggression would be high on the list. Being aggressive ploys
are used in volleyball by players, who dive on the floor at every opportunity to
attempt an apparently impossible save, and in badminton when players rush to
the net at every opportunity, its playing aggressive in the sports.
Anger is another human trait which drives its origin since human
evolution. It has resulted in producing aggression, be itself directed or
outwardly. Inwardly directly aggression destroys the self whereas aggression
directed outwards harm the others. Both ways, the same is a socially undesirable
trait. However without aggression it would be just impossible to visualize many
sports. A boxer who is not aggressive to legitimately cause injury to the other is
bound to lose. On the contrary, exhibiting aggression transgressing the
prescribed boundaries would result in his disqualification, being thrown out of
the contest. As a double edged weapon, it harms both ways.
Aggression carries numerous connotations in sports psychologists have
explained aggression in term of behaviour. Dollard and his colleagues (1939)
suggest that aggression is nay sequence of behaviour, the goal of which is to do
injury to the person towards whom it is delivered. Aronson (1977) describes
aggression behaviour intended to cause harm or pain. The key to this definition
is the word “intend”. If an athlete fractures another athlete nose by accident, the
fracture is not the results of aggression. But if the athlete intended to fracture the
nose he or she was being aggressive in the negative sense of the words. Similarly,
aggression has been defined as an intention to inflict injury. Tatum (1980)
viewed aggression as the deliberate intent to harm another person. This includes
physical, psychological or social harm, but in sports, physical harm is the primary
focus.
Many other psychologists have tried to distinguish the two types of
aggression. According to Hunsman (1954), aggression is of two types, the
primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm to someone. Instrumental
aggression, on the other hand, occurs in the quest of some non-aggressive goal
Why the athletes aggress in the sports? Number of reasons has been
proposed to explain why the athletes engage in reflationary aggression-n in the
sports. The aggression that transcends hard play and the spirit and meaning of
the rules.
Sports competition without aggression is a body without soul.
Competition and aggression are twins. There is clear evidence that, in, general,
aggression in more boisterous games may help in performance because it
arouses players overtly to put in harder efforts, and keep them to motivate to do
and die for the success of the team. Contrarily aggression committed by player in
certain contexts, situation or position e.g. (defensive players) may impede
performance of individual skill as well as success of the team. This paradoxical
view may be attributed to differences in individual and the game situations. The
intensity of aggression manifested by players in sports or a particular match may
greatly depend on the prevailing circumstances and ground realities i.e. the same
individuals behaving much more aggressively in one situation but not in other.
The mood (mental disposition or state of body and mind) of the player weather
they are winning or losing is also an important consideration in the quantity and
the quality of aggression expressed. Carrty (1989) very apply point out that
aggression and athlete may admit to be experiencing may be influenced by
combination of factors, including role perceptions. The manner in which
aggression interact with skill, the folklore surrounding the sports.
Another popular conception is that aggression is a reaction to frustration
experiences. This theory called the frustration aggression hypothesis was
proposed by Dollard and his colleagues (1939). The suggests that frustration, the
blocking of goal directed behaviour, creates a drive to aggress against a person
or object. Through aggression the drive is dissipated. The social learning theory
probably has more implications for coaches then the first two theories.
According to this theory, the causes of aggression, originally has three modelling
influences: family, subculture and symbolic modelling, (Bandura, 1976).
Aggression therefore need to be regulated and appropriately to be
regulated and appropriately applied in each sports situation. Where one has to
put the opponent to the floor but is equally important in game where personal,
physical contact, becomes inevitable.
Aggression is also defined as the infliction of an aversive stimulus
physical, verbal, or gestural, upon one by another Aggression is not an attitude
but behaviour and most critically, it is reflected in acts committed with the
interest to injure (Leunes and Nation, 1989). This definition of coaches and
spectators, as physically lifting another individual and verbal abuse.
Aggression has long been a part of the sport domain. Russell (1993)
suggested that outside of war time, sports is perhaps the only setting in which
acts of interpersonal aggression are not only tolerated but enthusiastically
applauded by large segment of society.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
To progress and let other progress and to live and let other live are thus
the ultimate goals of any education or training provided for developing one’s
potential of emotional intelligence. The measures may help in this direction try
to help you. Help yourself and the youngsters in developing the ability to
correctly perceive feeling both in oneself and other. Give up the misgivings and
misperception of the feeling in other. It leads to a hostile attribution bias.
Remember that love always begets love, while suspicion, heatedness and
aggressions are rewarded likewise. The word ‘emotion’ has been derived from
the Latin word ‘Emovere’ which means ‘to excite’, or ‘shudder. According to
P.T.Young “An emotion is disturbed state of organism: an emotion includes
visceral changes due to increased activity of autonomic nervous system and an
emotion originates within the psychological situation.” The word intelligence is
believed to be greatest parameter for measure of success in life.
Emotion is a rather neglected area of study in comparison with other area
in psychology. Although early pioneers, for example Darwin, James and Freud,
had shown interest, relatively fewer attempts were made during the twentieth
century to take up emotion as a serious area of research. Two major reasons
were put forward by Leventhal and Tomarken (1986) for this paucity of
research. One, the experience of emotion was not considered an element of study
by the behaviouristic ally oriented theorists, and two, emotion was conceived as
a product of arousal and cognition by the traditional cognitive theorists. In
addition, the biologically, oriented theorists, who accepted the concept of
emotion rather reluctantly, preferred to substitute the concept with a more
pervasive element of our psychobiological state, namely, motivation.
Nevertheless, studies on emotion by some prominent workers during the
last three decades have revived the interest in this area. In this context, Ekman's
(1982, 1992a) and Izard's (1979, 1994) contributions are significant, who raised
new questions and conducted innovative research. The most important question
these investigators posed is about the universality and ontogenetic root of the
expression of emotion. More than a century ago, they had anticipated this
question and the appearance of his work in 1872 had triggered a tremendous
interest in emotion. The issue was revived by Ekman (1992b) who, on the basis
of cross-cultural researches, proposed that the (spontaneous) facial expressions
of emotion serve important adaptation functions and are universal in nature:
Also, he suggested that the deliberately posed facial expressions of emotion may
be culture-specific, that is, the cultural norms to a large extent determine how
identities are encoded and performed. Accommodating the universal and
culture-specific elements of the facial expressions, Ekman concluded that the
field of emotion touches upon such key issues as nature vs. nurture, emotion-
specific physiological changes, events preceding emotion, ontogenetic root of
emotion, discrete states of emotion, and fundamental categories of emotion.
Izard (1979, 1994), in his search for the ontogenetic root of emotion
conducted studies on the preverbal infants facial expressions. He found that
infants are capable of expressing all the discrete emotions that are fundamental
to humans. This empirical finding led him to conclude that the facial expressions
of emotion are innate in nature. He, however, distinguished between the innate
and universal components of the expression of emotion on the basis of cross-
cultural data. To him “an expression may be conceived as universal without
having the properties of innateness, simply because of culture-constant learning”
(Izard, 1994, 291).
Both Ekman and Izard were influenced by the writings of Tomkins (1962)
who considered that the study of face is, in other words, the study of emotion.
The assertion got an impetus by the confirmation of the facial feedback
hypothesis. In this hypothesis the overt facial expressions are presumed to be an
essential ingredient of the experience of emotion (for a review, see Leventhal
and Tomarken, 1986). The hypothesis generated a renewed interest in and fresh
views on emotion).
This text considers the basic issues and current trends in emotion. In so
doing, it lays a special emphasis on the work that has been carried out on the
facial expressions of emotion. The basic issues have primarily been derived from
those psychological investigations that have looked for a general rule in the
expression-experience link. The discussion on the current trends, on the other
hand, has been guided by those cross-cultural researches that have looked for
the universality in the expression and understanding of emotion. These two
aspects (i.e., basic issues and current trends) may be treated with the necessary
precondition that the mental universals do not emerge from the study of brain
(Shepard, 2001).
Emotions are easy to understand but difficult to define. One may easily
explain the emotional tone in an individual's behaviour but find difficulty in
defining the emotion involved for instance, an angry face conveys the same
message to all yet there may be great individual differences in defining anger or
even labelling the face with emotion word anger. The difficulty arises from the
term definition itself by definition; we mean several things, for example, a
cultural definition, a biological definition, an overt expressional definition, an
observer’s definition, and a contextual definition. Some people may like to define
emotion on the basis of the quality of experience (positive / negative) the degree
of arousal (high/low), or the meteoric direction embodied in the action
(approach / withdrawal) The pervasiveness of the term also creates a difficulty
in defining it. For instance, the categories happiness, sadness, fear, anger,
surprise, and disgust are accepted by all as emotions but opinions differ on such
categories as sex and aggression. To include these letter categories in the term,
theorists sometimes use a more pervasive term, viz., motivation. Abnormal
emotional reactions, e.g. anxiety, depression, and guilt, pose a different problem.
Opinions differ in considering them as variants of natural emotion.
Difficulties in defining emotion also arise due to the changes it produces
in the organism, such as changes in the physiological system (body) and in the
psychological state (mind). For many years, psychologists were engaged in
examining the temporal sequence of these changes (in mind and body) that
accompany an emotion.
To reduce the conceptual complexity, it is important that we discuss the
theoretical perspectives and behavioural components associated with emotion.
Research on emotion has given rise to four major theoretical perspectives,
namely, (a) cognitive perspective that puts emphasis on cognition of
environmental cue and physiological arousal, (b) evolutionary perspective that
stresses adaptation functions, (c) behavioural perspective, that emphasizes
conditioned response, and (d) psycho-dynamic perspective, that highlights the
role of unconsciousness in emotion regulation. The cognitive perspective was
developed on the basis of the notion that an understanding of an emotional state
is contingent upon the cognition of an external (environmental) or an internal
(physiological) cue. An empirical support for this notion has been available from
the classic study of Schachter and Singer (1962). In this study, the subjects were
injected epinephrine, a petrochemical substance that produces an autonomic
arousal.
The evolutionary perspective was drawn from Darwin (1972) 1965 who
thought that emotions serve important adaptation functions.
The expressions of emotions, in annuals or in human beings, send signals
only to the members of their respective species and these signals (Westen,
1996). To establish his notion, Darwin considered the Physlogenetic and
ontogenetic roots of emotion expressions.
The behavioural perspective considers emotion as a conditioned response
to a situation that is associated with a certain unconditioned physiological
change.
The psychodynamic perspective grew out of the Freudian view on
emotion. Freud (1920) divided personality into three distinct systems, the id, the
ego, and the superego. The id (the unconscious and obscured part of
personality), which is the oldest mental system, seeks to gratify wishes that are
instinctual in nature. Emotions are expressed via verbal and nonverbal channels
of communication. The verbal channel of communication is used more often to
establish the logical connections between facts and events (Danziger, 1976).
The nonverbal channels of communication are used to convey affective message
and to regulate interpersonal ex-changes. The channels of nonverbal
communication that transmit emotional messages are facial expression.
Paralanguage (nonverbal aspects of voice and temporal characteristics of
speech), and kinesics (gesture, posture, movement of the body) and proximal
(physical distance during face to face interaction) behaviours
Happiness is a positive emotion which is most conveniently recognized
and frequently expressed during a social interaction. The experience of
happiness may stem from different sources, such as relief from pain, anticipation
of a positive outcome of an event, an event that either enhances self-concept or
allows social approval, and physical pleasure. The source of happiness depends
on the personality of the individual (Ekman and Friesen, 1975).
Sadness is a negative emotion that is experienced in the event of loss of
certain forms. The level of arousal associated with sadness is generally low,
although the emotion may vary in intensity. The extreme form of sadness is grief
and a mild form of sadness is pensiveness (Plutchik, 1980b). In sadness, the
individual experiences pain (which is not physical) and the degree of suffering
depends on the form of distress. The sources of distress may be loss of someone,
denial by a loved one, loss of an opportunity and so on (Ekman and Friesen,
1975). These external sources of distress interact with certain factors internal to
the organism e.g. gender, age, and personality. When sadness pervades the
emotional life over a continued period, abnormal reactions, such as depression,
take place.
Fear is also a negative emotion and is generally accompanied by a high
degree of arousal. It generates activation in the internal mechanism of the body
as well as in the outward expression. Under its influence, the organism develops
preparedness to avoid a threat full situation. In this sense, fear is an adaptive
response and almost reflexively triggered in the face of a dangerous situation.
Because of its link with survival, the sources of fearfulness may be many ranging
from a minor physical injury to death. The complexity with which fearfulness is
evoked depends on the level of conditioning or on the cognitive appraisal of the
threat full situation, event or object. The emotion of fear varies in intensity. The
extreme form of fear is terror and in its mild form it is known as apprehension
(Plutchik, 1980b). The continued presence of fear may produce anxiety or worry
in the organism.
Surprise is an emotion of a very short duration with a positive or a
negative emotional tone. We are surprised at events that are not expected to
occur. The surprise emotion becomes positively valence if the unexpected event
brings delight (for example, seeing an old friend after a long time. In the ancient
Indian literature, anger is illustrated as “inflaming of the mind” or “blazing up of
the mind” due to such sources as thwarting of desire, persecution, misconduct,
contempt, and injury. The three forms of anger are Kroch (a stormy passion
which persists in an aggressive person), kop (a mild form of anger that is quickly
controlled and prevented from realizing its end), and rose (anger directed to a
beloved person or an object).
Disgust is a negative emotion that triggers a feeling of aversion. The
sources of disgust may be many, ranging from an aversive taste to an aversive
thought. Painful events or thoughts may induce disgust.
There are multiple mechanisms, namely, cortical, subcritical, autonomic,
and hormonal, controlling the experience and expression of emotion. Likewise,
there are various study areas, e.g. neurophysiology, neurochemistry, and
neuropsychology, examining the emotional behaviour in human and non-human
primates. The focus of neuron-physiology is to explicate the role of the nervous
system, peripheral and central, in the regulation of emotion. Neurochemistry
deals with the chemical agents altering the nervous system function. The subject
studies the process and regulation of metabolic activity and the changes in
neurotransmitters and hormones during the emotional reaction.
Neuropsychological studies are conducted to ascertain the role of the cerebral
hemispheres and lobes in the mediation of emotional functions, factors
influencing emotion.
Different emotions produce characteristic bodily changes. These changes
occur either at the physiological or at the overt behavioural level. The
physiological changes are measured by three methods, in general. In one, the
changes in emotional response following a lesion /task. For example, an electro
dermal response may vary as a function of such factors as affect valence, affect
intensity, sex and basal sweat gland activity. The interacting effects of these
factors may prevent one from making an accurate inference (Cacioppo and
Tassinary, 1990). These authors further noted that the advancement in
technology. As a result, the psycho physiological inference has become more
problematic. Related to this issue is the assumption of psycho physiological
isomorphism that does not accommodate the concept of multiple determinants
of a physiological response. This problem applies both to autonomic and central
measure of cognitive / affective activity (Coles et al, 1987; see also Caciopo and
Tassinary, 1990).
The theories of emotion are many and diverse. Approximately fifty
theories exist in psychological literature, each with a different view point about
the process by which we experience emotion. It is not advisable to discuss each
of these theories separately as such an attempt may reduce clarity about the
conceptual distinctions among them. Some reviewers, therefore, have attempted
to organize these theories into fewer heads, for example, chronological order
(early/late), psychological construct (psychoanalytic/cognitive/behaviouristic),
locus of control (central/peripheral), and temporal sequence in the experience of
emotion (neural>cognitive/cognitive>neural). We would like to adhere to the
classification of theories give by mediates the emotions of fear and aggression.
McDougall (1923, 1928) proposed that all human behaviour strives for
achieving a goal, either to derive pleasure or to avoid pain. These two basic
tendencies in human behaviour are termed as feeling. Feeling differ from
emotions in complexity in that the basic feeling are modified to a great extent
according to the cognition, expectations, and experiences of the human being. At
a rudimentary level, however, the complex range of emotions is reducible to two
basic tendencies, namely, approach (pleasure) and withdrawal (pain). McDougall
(1928) believed that these two basic tendencies are akin to instinctual behaviour
and all instincts serve the survival need of the organism. Individuals learn to
avoid the dangerous situations and approach the goals (e.g. food) that help them
survive by an innate mechanism. It is argued that instincts of emotional nature
produce bodily changes following the cognition of a pleasurable or painful
situation. McDougall, however, believed that the experience of emotion (e.g. fear)
and bodily changes (e.g. readiness) co-occur as a function of cognition.
Emotions are inherently adaptive according to Izard (1977) and become
the primary motivating source of human behaviour. Izard’s theory of emotion is
based upon certain postulates, namely:
a) Emotions are innate in nature;
b) Emotions have different aspects or components, viz., neuron-
physiological expressive, and experiential;
c) Emotions are discrete in nature, and the qualitatively different emotions
have unique motivational properties;
d) Emotions vary in intensity; and
e) The link between the facial) expression and the emotion experience is one
of the subsystems of emotions activation (See Izard, 1979)
Plutchik’s (1980a) theory offers strong supports to the Darwinian view of
emotions. In addition, the theory suggests that (a) there is a limited set of
primary emotions (b) the primary emotions are identified either on the basis of
behavioural observation or of adaptive functions, (c) emotions vary in terms of
similarity, polarity, or intensity and (d) emotion does not refer only to a feeling
state, but implicates a chain reaction.
Unlike the Darwinian evolutionary theorists, the body-reaction theorists
believe that a perception of peripheral reactions gives rise to Leventhal and
Tomarken (1986). Their classification includes the (a) The Darwinian
evolutionary theories, (b) body-reaction theories, (c) central neural theories, and
(d) cognitive-arousal theories. The Darwinian evolutionary theories trace out the
ontogenetic root and functional significance (e.g., adaptation) of the emotion
expression. The major profounder of this viewpoint include. McDougall (1923),
Izard (1971, 1994), and Plutchik (1980a). The body-reaction theories emphasize.
That emotions trigger distinct autonomic reactions, and a perception of these
autonomic reactions gives rise to the experience of emotion. This stand is
attested by James (1890) and (with some conceptual modification) Ekman
(1984). The central neural theorists focus on the structural correlates of
perception~ expression, and experience of emotion. The cognitive-arousal
theorists (namely, Schachter and Singer, 1962, and Schachter, 1964) believe that
an emotional state is produced by a physiological arousal with cognition about
its causality. The experience of emotion the advocates of this proposition include
James and cannon.
The theory of emotion by James (1884) is one of the earliest that
triggered a lasting controversy in the world of psychologists. The theory posited
a notion opposite to the common sense view. In our everyday life, we perceive
some emotion-provoking situation (e.g., death of a close relative) that results in
some kind of emotion (e.g., sadness) followed by an automatic reaction (e.g.,
change in the visceral activity). In the opinion of James an emotion-provoking
situation (i.e. death of a close relative) directly induces a change in the
autonomic activity (i.e. change in the visceral activity), the perception of which
gives rise to the state of emotion (i.e. sadness). In essence, the perception of
bodily changes produces the feeling state (James, 1984). Lange (1885), a
contemporary of James, extended a similar theory of emotion with the
suggestion that the physiological changes take place in the cardiovascular
system. The two theories are thus known conjointly as the James-Lange theory of
emotion.
Cannon (1929) developed his theory of emotion in the process of
criticizing the James-Lange theory. He raised a number of critical issues with
experimental evidence, namely (See Tompson, 1988).
a) A dissection of nerve fibbers to the visceral organs does not eliminate
emotional experience,
b) An artificially –induced physiological arousal does not allow one to
experience emotion, and
c) The transmission of sympathetic arousal is much slower than the process
of experiencing emotion.
The revival of the Jameson model of emotion has been brought about by a
number of theorists, for example, Ekman (1984), Izard (1971), and Zajonc
(1984b), with fresh views and newer empirical evidences. Because we have
already discussed Izzard’s theory of emotion, we shall in this section deal only
with Ekman and Zajonc. The modern changes in the coaching and training of
athletes have created much interest in sports. It has also enhanced development
of various technique and tests in the field of sports. Coaches and sports scientists
today on the measurements of the characteristics such as Emotional Intelligence
and differences in many such factors among the participants in difference sports
take an increased importance. The present day coaches and scientist have
become more concerned about the psychological aspects than skill and
physiological aspects because they realise that psychological characteristic of
athlete contribute more towards their success. These characteristics are often
found in modern sportsmen. It has been agreed by Venkateswarlu (1982) that
certain types of athletes and physical education activity group have some
behavioural characteristic which differentiate from certain other types of
athletes. From their experience and observation physical educators, coaches and
sports scientists suggest that participants in physical education activities and
sports develops desirable characteristics, emotional maturity among
participants which differentiate them from non-athletes; they point out that
sports and physical education activities are a great avenue for building character.
Researchers have identified many dimensions which underlie most
emotions. Every sportsperson, across cultures, experience different emotions
Thus emotions are innate. The emotions consist of three main elements (Deci,
1980; Young, 1973) namely physiological changes, action tendencies and
subjective experiences. The individual zone of optimum functioning (IZOF)
model attempts, to identify the emotions content relevant to performance, from
an athlete’s perspective (Fehr and Russell, 1984; cantor, Mischel and Schwarts,
1982). The four emotions categories are: positive functionally optimal emotions
(p+), negative and functionally optimal emotions (N+), positive and
dysfunctional emotions (P-), negative and dysfunctional emotions (N-). These
four global effect categories generate idiosyncratic emotion descriptors related
to each player’s subjective experiences. The intensity levels for each of these
emotions are established using a separate scale: the modified Borg’s category
ratio scale CR-10 (Borg, 1992, 1998); which allows the ratio comparisons of
intensities (Hanin, 2000) and determination of direct intensity levels. The
intensity scale, expresses the functional impact a particular emotion had during a
game. It is a quantitative characteristic of the effect. Intensity dimension in IZOF
profiling is an index of the perceived effort of an athlete to execute a task. It is
therefore a score of subjective experiences; of individual athlete; assessed by self
report. Research findings of finish athlete report that modified CR -10 scales is
useful in quantifying emotion intensities in performance related emotions
(Tummavuori and Hanin, 2000). Literature on athletes from Asian countries are
scarce and therefore this study is aimed at examining the patterns of
distributions of intensity responses across CR-10; in elite athletes (rowing); for
extending emotion regulation for high level participation (applied implications).
Emotion is a subjective feeling or response generally accompanied by a
psychological change and usually associated with a change of behaviour. Like
smell in the flower, emotions are present in every activity of human being. They
are most individual and from person to person. Emotions are said to spring of
action. Emotional intelligence, like general intelligence, is the product of one’s
heredity and its interaction with his environmental forces
Until recently, we have been led to believe that a person’s general
intelligence measured as I.Q or intelligence quotient is the greatest predictor of
success in any walk of life such as academic, social, vocational or professional.
Consequently, intelligence quotient scores are often made into use for selection,
classification and promotion of the individual in various programmes, courses
and job placements. However, researches and experiments conducted from 90s
onward have tried to challenge such over dominance of intelligence by replacing
it with concept of Emotional Intelligence and its measure emotional quotient
(E.Q.). These have revealed that a person’s emotional intelligence measured
through his E.Q. may be greatest predictor of success than his or her I.Q.
For the measurement of one’s intelligence, we make use of one or other
intelligence test (verbal or non-verbal). Similarly for the measurement of one’s
emotional intelligence we can make of such measures called emotional
intelligence tests of scales. These tests and measures are not available easily and
in sufficient numbers like intelligence tests standardized for measuring,
intelligence of the varying population of the human beings.
Historically speaking, the term emotional intelligence was introduced in
1997 by American University Professors Dr. John Mayer and Dr. Peter Salovey in
their attempt to develop a scientific measure for knowing the differences
between people’s ability in the areas of emotions. Though its roots can be traced
back to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence and social intelligence.
However, the credit for popularizing the concept of emotional intelligence
goes to another American psychologist Daniel Goleman through his book
Emotional Intelligence: Why it can matter more than I.Q., published in 1995.
Although the term emotional intelligence has been defined in many best sellers
including Dr. Daniel Goleman’s 1995 book “emotional intelligence” in a number
of ways comprising many personality traits such as empty, motivation,
persistence, warmth and social skills yet the most accepted scientific of the term
emotional intelligence may be found in the following definition given by Johan D.
Mayer and Peter Salovey in their 1997 book “emotional Development and the
Emotional intelligence”
“Emotional intelligence may be defined as the capacity to reason with
emotion in four areas; to perceive, to integrate it in through, to understand it and
to manage it.” The view point of this defined can be analysed as; a person will be
termed emotionally intelligence proportion to his ability to identify and perceive
the various types of emotions in others to:
- Indentify and perceive the various types of emotion in others (through
face reading, body language and voice etc.
- Being aware of his own feeling and emotions;
- Incorporate or integrate the perceived emotions in his though. (Such as
using his emotions feeling in analyzing, problem solving, decision making
etc.);
- have proper understanding about the nature, intensity and outcomes of
the Nature, intensity and outcomes of the emotion;
Exercising proper control and regulation over the expression and use of
emotions in dealing with his self and others in view of promoting harmony,
prosperity and peace
Mr. Yetta Lautensclager, a NIP teaching fellow of Hamden, Connecticut,
USA writes: “to be emotionally intelligent, I submit that one must become
proficient in the four areas of emotional intelligence i.e. awareness, Acceptance,
Attitude and Action, Awareness means knowing what we are feeling, when we
feeling it. Acceptance means being able to feel a feel an emotion without judging
it. Attitudes are belief that is attached to emotion. There are times when the
emotions follow an attitude. Unless the attitude is challenged, the emotion will
continue to be felt in the same direction. Action is the behaviour we take based
on emotion and attitude”.
The above view point of Yatta Lautenschlager clearly emphasized that for
the developing as an emotionally intelligence individual, one must develop the
ability of emotional awareness (knowing the feeling of the self and others),
cognitive realization that emotional expression may be irrational or unhealthy
and hence, one should be cautions in utilizing his emotions into action, having a
fresh look or formation of desired attitude for proper utilization of emotional
feelings, resulting utilizing into proper behaviour for the progress of the self in
proper tune of the others. Based upon these contemporary viewpoint about the
concepts of emotional intelligence, we may understanding one’s emotional
intelligence as a unitary ability (related to but independent of standard
intelligence) helpful in knowing, feeling and judging emotions in close
cooperation with one’s thinking process for behaving in a proper way in the
ultimate realization of the happiness and welfare of the self in tune with others.
The knowledge about one’s emotional intelligence in terms of his
emotional quotient has a wider educational and social implication for the welfare
of the individual and the society. This fact has now been recognized and given
practical shape and implication all around the globe. The credit of giving due
publicity and acquainting the word population with the importance and
significance of emotional intelligence goes to the famous American psychologist
Dr. Daniel Goleman through his best seller like Emotional intelligence – why it
can matter more than I.Q. and working with Emotional intelligence etc. He has
brought to the forefront the following points regarding the importance of
emotional intelligence and its measure through his writings:
Emotional Intelligence is as powerful and at times more powerful and at
times more powerful than I.Q., while I.Q. contributed only about 20% to success
in life, the other forces contribute the rest. We can infer that Emotional
Intelligence, luck and social class are among those other factors. Unlike I.Q.
Emotional Intelligence may be the best predictor of success in everything they
undertake in their lives. Unlike what is claimed about I.Q., we can teach and
improve in children and individual some crucial emotional competencies paving
the way for increasing their Emotional Intelligence and thus making their lives
healthier, more enjoyable and successful in coming days.
The concept of Emotional Intelligence is to be applauded, not because it is
totally new but because it captures in one compelling term the essence of what
our children or all of us need to know for being productive and happy. The I.Q.
and even Standard Achievement Test (SAT) scores do not predict who will
successful in life. Even school process can be predicted more by emotional and
social success in life. Even school process can be predicted more by emotional
and social measures (e.g. being self assured and interested, following directions,
turning to teachers for help and expressing needs while getting along with other
colleagues) than by academic ability.
In working situation also, Emotional Intelligence helps more than one’s
intellectual potential in terms of one’s I.Q. or even professional skills and
competencies. A professionally competent person having poor Emotional
Intelligence may suffer on account of his inability to deal with his self or in
getting along properly with others. One’s Emotional Intelligence helps him much
in all spheres of life through its various constituents namely knowledge of one’s
emotions (self awareness), managing the emotions, motivating oneself,
recognizing emotions in others (empathy) and handling relationships. The
achievement of the end result in terms of better handling of mutual relationships
is quite essential and significant in one’s life. It can only be possible through
one’s potential of Emotional Intelligence and its proper development.
The viewpoint and ideas propagated by Dr. Daniel Goleman have brought
a revolution in the field of child caring, home, school and work place
management. It has also provided sufficient support to the guidance and
counselling services including physical and mental health programmes. Although
these may seem a bit exaggeration in tall claim that Emotional Intelligence is a
sure guarantee for unqualified advantage in life yet there is no denying of the fact
that one’s ability to deal successfully with other people and with one’s own
feeling. Since these qualities count significant towards one’s success in one’s area
of achievement, it may help one to step in for the required success. Most of the
problems in our life whether of adolescent problems, home and family problems,
work situation problems political or international problems are the result of the
mishandling of the individuals concerned, sentiments, feeling and emotions of
the individual concerned, group of individuals, society and nations. If proper
education, opportunities and efforts are made for the training of emotions and
development of proper Emotional Intelligence potential among the people right
from their childhood, then it will surely help in bringing mutual emotional
understanding, empathy accompanied with right actions and behaviour on the
part of the individual groups for leading a better life with peace and cooperation.
In all situations, self awareness of the feeling and emotions is most
important. Try to teach the children and help yourself to know what you are
feeling when you are feeling it at a particular time. For understanding others and
other feeling, develop the qualities of a good listener. People who have a high
score on empathy and empathy come through effective listening.
To do always with the wrong notion that through is most appropriate
when not clouded by emotions. Try to learn the integration of thoughts and
emotions, heart and mind for the appropriate behaviour at the right. Therefore,
do not try to suppress emotions (as every feeling has its value and significance)
but to strike a balance between rational thoughts and emotions.
Teach the children and yourself that all emotions are healthy (because
emotions are what unite the heart, mind and the body). Anger, fear, sadness, are
so called negative emotions are as healthy as peace, courage and joy. The
important thing is to learn the art of expressing one’s feeling or emotions in a
desirable way at a desirable time in desirable amount. In this connection, have
this remark of the Great Greek Philosopher Aristotle as a guideline.
“Anyone can become angry – that is easy. But to be angry with the right
person to the right degree, at the right for the right purpose and in the right way
that is not easy” to practice and teach the children the art of managing the
feelings and emotions as adequately as possible. This is especially important for
the distressing emotions of fear, pain anger, etc.
The development of harmonious personality of the individual depends to
a large extent on his/her emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence enables
the individual to achieve highest pinnacle and deepest reach in his search for self
fulfilment as well as other fulfilment. Emotional Intelligence re-enforces the
concomitant drive to increase individualism. It enables to express one’s feeling
and emotion at appropriate occasion, with the understanding of feeling of self
and others. Emotional Intelligence helps in stimulating, motivation, improving
communication, reducing stress and enhancing decision making power of
teachers, students and parents.
Ego oriented individuals is that they perceive success in terms of winning
and outperforming other and believe that if they outperform someone with
minimum effort they have demonstrated even higher level of perceived ability.
These individual believe that success is determined by ability and that cheating
and deception may be acceptable behaviour If they enable them to achieve their
goal of winning.
In contrast, task oriented individuals perceive success in terms of getting
better and trying hard. Research has demonstrated that task oriented individuals
will remain motivated even in times of adversity, for example when they are
losing, as they perceive success in terms of trying hard and attempting to
improve.
Mayer Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) constructed and standardized
by Dr. John Mayer of the University of New Hampshire, U.S.A. Mayer Salovey and
Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) constructed and standardized by
Dr. John Mayer, Dr. Peter Salovey and Dr. David Caruso of U.S.A. Bar-on
Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I) constructed and standardized by Dr.
Reuven Bar-on and published by Multi-Health System; intrapersonal,
interpersonal, adaptability, stress management and general mood.
Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory (MEII) constructed and
standardized by S.K. Mangal and Subhra Mangal. It has been published by
National Psychological Corporation, Agra. It covers four areas: intra-personal
awareness, inter-personal awareness, intra-personal management, inter-
personal management.
Some emotional intelligence measures which have a limited value or
somewhat meant just for a fun or amusement. However, these may provide vital
clue of what is expected from an emotional intelligent person in an arbitrary
assumed emotional situation.
Emotional intelligence has been conceptualised as a multidimensional
construct as proposed by Goleman and Mayer and salovey. According to this
conceptualization, emotional intelligence consists of “abilities such as being able
to motivate one and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulses and
delay gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping
the ability to think; to empathize and hope.” Further research in this area has
indicated that an emotionally intelligent person is be skilled in two key areas
within one’s emotional competence framework, namely “personal competence”-
how one manages the self; and ‘social competence’ – how one manages
relationship. While the essentially implies self-awareness (of internal states,
preferences, resource and inhibitions), self-regulation (of internal states,
impulses and resources) and motivation (traits that facilitate accomplishing
goals); the later comprises empathy (the ability to understand other’s emotions,
and other’s talents or skills needed to influence, communicate, lead, develop
others, manage conflicts, promote team work, or catalyse change), and social
skills such as expertise in inculcating desirable in others. Thus, emotional
intelligence is made up of a set of skills and these skills can be improved through
education. Schools serve as the prime location for the promotion of emotional
intelligence (Tiwari and and srivastava 2004). Goleman (1998) considered
school as one place which can turn to compensate children’s deficiencies in
emotional and social competence. As such schools face the challenge to teaching
as well as nurturing the emotional skills of children.
Emotional intelligence (EI) has emerged as a key concept among
researchers and practitioners alike, and is subject to growing interest in sport
psychology. Further to this, met analysis results indicate positive relationship
between EI and health-related variables and performance variables. To date,
only a few studies have examined E.I in sport but the early studies point to
encouraging results
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Comparative Study of Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence
among Team and Individual Sportsmen
1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results of the present study will help to identify anxiety, aggression
and emotional intelligence of sportsman representing university in team and
individual events. This will further help to identify sportsmen who may have
potential to be of high calibre. Competitive sports are full of challenges, so
youngsters taken to competitive sports must display the required psychological
attributes including aggression, anxiety and emotional intelligence to meet the
challenges successfully.
The variables anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence need to be
studied properly, both from the theoretical and practical point of view. The
knowledge about the variables may enable the teacher and coaches to takes
decisions in their work with young players taking part at different levels and
train them in a proper way. The investigation can help the University coaches
who are attached with University camps to find out the talent and how to wide
out them so as to enable them to perform better in future in the teams and
individual games and find out the weakness of the sportsmen who are attending
the coaching camps.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives lay down for the present study:
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness’ (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness’ (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management’ (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management’ (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
1.4 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses are formulated which will be tested in the
present study:
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Anxiety.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Aggression.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal Awareness
(Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal Awareness
(Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their level of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study had been delimited as stated below:
� Aggression levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through aggression scale constructed
by Roma pal and Tasneem Nagavi (1980) consists 30 items.
� Anxiety levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through Anxiety Test constructed by
A.K.P. Sinha and L.N.K. Sinha’s comprehensive anxiety test consists 90
items.
� Emotional Intelligence of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla was measured through Emotional Intelligence
Inventory constructed by Dr.S.K. Mangal and Shubhra Mangal consisted
100 items.
� Only male sportsmen, who were representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla in team and individual events at inter-university level,
were selected for the investigation.
1.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Terms used in the present study having different connotations may be
defined as under:-
� Aggression: Is behaviour directed towards the goal of having or injuring
another living being. The term seems to draw automatic associations and
produce positive or negative value judgements and emotional responses.
� Classification: The placement of individual into groups for a particular
purpose.
� Behaviour: Technically the observable activity of muscle and glands of
external secretion.
� Team Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
team sports events.
� Individual Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
the individual sports events.
� Anxiety: The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological
process in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a theory of
anxiety that includes stress as fundamental constructs.
� Emotion: The word emotion is a derivative of Latin word ‘emorer’ which
mean to excite or shudder. Thus emotion is a state of the individual which
deprives him equilibrium.
� Emotional Intelligence: It refers to the area of emotional experience and
behaviour
REFERENCES USED IN CHAPTER 1
Alderman, R.B. (1974) “Psychological Behaviour in Sports”. Philadelphia W.B.Saunders
Company.
Arnold ,M. (1960). “Emotion and Personality”. New York Columbia University Press.
Aronson, E. (1977) “The Social Animal”. San Francisco W.H. Freeman and co. Bandura (1956)
Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall. Borrett,N.F.
(1950) Improving your Hockey (London: Faber and Catty. Faber Ltd.,) p. 11.B.J. (1989)
Psychology in Contemporary Sport (Third ed.) Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall.Brog,
G.(1998). Borg’s Percelved Exertion and Pain Scales.
Basu, J. (1991) “Study on Influence of Gender Stereotype on Projection of Aggression and
Frustration”. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Calcutta University, Calcutta.
Basu, J. (1991). “Study on Influence of Gender Stereotype on Projection of Aggression and
Frustration”. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Calcutta University, Calcutta.
Bowlby, J. Attachment and Loss: Vol. II. Separation, Anxiety, and Anger. New York: Basic Books.
1973. Cantor, N., Miscel, W., & Schwartz, J.C (1982). A Prototype Analysis of
Psychological Situations. Cognitive Psychology, 14,45-77
Bundura (1976) Aggression : “A Social Learning Analysis. Englewood Cliffs”, NJ : Prentice-Hall.
Cacioppo, J. T. And Tassinary, L. G. (1990). “Inferring Psychology Significance from Physiological
Signals”. Americon Psychology, 45, 16-28.
Cannon, W.B. (1929). “Bodily Changes in Pain, Anger, Fear and Range, 2nd edn.”. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Catty. B.J.(1989). “Psychology in Contemporary Sport (Third ed.)”. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice
Hall.
Coles, M.G.H., Graton, G. and Gehring, W. J. (1987). “Theory in Cognitive Psychophysiology”. Journal
of Psycholophysilogy. 1, 13-16.
Danziger, K. (1976). “Interpersonal Communication”. New York: Pergamon Press.
Darwin, C. R. ([1972]1965). “The Expression of the Emotion in Man and Animals Reprint”. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Dec, E,L. (1980). “The Psychology of Self Determinations. Lexington MA: Health, Lexington. Dollard”,
J., Miller, N. Doob, L, Mowrer, O., and Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and Aggression, New
Heaven : Yale University- Press.
Dececco, J.P & Cruwford, W. (1977). “The Psychology of Learning Andinstruction”: Education
Psychology Prentice Hall of India, Private limited.
Dollard, J. Miller, N. Doob, L, Mowrer, O., and Sears, R. (1939). “Frustration and Aggression”. New
Heaven : Yale University-Press.
Duffy, E. (1962). “Activation and Behaviour”. New York: Wiley.
Duncan, S.D. Jr. (1965). “Paralinguistic Behaviour in Client Therapist Communication in
Psychotherapy”. Ph. D. Thesis. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Ekman, P. (1982). “Emotion in the Human Face”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ekman, P. (1984). “Expression and the Nature of Emotion”. In K.R. Scherer and P. Ekman (eds.)
Approaches to Emotion. Hilladale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Ekman, P. (1992b). “Facial Expression of Emotion”: an old Counter Verosy and new Findings.
Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society of London, B335, 63-69.
Ekman, P. (1992b.). Are There Universal Emotions? Psychological Review, 99, 550-53.
Ekman, P. and Friesen, W.V. (1975). “Unmasking the Face”. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.
Fehr, B.,& Russell, J.A (1984) “Concept of Emotion Viewed from a Prototype Perspective”. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Genera, 113(3), 464-486.
Freud, S. (1920). “Beyond the Pleasure Principle”. In J. The Standard Edition of the Complete
Psychological Work of Sigmand Frevd, Vol. 18, 456-65.
Freud, S. Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety. In J. Strackey (Ed.)(1959). “The standard edition of
the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud”. Vol. 20. London: Hogarth Press,
1959. (Originally published. 1936).
Goleman, D.C. (1995). “Emotional Intelligence”. New York, Bantom Books.
Hanin, Y.L(2000). “Emotions in Sports. Human Kinetics, Champaign”, IL Hunasman, B. (1974). An
Analysis of Aggression in Boxers Wrestlers, and Cross, Country Runners as Measured by
the Rosenzweing P.F. Study Selected TAT Picture and a Sentence Competition Test.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Marryland.
Hardy, L. (1996), “A test of catastrophe models of anxiety and sports performance against
multidimensional anxiety theory models using the dynamic differences”. In Anxiety, Stress
and Coping: An International Journal, No.9.
Hunsman, B. (1954). “An analysis of aggression in boxers wrestlers, and cross-country runners as a
measured by the Rosenzweing P-F Study, selected TAT pictures and sentence competition
test. Unpublished Doctoral Desseratation”. University of Marryland.
Hunsman, B. (1974) “An analysis of aggression aggression in boxers wrestlers, and cross-country
runners as a measured by the Rosenzweing P-F Study, selected IAT pictures and sentence
competition test”. Unpublished Doctoral Desseratation. University of Marryland.
Izard, C.E. (1971). “The Face of Emotions”. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Izard, C.E. (1977). “Human Emotions” New York: Plenum Press.
Izard, C.E. (1979). “Emotion in Personality and Psychology”. New York: Plenum Press.
Izard, C.E.(1994). “Innate and universal facial expressions: evidence form developmental and cross-
cultural research”. Psychology Bulletin, 115, 288-99.
James, W. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 4, 188-204.
James, W. (1890). “The Principles of Psychology”, Vol. II. New York: Holt.
Johnson, W. And Hutton, D. (1953). “Effects of boxing upon spectators as measured by a projective
test of personality”. Unpublished papers University of Marryland.
Jones, G. (1990), “A cognitive perspective on the process underlying the relationship between stress
and performance in sport” in G.Jones & L.
Kamlesh M.L. (1998). “Psychology in Physical Education and Sports” 3rd Ed. New Delhi:
Korchin, S.J. (1998). “Modern Clinical Psychology: Principle of Intervention. In the Clinic and
Community-Delhi”: CBS Publishers & Distributors.
Lange, C.G. (1885). “On Sindsbevaegelser. Et. Psyko, Physiology Studies”. Copenhagen: Keonar.
Lazarus, R.S. (1968). Emotion and adaptation: conceptual and empirical relations. In W. J.Arnold
(ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska
Press.
Leunes, I.D., (1982): “And Nation, J.R (1989). Sport Psychology: An Introduction”, Illinois: Nelson
Hall.
Leventhal, H.A. and Tomarken, A.J. (1986). “Emotion; Today’s Problems. Annual Review of
Psychology”, 37, 565-610.
Limpert, C.A. (1999). “Diminished emotional experience and its relationship to poor insights in
schizophrenia”. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 836.
Lindsley, D.B. (1951). “Emotion. In S.S. Stevens (ed.). Handbook of Experimental Psychology, 1st
edn”. New York: Wiley.
MacLeod, C. (1990). Mood Disorders and Cognitive, in M. W. Esyenck (Ed.), cognitive psychology:
An International Review. Wiley, Chichester.
Mandler & Sarason, S.B. (1952). “A study of anxiety and learning. Journal of abnormal and social
Psychology”, pp. 47, 166-173.
Mangal, S.K. (2007). “Essentials of Educational Psychology”.
Martens, R. (1977). “Sports Competition Anxiety Test Champion III: Human Kinetics.”
Mayer. J.D. and Salovey, P. (1997). “What is Emotional Intelligence?” In P. Salovey and D.J. Slylet
(Eds.). Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence. New York: Basic Book.
Mc Dougall, W.(1923). “Outline of Psychology”. New York: Scribner.
Mc Dougall, W.(1928). “Emotion and Feeling Distinguished”. In M. L. Reymert (ed.) Feeling and
Emotions. Worcester, Massachusetts: clark University Press.
Pal, roma and Naqvi Tasneem (1980). “Aggression Scale (A-Scale)”. Agra Psychology Research
Cell, Belanguung, Agrs.
Plutchik, R. (1980b). “A language for the Emotions”. Psychology Today, Feb, 68-78.
Plutchik, R.(1980a). “Emotion: A Psychobioevolutionary Synthesis”. New York: Harper and Row.
Rapaport, D. (1950). “Emotions and Memory”. New York: international Universities Press.
Rushall, B. S. Lippmann, L.G. (1998). The role of imagery in physical performance. International
Journal of sports Psychology; 29, 57-72.
Russell, G.W. (1933). “The Social Psychology of Sports”, New Delhi: Sprinager Werleg.
Sarason (1959). “What Research says about Test Anxiety in Elementary School Children?” NFA
Journal, pp. 48, 26-27.
Schachter, J. (1957). Pain, fear and anger in hypertensive’s and Normotensives. psychosomatic
Medicine, 19, 17-29.
Schachter, S. and Singer, J.E. (1962). “Cognitive Social and Physiological Determinants, of
Emotional State”. Psychological Review, 69, 379-99.
Schacter, S. (1964). “The Interaction of Cognitive and Physiological Determinants of Emotional
State”. In l. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experimental social Psychology, Vol. 1. New
York: Academic Press.
Shepard, R.N. (2001). “Perceptual-Cognitive Universal as Reflections of the World”. Psychonomical
Bulletin & Review, 1,2-28.
Simon, J.A., & Martens, R. (1977), “S.C.A.T. as a predictor of A-states in varying competitive
situations” in D. M. Landers & R. W. Christina (Eds.), Psychology of Motor Behaviour and
Sport (Vol. 2), Human Kinetics, Champaign,IL.
Simpson, M.E. (1980). “Societal Support and Education”. In I. W. Kutsk& L.B. Schlesinger (Eds),
Handbook on Stress and Anxiety. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Singer, R. N. Murphey, M. & Tennant L. K. (Eds.) (1993). Handbook of sports psychology: New York.
Macmillan Publishing Company.
Singer, R.N. Hausenblas, H. A. & Janelle, C. M. (Eds.) (2001). Handbook of Sports Psychology. New
York : Johan Wiley.
Sinha, R.R. (1964). “A Comparative Study of Tribal and Non-Tribal Intelligence”. Ranchi University,
Ph. D. Arts.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). “Anxiety as an Emotional State. In C.D Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current
Trends in Theory and Research”, Vol. I. New York: Plato Aeto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists press.
Spielberger, C.D. (1972). “Anxiety as an Emotional State”. In C.D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety:
Current Trends in Theory and Research, Vol.1 New York: Academic press. Weiss, E. &
English, O. S. (1957). Psychosomatic Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Spielberger, C.D.(1972). “Anxiety as an Emotional State”. In C.D. spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Crrent
Trends in Theory and Research, vol.I. New York: Plato Aeto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Spielberger, C.S. (1966). “Theory and Research on Anxiety”, In C.S. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and
Behaviour, Academic Press, New York.
Sports Psychology – Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaen.wikipedia. org/wiki/ sports_psychology.
Tatum, J (1980). “They call me assassin”. New York: Avon. Berkowitz,L. (1969). The Frustration –
aggression hypothesis revisited.In L. Berkowitz (ed.) Roots of aggression. New York.
Atherton Press, pp. 1-29.
Thompson, I. G. (1988). “The Psychobiology of Emotions”. New York: Plenum Press.
Tomkins, S.S. (1962). “Affect, Imagery, Consciousness”, Vol. 1. The Positive Affects. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Tummavuori, M., & Hanin, Y.L.(2000) “Quantifying Emotion Intensity on the Modified Borg’s CR-10
Scale. 5th ECSS Congress”, Jyvaskyla 19-22
Ventakeswarlu K. (1982), “Theory of Athletic Training” unpublished lectured note ABU Zaria.
Westen, D. (1996). “Psychology: Mind, Brain, and Culture”. New York: Wiley.
Wiener, M. and Mehrabian, A. (1968). “Language within a language: Immediary, a Chnnel in Verbal
Communication”. New York: Applaton-Century-Crofts.
Young, P.T. (1961). “Motivation and Emotion”. New York: Wiley.
Young, P.T. (1973). “Emotion in Man and Animal”. New York: Krieger.
Zajonc, R.B.(1984b). “The Primacy of Effect”. In K.R.Scherer and P.Ekman (eds.). “Approaches to
Emotion”. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The present chapter deals with the available literature on anxiety,
aggression and emotional intelligence. The various types of methods, techniques
and the tests used to assess the anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence of
the teams and individual events by the various sports scientists and
psychologists is listed in this chapter. A brief review of related literature is
presented below.
ANXIETY
Anxiety is a term used to describe uncomfortable feeling of nervousness, worry
and tension, which we all feel from time to time. Anxiety can affect anyone,
whatever their age, gender etc. it effects our thoughts, physical reactions, moods
and behaviours. Anxiety can also cause us to feel panicky and frightened and
prevent us from doing things. Too much stress in our lives can result in higher
level of anxiety.
Anxiety is also a perfectly normal response to threat, and in some
situation that is really threatening it can be helpful in preparing us for action.
Some degree of anxiety can improve our performance in certain situations such
as job interviews, taking exams, sporting events, or even helping us to pay our
bills on time. However, if anxiety occurs too often and for no apparent reason, or
if it begins to interfere with our life, then it has become a problem.
We know from research that at any one time, there are many people
experiencing anxiety that is a problem to them. Anxiety can either be very
general; affecting many areas of our lives, or it may be more specific to certain
situations such as crowded place, talking to people or travelling on buses. It
could even occur as a specific phobia such as a fear of lifts or a fear of apiders.
Sarason & Mandler (1952) four decades ago, in 1952, its study began at
Yale university. Based on their responses to a test anxiety questionnaire (Sarson
& Mandler, 1952) group of students were categorised as high or low test anxious.
On subsequent intelligence tests, the low anxious student outperformed their
high anxious peers in both the scores and their variability (Mandler & Sarson,
1952; Sarson, Mandler & Craighill, 1952. There is no doubt that anxiety is a
troublesome condition found to be prevalent today among students. The overly-
anxious students are handicapped since cognitive faction (such as concentration
and memory) is often impaired resulting in less than optimal academic
performance. Many students who are consistently stressed in college beyond
their coping capacity develop lifelong habits of nervous tension which
temporarily relive dysphonic feelings (corocarran 1985).
Nijhawan, (1972) among Indian studies, gender differences were
observed only at the upper social class and at average and low level of
intelligence (Kapur, 1982). Further parallel to Rao’s 1983 finding, even sub 1988
and Sud & Sud 1997 found that socially deprived girls experiences higher anxiety
than their non-deprived counterparts. Sud & Sharma 1990 found that Indian
school going females are likely to have more competitive attitude and urge to
performance better than their male counterparts.
Spielberger, Anton & Bedall, 1976; Spielberger, Gonzaler, Taylor,
Algaze and Anton 1978; Sarason, (1978) test anxiety is a pervasive problem
on the school & university campuses. While anxiety in a test situation may
actually facilitate the performance of some students more often it is disruptive
and leads to performance decrements. Indeed, many students are so disturbed
by test anxiety that they seek professional assistance to help them cope with its
debilitating effects. It is believed that students, with high test anxiety as well as
those students with low test anxiety will have lower academic performance.
Therefore, those students with moderate levels of test anxiety will perform the
best. There is also stable individual difference in the degree to which anxiety is
manifested in any given situation. A disruption or disorganization of effective
problem-solving and cognitive control, including difficulty in thinking clearly,
can also lead to test anxiety.
Singh and Kaur (1976) reported a low negative correlation between
need for achievement and anxiety. Sarson, Johan & Seigel (1978) in two sample
of college students reported significant concurrent correlation between negative
life events and both state and trait anxiety.General findings show that fewer
restrictions from parents lead to high level of achievement motivation
(Baumrind, 1971; Ojha, 1972; Grelow, 1973; Tewary and Mishra, 1977).
Sieber, O’neils Tobias, 1977; Sarason,1980 Altraire, (1984) Research
examining the effects of the test anxiety in situation involving evaluative stress,
such as achievements or competency testing reveals that highly test anxious
examinees do not perform as well as their less anxious counterparts. An
abundant body of research suggests that test anxiety correlates negatively with
the level of test performance (Deffenbacher, 1980). This is particularly true if the
task is complex. The situation is personally salient and the test is more a test of
speed than of power. A relatively simple intentional mechanism (self-
preoccupation) is proposed for explaining the performance-interfering effect of
test anxiety i.e. the situation capacity it used for task irrelevant, ego-focused
through reduced the attention capacity needed for solving the task (Sarason,
1984; Wine, 1980).
Sharma, 1978, Gandy & Fitzgerald, 1971, Sethi & Sud ,1980, Sharma,
& Rao, 1984, Van Der Ploeg Hulshof, (1984) have concluded that the
relationship of test anxiety and academic performance is a complex one, which
may be observed by interactions of intelligence and test anxiety. Specifically, the
detrimental effects of test anxiety were nested in the upper range of intelligence.
The results seem to be in favour existing theoretical line in the field of test
anxiety with an emphasis on cognitive intentional processes (wine, 1971).
However, Helmke (1988) pointed out that the state of research regarding test
anxiety and academic achievement in the school contest is still insufficient in
several respects. Numerous studies ihave related classroom factors with either
academic achievement or test anxiety but only few studies have reported
classrooms differences with regarded to the relationship between test and
academic achievement (i.e. by computing classroom specific correlations or by
other statistical methods).
Tobias, Joshua Edwards (1978) Test anxiety, especially in mathematics,
has been a concern for teachers, students, and parents for decades. The recent
policies that require high-stakes test at nearly every grade level after primary
school has added to these concerns. Preparation of mathematical concepts and
procedures can reduce anxiety. However, many students experience test anxiety
no matter how well they are prepared. Students often recall mathematics being
taught in classrooms in which tension was created by an emphasis on timed
computation drill and an emphasis on correct answers. Ashcraft and kirk (2001)
found that math anxiety may reduce certain brain functions, possibly those that
are needed most for learning mathematics. This anxiety and stress can lead to
decreased performance, avoiding mathematics course taking and, eventually, to
avoiding mathematics-related careers.
Gupta (1982) failed to observe any relationship between anxiety and
achievement motivation and self-concept. Poor academic performance can serve
as a precursor to stress and depression (Petzel & Riddle, 1981) which is a sign of
low achievement motivation among the adolescents.
Paulman and Kennelly (1984) laboratory investigations have
demonstrated that high level of test anxiety is detrimental to performance in
evaluative situations. Carver and Scheier (1988) described disengagement from
the task, lack of self control, and missing confidence as typically linked to test
anxiety. Tryon (1980) and Wittmaier (1976) found that moderate anxious
subjects.
Rao & Murty (1984) found that externally oriented subjects as compared
to internals were low achievers, more anxious, morbid, neurotic and low on need
for achievement. Achievement motivation is a result of healthy family
environment, warm affective ties and support. Weiner (1986) believes that
achievement motivation is closely linked with other variable such as attribution
style, Success and failure.
Hadapp (1989) test anxious person show a typical pattern of cognitive,
emotional and behavioural components when they feel Threatened by the test
situation. The major point is that test anxiety develops as a response to
commutative failure, and this situation-specific trait is constituted by individuals
as well as situational factors. Test anxiety expresses its influence in the form of
troublesome and self-defeating thoughts. The self-image of high test anxious
students has been found to be low, negative and rejecting. They perceive
themselves as ineffective with greater tendency to avoid solving problems
(Blankstein, Flett & Toner 1989; Carver & Scheier, 1989; Meijer & Elshout, 2001;
Sud, et.al., 2001). In an academic setting, the majority of reported low negative
but significant correlation between test anxiety and academic achievement in the
case of both school boys as well as girls, (Choksi, 1975; Najma and
Satyanarayanan, 1978; Sharma and Rao, 1983).
Dweck (1991) models of achievement suggest links among students
belief about the nature of intelligence, their perception about themselves, their
perceptions about elements with the learning context and the sorts of
achievement related attitudes and behaviour they adopt. However, examining
the correlation between test anxiety and achievement motivation, Andrew &
Holly (1999) designed a research to incorporate the test anxiety into the
hierarchical model of approach and avoidance motivation. State-test anxiety
(Specially, Worry) was documented as a mediator of the negative relationship
between performance. The positive relationship between performance approach
goal and exam-performance avoidance goal and exam-performance was show to
be impendent of the anxiety process. Achievement motivation has also been a
result of perceived competence (Harter, 1981), perceived control and autonomy
support (skinner, Wellborn& Connell, 1990; Grolnick & Slowiaczek,1994).
Krampen (1991) test-anxious show higher than average level of general
anxiety. It is observed that people lives are influenced by last performance so
much that anxiety during examination (or test has become pervasive
contemporary problem (Hembrace, 1998; Sarson, 1990; Sud, 2001). Verma
(1990), In his review concluded that test anxiety has proved to better predictor
of academic success then the journal anxiety.
Elizur and Beck (1994) observed the gender differences in the
achievement motivation. The result of the study support the view that gender
differences in achievement motivation are rooted in socialization process rather
than in basic difference between women and men. Empirical studies support the
view that, in comparison to non test anxious people, test anxious individual tend
to engage negative, self-deprecating thought, except to do badly in test situations,
evaluate their performance more negatively and demonstrate international bias
toward ego threats, (e.g. social fairly) words,(Calvo, Eysenck and Estevez,
1994; Spence, Duric and Roeder, 1996).
The 20th century has been called the “the age of anxiety” but the concern
with anxiety phenomena has been as old as the history of humanity
(Spielberger & Vagg 1995) for many years theories of the clinical workers and
the insight of sensitive observes of the west. In 1930’s and 1940’s an increasing
effort was made to understand the problem of anxiety from experimental
perspective. The first empirical investigation of test anxiety was published in
1914 and perhaps a noted Russian to physiologist, Alexander Luria (1932) was
the first one to call has attention to individual differences in the emotional
reaction, experienced by the student in test situation. However, 1950’s saw the
spawning of test anxiety research in earnest that began at Yale University in
1952. Now the test anxiety become the most widely studied of these specific
anxieties, not only the west (Sarason, 1980; 1990; Spielberger & Vagg. 1958;
Schwarzer & Zeidner 1996) but India as well (Sud.& Sharma, 1990; Sud, A
and Prabha, 1995; 1997; Sud. & Sharma, 2001 and Sud 2002).
Ruisel (2000) concluded that test anxiety usually lower academic
performance, mainly by increased self observance which results in lack of self
confidence, fear of failure and evaluation, decreased concentration or attention
and decreased resistance of stress.
Sud (2001) observed that test anxiety is accompanied by a relatively low
expectation of success, dependent behaviour and doubt about one’s ability and
one’s changes of success are determinant-ants of academic performance. Meijer,
(2001) a disruption or disorganization of effective problem solving and cognitive
control, including difficulty in thinking clearly, can also lead to test anxiety. Test
anxiety represents a bias that conceals the true potential of students, in
educational testing. The individual differences in test anxiety and fear of failure
can barely be differentia-ted on the empirical level (Sud, Awasthi & Sud, 2001).
Sud, (2001) high test anxiety has also been observed to be significantly
associated with low achievement motivation. Immense literature support an
association between students motivation and socializing agent such as parents
and teachers. Higher achievement and motivation have been linked to parental
involvement (Wiest, Wong, and Cusick, 1997).
R. Kaul, V. Kumar, M. Mittal (2004) The aim of this study was to
investigate the effect of imagery training on psychological variables i.e. pre-
competition anxiety, positive and negative psychic energy and concentration and
on field performance skill in relation to penalty corner concentration in hockey.
Twelve hockey set players (four pushers, four stoppers, four hitters) were the
subjects. They were divided into two groups (experimental and control) of six
subjects each (i.e. two pushers, two stoppers and two hitters). Employing a pre-
test-post test design, the subjects were initially pre-tested on all the
psychological variables and field performance skills. Field observations were
also made (by a psychologist) regarding their arousal and concentration while
playing and by a hockey coach regarding their body position speed, accuracy and
follow through. The experimental group was given 30 sessions of individualised
autogenic relaxation cum imagery training while the control group was given no
such training. Following the imagery training programme, the subjects were
again post-tested on the psychological and field performance variable as done in
the pre-test phase. T-test was applied to test the significance of mean difference
between pre-test post-test scores of experimental and control group subjects.
Results showed that as compared to the control group, the experimental group
showed marked improvement in it scores on psychological variables and filed
performance skills. It was concluded that imagery training can be a useful tool in
improving the mental state and field performance skills of players in relation to
penalty corner conversion in hockey.
Yaussi, (2005) time is a precious commodity with in the classroom. Any
intervention to decrease test anxiety must come in a form that will pay great
dividends while consuming little time. Teachers to find creative ways to
incorporate brief periods of physical education with in the classroom. According
to the research completed by Hansen, Subjects who maintain an aerobic level of
sixty percent of their maximum oxygen uptake for ten minutes will have the
benefits of increased vigour while decreasing their fatigue and total negative
mood state.
Schneider and Clark (2006) assessed the relationship of test anxiety to
personality variables, believed to relevant to academic performance. 117
psychological student (mean age 23 years) from the University of vaster studied.
Personality factors especially self efficacy was significantly (negative) related to
test anxiety. A high test anxious subject requires more attempt to pass them their
low test anxious counterparts.
Johan Parthiban. A.S. Nageswarain. A. Palanisamy (2006) Aim of the
study was to analysis the effects of mental training on selected psychological
variables of University soccer players. The study was conducted on thirty two
men soccer players who participated in the Bharathidasan University Inter-
College soccer tournaments. Subjects were randomly assigned equally into two
groups, group-1 underwent mental training (n=16) and Group ii (n=16) acted as
control group. The date collected from the experimental and control groups were
statically examined with analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Imagery ability
mental preparation, self confidence, anxiety, worry management, concentration
ability and relaxation ability, showed significant difference between the groups.
Dr. Shafioddin S. Shaikh (2007) For the present study 100 Sample was
selected from Aurangabad, the effective sample consisted of 100 subjects, out of
whom 50 subjects were senior ball badminton players and 50 subjects were
junior ball badminton players. Sinha’s comprehensive Anxiety Test: contains 90
items of manifest anxiety. It is highly reliable and valid. Time 15 to 20 minutes.
Scoring is simple. Percentile norms are available on college students. Level of
anxiety may be classified in five categories, highly reliable and valid in this lest.
Junior ball badminton players have significantly high anxiety than the senior ball
badminton players.
Beauty N.O.Obadan (2008) test anxiety is an uneasiness or
apprehension experienced before, during, or after an examination because of
concern, worry, or fear. This study established the efficacy of rational emotive
behaviour therapy on the reduction of test anxiety on identified test anxious
students the study was quasi experimental in nature. Two independent variables
were involved in the study namely, treatment (2 types), and entry test anxiety
level (2 levels). The independent variables of primary interest are the rational
emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). Instrument used for assessment was test
anxiety inventory entry test anxiety level was studied. Total scores from pre-test
anxiety inventory (TAI) were used to block subjects into groups with low entry
test anxiety level, moderate entry test anxiety level and those with high entry
test anxiety level. REBT was found effective in the reduction of the test anxiety F
=22.751,df (1,76). Entry test anxiety level was significant on the level of
reduction of test anxious students; F=83.566, df (1,76). It is recommended that
REBT be used in the treatment of anxious adolescents in school.
Dr. Shrikrishna Patel (2008) the purpose of the study was “To compare
the competitive state anxiety levels of individual sports, dual, sports and team
game players”. Sixty male students of (LNUPE), Gwalior were selected as the
participants for the study. These participants were divided into three group’s
individual sports, dual sports and team games depending on their activities. On
the basis of the finding and within the limitations of the study, the following
conclusions were drawn-individual dual and team games did not differ
significantly in competitive state anxiety components from each other no
significant difference between individual sports, dual sports, and team games
and finally the interaction effect with regard to the individual, dual and team
games indicates insignificant difference.
Sarh Blake (2009) author of test anxiety: recommendations for teachers,
test anxiety can act as a positive motivator for effective achievement; however,
excessive amount can disrupt a student’s ability to perform well and can cause
high level of stress, low self esteem, poor grades, and negative views of school
(2009). During a benchmark exam that was multiple-choice, i observed a student
choose an answer than erase the answer several times throughout the test. By
the end of the exam period, she had demolished her eraser and she had not
completed the exam. I began observing her more throughout the school year to
see how she was falling the exams because she completed the homework,
participated during the review lessons, however, her exams grades were
extremely poor considering the fact that she was an average achiever.
Institute of Heart Math (2009) “test anxiety is a serious condition for a
great number of people who suffer from an imagined lack of preparation,
confidence, dread, fear or inability to concentrate prior to or while actually
taking a “test”. Psychologist view test anxiety as a situational emotional
occurrence. According to Karolyn M. Thompson author of the impact of a
cognitive-behaviour program on test anxiety symptoms in high school students,
George Mandler and Seymour B. Sarason first identified differences in the test
performances of University students categorized as experiencing either high or
low level of self reported test anxiety”(2003).
Minaxi Patel (2009) there are many difference between school players
and non –players in comparison of anxiety. Some study found that anxiety is also
important aspects. Which related to sports. The present research examines the
important of anxiety among the school players and non-players. The study was
conducted to see the difference among the school players and non-players in
Anxiety. There will be significant difference between school players and non-
school players in Anxiety. The sample of the study has been selected randomly.
The sample consists of 30 school players and 30 non-school players study in
Shree Kadvibai Virani Kanya Vadhyalaya, Rajkot. For measurement of anxiety,
Sinha comprehensive anxiety test was used. The data was subjected to mean,
levels of standard deviation and ‘t’ value. The aim of the study was to see the
difference among school players and non-school players in Anxiety. The results
clearly indicated that there is significant difference among players and non-
players in Anxiety. The results of the present study indicated that players group
have lower anxiety a compare with non- players. Such from the analysis of
results it can be concluded that players seem to be lower in anxiety than the non-
player.
Sameer E. Bagirathi, et. all. (2010) the purpose of the study was to find
out the comparative results of the Psychological profiles of Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh international & National level Male cricket players. The
subject’s age ranged between 18-25 years, they all were selected randomly from
the Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh U-22 cricket teams, and the experts has made
two group of 49-49 players, one group made up of Madhya Pradesh cricket
players and another and group made up of Rajasthan cricket players, those who
are continuously participating at National and International level. The experts
used questionnaire of Rainer and Martin’s sports competition Anxiety Test. For
the evaluation of questionnaire Two Sample T-test was employed, and the
findings reviled that there was a significant difference found insignificant i.e.
0.11 in the SCAT, which means there was no difference in sports Competition
Anxiety of Rajasthan Cricketers and Madhya Pradesh Cricketers.
Balasubramaniam. Smt. Savitri. S. Patil. Dr. Rajkumar. P. Malipatil
(2010) the study was carried out to appraise the significant difference of anxiety
behaviour among the sportswomen and non sportswomen. The Ex-post –fact
research method was adopted. To achieve the purpose 200 sportswomen and
Non sports women were selected randomly as subject, the age ranging from 20
to 25 years. The questionnaire anxiety test was administered. The data
pertaining to variable in the study has been examined by using ‘t’ test. The ‘t’
value is 0.12 is lesser than table value. The conclusion is drawn that there no
significant difference in anxiety behaviour of among the sportswomen and non
sportswomen as it is not conformed. It might be due to their livening condition
and poverty made them to manage their emotion.
Brij Bhushan Singh and e.t. al. (2010) Anxiety experienced during
competition is known as competitive anxiety, it is a feeling of apprehension
about the outcome of competition. For the purpose of this study 35 top three
ranked power lifters (22 male and 13 female) were selected from the Agra
University intercollegiate power lifting championship 2009 held at Shri
Varshaney Degree College Aligarh. The sports competition anxiety was measured
SCAT developed by Martens (1977). The t-test was applied for assessing the
difference between the competition anxiety of intercollegiate male and female
power lifters and coefficient-correlation was applied for seeing the relationship
of competition anxiety of intercollegiate male and female power lifters with
there performance at .05 level of confidence. The results had shown that the
competition anxiety of male power lifter was having negative correlation but the
competition anxiety of female power lifter was positively correlated with their
performance. Also statically no significant difference was observed between the
competition anxiety of intercollegiate male and female power lifter.
Zamirullah Khan, Sartaj Khan and Naseem Ahmed Khan (2010)
anxiety is a very important psychological variable. It plays important role in
performing and achieving goal in high level competitions. The main objective of
study was to find out the level of anxiety of Asian players. Participants were from
India, Sh. Lanka, Laos, Thailand, Turkmenistan, D.P.R. Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan,
Jordan. Sports competition Anxiety among the players. The result of the study
revealed that maximum Asian players have Average level of Anxiety.
Driscoll Richard (2010) nursing programmes can be highly stressful,
and nursing students have been found to be more test-anxious than other
students. The present investigation examines practical programs to reduce test
anxiety impairment and improve academic performance for a significant number
of highly anxious nursing students. Incoming nursing students were screened
using the Westside test Anxiety scale, and half (42 of 84) were identified as
having high-or moderately-high anxiety and were randomly assigned to an
“active control” treatment or an information control group. Students in both
groups were introduced to their material and encouraged to review it. Students
took the comprehensive Evolve/HESI exit exam in the early spring. The
treatment group showed a significant 12+percentile gain over the control group
on the HESI (P<.05) and a 9 percentile gain over the controls on their spring
GPAS. The active control treatment protocol used here is seen to provide a cost-
effective intervention to improve test performance Circumstances permitting,
the authors recommend that nursing programs include provisions for highly
anxious students. In five students with the 1970’s low achievement motivation
was observed to be significantly associated with test anxiety (Singru, 1972;
Choksi,1975). Singru (1975) Choksi (1975) and singh, s., and kaur, h., (1976)
Reported low, negative correlation between the overall index of need-
achievement and anxiety. Christian (1978,1979) found that these is a positive
relationship between hope of success and anxiety, and a negative relationship
between fear of failure and anxiety.
Dureha D.K.S.Yaduvanshi and P.Mishra (2011) the purpose of the
study is to compare the status of national and international hockey players on
the selected psychological variables. Sixty male hockey players of India divided
in to two groups national (n= 30) and international (n =30). The age range of the
subjects was 17 to 25 years. The collection of data was based four test batteries
that is, Alberta incentive motivation inventory the sports achievements and
motivation test, state and trait anxiety inventory and sports completion anxiety
test. As shown by the results of the study there were insignificants difference
was found in incentive motivation, achievement motivation, state anxiety and
trait anxiety between national and international hockey players and significant
difference was found in sports completions anxiety. In order to test t test was
used and 0.05 level of significant was used. The hypothesis that international and
national players would not differ accepted in achievement motivation, state, trait
and sports completion anxiety.
Maryam Sasanfar & Maryam Koushkie Jahromi (2011) the purpose of
present study was comparison of anxiety between students of physical education
& sport science and other students in Iran. Subject of this study were 72 students
in Shiraz University in Iran, 42 students were students of physical education and
sports sciences (SPESS) and 28 students were students of other fields (SOF),
student fulfilled anxiety questionnaire of Beck (BAI). The questionnaire,
reliability was (89%), its validity was 0.79, and contained 21 questions, with 5
scale of liker’s, findings of this study indicated that Anxiety score was higher in
SOF than SPESS (P = 0.05). But evaluating data with Chi square test indicated
higher frequency of severe anxiety in SPESS (P = 0.05), participating in physical
education classes may reduce total score of anxiety, but can increase number of
severe anxiety.
Prof. Jaowad Ali, Mohd. Tanveer Khan, Abdual Rahaman, Arvined
Bahadur Singh (2011) the purpose of the study was to compare the level of
multidimensional trait anxiety between university and national level hockey
players of Uttar Pradesh. For the purpose of the investigation 40 male subjects
(20 University and 20 National level players) were recruited as subjects of the
study. Their age was ranged from 17 to 25 years. To find out the level of anxiety
of university and national level players the multidimensional trait anxiety test
developed by Martens (1977) was administered on the subjects. ‘t’ test was
employed to analyze the data. Results have revealed that there was no significant
difference found between intervarsity and national level hockey players of Uttar
Pradesh in regard to multidimensional trait anxiety at 0.05 level of confidence.
Sisodiya A.S and P.Purashwani (2011) the purpose of the study was to
investigate the relationship between achievements motivation and anxiety of
inter-University level male and female shutters i.e. badminton players. For this
purpose, 30 (15 male and 15 female) shuttlers were randomly selected as
subjects, who participated in zone inter university Badminton tournament.
Sports achievement motivation test by M.L. Kamlesh and sports competition
anxiety test constructed by rainier marten were administrated to collect the
data. Pearson’s product moment correlation was employed to find out the
relationship between the achievement motivation and anxiety. Finding showed
no significant relationship between achievement motivation and anxiety of male
and female badminton players of inter-University level.
AGGRESSION
Aggression is the violent behaviour with total disregard to reasoning.
Aggressive behaviour can be physical or mental or emotional and alt of them
together in a systematic manner. In general sense where aggression is referred
to in life situations or in connection with group dynamics, it has no positive role.
However, when it comes to sporting competitions, aggression has always a
positive role. This is especially true in dual games or competitions. In a war
situation, a soldier is to destroy his enemy before the enemy kills him. Likewise,
in a dual sporting competition, the competition is to resort to violent attack
against his opponent and inflict upon him a moral advantage which is likely to
last throughout the remaining competition – thus leading to victory. In the
process, the sportsperson shall not succumb to the sentiments if he is
determined to win.
Hicks (1965) studied the relative effects of the both peer and adults
models of each sex on aggression in children. Both short and long term
influences were increased. It was found that males peers had the most
immediate influence in shaping in children’s aggressive behaviours, while adults
males had the most lasting effect. Both an actual model and films have been used
in such studies and the effects contrasted. In general, the finding has suggested
that viewing aggression, particularly if the aggressor is identified with by the
subject, will cause immediate aggressive responses to be ciliated in children,
youth and adults.
McCarty, J.F. and Kelly, B.R. (1978) investigated the relationship
between aggression and athletic performance. Using an archival approach on the
records of a college hockey team over an eight year period, a high aggressive and
low aggressive group was defined. Aggression was defined on the basis of certain
types of norm violations which distinguished aggressive acts more clearly than
former research studies by separating instrumental aggression from hostile
aggression.
Silva,J.M.(1983). Although it is commonly reported that males are
naturally more aggressive than females.
Basu, (1991) in a study on the influence of gender stereo type on
projection of aggression in the Rozenzweig picture frustration study examined
the aggressive responses of 22 male and 22 female children (aged 11 to 14
years) to pictorially present frustrating situations in the Rozenzukig picture
frustration study to determine the effect of the sex of the Ss and the sex of the
depicted figures. There was no effect of the sex on the child on aggressive
responses, however, the sex of the frustration figure depicted in the pictures
significantly influenced the type and direction of aggression in both male and
female. Ss gender related stereo concerning aggressive reaction was similar in
boys and girls.
Tucker, L.W. (1999) conducted a study on perceived legitimacy of
aggression among females and males collegiate athletes. The purpose of this
study was to examine attitude of males and females Division I inter-collegiate
athletes towards aggression in collision, contact and non-contact sports. Collision
sports were defined those that require heavy bodily contact, such as hockey,
football and rugby. Contact sports such as basketball and soccer. Non-contact
sports were defined as those that do not involve any type of physical contact,
such as golf, tennis and swimming. The sample consisted of N = 162
intercollegiate athletes, equally divided between females (n = 81). The samples
were further categorized into three types of sports; collision (n = 28 females and
n = 27 males), contact (n = 26 females and n = 27 males), and non-contact (n = 27
females and n = 27 males).
Bredemeier, (1985) Gender, school level, years of participation and
degree of contact in sport have all been found to influence moral reasoning and
legitimacy judgement concerning injurious sports acts (Bredemeier, 1987,
1995; Beredemier & Shields, 1986, Reyan, et al., 1990; Silva, 1983). A
number of studies have discovered that males find aggression in sport and
outside of sports to be more legitimate than females (lindeman, et al., 1997;
Rainy, 1986; Silva, 1983). School level in fourth through seventh grade children,
the highest competition level in organized sports among undergraduate and
graduate students, and the number of years of participation in organised sport
also affect moral reasoning and legitimacy judgements. The most common
findings are the positive linear relationship between these three factors and
legitimacy ratings of injurious sport acts. Injurious sport acts are more legitimate
for sixth/seventh grades, among participants of organized sports on higher
competition levels, and for participants who have been involved in organised
sports the longer (Bredemier, et al., 1987; Silva 1983). Finally, the degree of
contact in sport and the length of exposure to contact in sport are presumed to
affect moral reasoning and legitimacy judgements indeed, results of several
studies indicated that more exposure to high contact sports, are associated with
reduced level of moral reasoning and more acceptable legitimacy judgements of
injurious sports acts. It has also been determined that participation in higher
contact sports is related to aggressive behavioural tendencies both in and
outside of the sports environment. Legitimacy judgements concerning aggressive
behaviour in sports are inversely related to moral reasoning (Bredemeier,
1985). Several researchers have suggested that participation in sport may be
detrimental to moral reasoning, but a casual relationship has yet to be
determined. The primary purpose of this investigation was to compare
perceptions of aggressive and asserting behaviour in sports and non sports
situations among male and females athletes and non-athletes. Participants (n =
66) were randomly selected and grouped according to three sport contact
groups based on their athletic experience; high low and non athlete. All
participants viewed 28clips of aggressive and assertive behaviour in sports and
non-sports situations. Volunteers were asked to judge the legitimacy of the
behaviour and to rate the acceptability of the behaviour. Results indicated that
males perceived the behaviour in both situations as more legitimate and
aggressive behaviour was less legitimate in both situations. These results
reinforce previous finding about the relationship between the gender, context,
moral reasoning and legitimacy judgements of aggressive behaviour. Future is
warranted to examine the variable of race and socio-economic status in this
relationship.
Brad J. Bushman and Gary L. Wells (1998) previous studies examining
the validity of measures of trait aggressiveness either have been retrospective
studies or have used laboratory aggression as the criterion behaviour. Can a
measure of trait aggressiveness predict no laboratory physical aggression? The
physical aggression subscale of the aggression questionnaire was completed by
91 high school hockey players prior to the start of the season. At the end of the
season, these trait aggressiveness scores were regressed on minutes in the
penalty box for aggressive penalties (e.g., fighting, tripping) and minutes in the
penalty box nonaggressive penalties (e.g., delay of game, illegal equipment, too
many players). As expected, preseason trait aggressiveness scores predicted
aggressive penalty minutes (r = .33) but not nonaggressive penalty minutes (r =
.04).
Mark Griffiths (1998) one of the main concern that has constantly been
raised against video games is that most of the games feature aggressive
elements. This has led many people to assert that this may have a detrimental
effect on individuals who play such games. Despite continuing controversy for
over 15 years, there has been little in the way of systematic research. This article
reviews the empirical studies in this area, including research methodologies such
as the observation of free play, self-report methods, and experimental studies the
article argues that all the published studies on video game violence have
methodological problem and that they only include possible short-term
measures of aggressive consequences. As opposed to those in their teens
upwards-tend to show that children do become more aggressive after either
playing or watching a violent video game. However, all of these come from the
use of one particular research methodology (i.e. observation of children’s free
play).
Johan G. H. Dunn et. al. (1999) the purpose of this study was to examine
the relationship between goal orientations. Perceptions of athletic aggression,
and sportsperson ship among elite male youth ice hockey players (M age = 13.08
years). Athletes (N = 171) completed questionnaires to assess their goal
orientations, attitudes toward directing aggressive behaviours during
competition, and non-aggression –related sportsperson ship. In accordance with
vallerand, Deshaies, Cuerrier, Briere, and Pelletier (1996), sportsperson ship was
conceptualized as a five-dimensional construct. Multiple regression analyses
revealed that high ego-oriented. Players with higher levels of task orientation
(rather than low task orientation) had higher sportsperson ship level of three
dimensions. An analyses of goal orientation patterns revealed that regardless of
ego orientation, low (compared to high) task orientation was more
motivationally detrimental to several sportsperson ship dimensions. The
practical implications of these results are discussed in the context of Nicholls’s
(1989) achievement goal theory.
Devires and Steven (1999) in their study utilized moral and
motivational constructs to examine relationship between college wrestler’s
approval of aggressive acts in wrestling and individual and contextual factors of
the scompetitive wrestling settings. Subjects were wrestlers of fourteen NCA
Division III team (N = 221). The wrestlers Aggression questionnaire (WAQ) was
developed and used to assess approval of aggressive act in sports, perceptions of
coach and team mate approval of aggressive and likelihood to commit aggressive
acts in competitive situations. They observed that wrestler were found to be less
approving of action depicted in a WAQ scenario depicting controlling aggression
then they were of two WAQ scenario actions representing scoring aggression.
Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that wrestler’s approval of
controlling aggression was predicted by perceptions of team mate and coaches
approval of the aggressive acts, likelihood to commit the act to win match, and
season win percentage. Wrestler approval of scoring aggression was predicted
by perception of the coach and team mate approval of the aggressive act and
likelihood to commit the act to win as factors distinguishing between subjects
who represent high and low level of wrestler approval of controlling aggression.
Teammate approval of aggressive acts and likelihood to commit aggressive act of
the team mates expected it were significant in discriminating between wrestler
who were high and low in approval of scoring aggression. Wrestlers reported
that they were mass likely to commit aggressive acts for pre-conventional
motives of coach and team mate expectations. Result of this study suggested that
wrestler’s approval of aggression is related to moral atmosphere factors
including perceptions of teammate and coach approval of aggressive acts and to
moral motives for aggression in the sports.
Gardens, Rebecca Ellis and ChristoPher M. Janella (2002) have made
comparison between perceptions of aggressive and assertive behaviour in sport
and non-sport situations among female and male athletes and non athletes.
Participants (N = 66) were randomly selected and grouped according to three
sport contact group based on their experience high, low and non athlete. All
participants viewed 28 clips of aggressive and sport situation. Results indicated
that males perceived the behaviour in both situations as more legitimate,
behaviour is athletic situations was rated as more legitimate, and aggressive
behaviour was less legitimate in both situations. The will to win behaviour or the
so called killing instinct shall guide the sportsperson concerned to be aggressive
and merciless in competitive situation. This kind of total disregard toward
human values is essential as the very existence and persistence in today’s cut
through competitions warrants a do or die behaviour. The ideals, the philosophy
covering the morals and values may be spared for all other life situations but not
bought in to sporting competitions. We, the Indian, shall am to regain the lost
valour and aggressive behaviour as we have learnt to be submissive and non-
violent over the last one thousand years of slavery. Then only the Indian may be
able to aim to win medals at the arena of international competitions.
Patrice Lemieux, Stuart J. McKelvie, et. al. (2002) to investigate the
relationship between athletic participation and off-field hostile aggression, Buss
and Perry’s (1992) Aggression questionnaire (AQ) was completed by two group
of 86 university athletes in either contact or no contact sports and two control
groups of 86 non-athletes who were matched to the athletes in physical size. In
general, bigger participants scored higher on hostile aggression and reported
more fighting than smaller participants, but athletes and non-athletes did not
differ. These results contradict the learning and catharsis of aggression in sport,
and undermine the media image of the belligerent off-field athletes.
Hari Singh & Surinder Kumar Sharma (2006) The present study
investigation was conducted no 90 judokas of different universities of India, who
won medals in all India Inter-University judo tournament (2006), in their
respective weight categories; the judokas who lost in any round of
championship; and judo championship. The main objective of the investigation
were to study and compare the three groups of judokas viz., 30 Medal winners
and 30 losers, in All India Inter-University, and 30 Inter-college losers of
Himachal Pradesh University, with respect to their aggression. The test
developed by Pal and Naqvi was used to measure the aggression level of judokas.
For the purpose of analyses of data, statically technique of ‘analyses of variance’
and ‘t’ test was used. The results of this study indicate that the losers at inter-
college level, or at initial stage, are more aggressive than the medal winners and
losers in ALL India Inter-University judo tournament.
Mahesh Kumar (2006) the study was conducted during the year 2002-
03 at L.N.I.P.E., Gwalior (M.P). In the present study multistage stratified sampling
technique and sample random sampling technique were used. 200 sample of
sports –persons of Haryana state. who participated at national and inter-
university level tournaments in different contact games like Boxing, Judo,
Wrestling and Kabaddi were selected to collect the data out of total 200 sample
persons 100 players were of male and 100 female players. Aggression
Questionnaire (Pati, 1976) has been used for measuring aggressive behaviour.
Keeping in view the objective as well as design of the study, the statistical
technique of mean, standard deviation and two way were analysis of variance
were used to analyse the data. It was found that overall male sportsperson were
more aggressive as compared to female sportspersons.
Kumar Mahesh and Vikram Singh (2010) the present study was
conducted to assess the level of aggressiveness among the Indian sports persons
from different contact, semi-contact, and non contact sports. The study
concluded that as body contact during the game increases the aggression level of
players also increases. Contact games players were found more aggressive as
compared to semi contact and non contact game players.
Amarjit Kaur (2010) Aggression directly affects the sportsman’s
performance. Aggression is as old as human race. Most psychologists describe
aggression in terms of behaviour. Aggression behaviour is obvious in sports and
physical activities. Not at all aggressive sport behaviour is violent. Aggression
has many meanings in sports. Certain sports contexts do encourage aggression.
Questionnaire method was used to assess aggression. Players were related
during the inter-college level tournaments held in the session 2008-09 for this
study 45 female players and 45 non-players were selected from the events of
hockey, volleyball and handball, and non—players were selected from the M.Sc.,
M.C.A., M.Com., classes. The players included in the present study were selected
from the colleges of Punjabi University, Patiala. There were two groups, one was
female players group and another wais female non-players group. Female
aggression has a negative effect on women. In the present study it was
hypothesized that there was no significant difference between female players
and non-players to their aggression.
Ibrahim A. Gazar et. al. (2010) the research aims to study the
relationship between sport aggression and years of practice to Egyptian
wrestlers, identify the relationship between sport aggression and chronological
age for wrestlers to identify the differences between Egyptian wrestlers
(male/female) in sport aggression, and also to determine the relationship
between sport aggression and ranking of Egyptian wrestlers (46 Greo roman
male and 22 free style female) and applied the sport aggression measurement to
collect data. The most important results was that there are positive correlation
coefficient between the number of years of practice and sport aggression for
male wrestlers, also there are statistical significant difference between ranking
of advanced wrestlers and ranking of less advanced wrestlers in sport aggression
for wrestlers of less advanced. One of the main recommendations of the research
is the need to focus the psychological preparation for both male and female
Egyptian wrestlers. As well as the need for a sport psychologist with national
teams.
Lalit Mohan Tiwari (2011) the purpose of the study was to “compare
the degree of aggression between university level throwers and jumpers”. The
study was conducted on 15 university level male jumpers and 15 male throwers
raning from 17 to 24 years. The subjects were selected from Punjabi University
Patiala and national institute of sports Patiala Punjab. The sports aggression
inventory questionnaire of aggression by Anand kumar/ Prem Shanker Shukla
was distributed to the 30 male jumpers & throwers. It was hypothesized that
there would be a significant a difference between the jumpers and throwers on
the degree of aggression. The ‘t’ test was employed to compare the degree of
aggression between jumper and throwers. Findings: To analyze the score ‘t’ test
was employed; the level of significance for testing the hypotheses was set at 0.05
level of confidence. The mean of the score of thrower was 14.73 and jumper was
10.06. The calculated ‘t’ – value was 3.85 which showed significant difference
between the aggression levels of university level Jumpers and throwers
(t=3.85>t=2.04). the aggression level of throwers was found to be higher than
the jumpers. The ‘t’-value required to be significant for 28 degree of freedom was
2.04 at 0.05 level of confidence.
Jaskaran Singh Sindhu, Karanjit Singh and Charanjit Singh (2011)
The purpose of the present study was to investigate and compare the anxiety and
aggression level among the university level male and female athletes. A total 60
athletes (30 males and 30 females) were randomly selected from the various
colleges affiliated to different universities of Punjab. Aggression was measured
by using the AGG questionnaire constructed by Dr. G.L.Pati (1976). Anxiety
among the subjects was measured by using the sport competitions Anxiety test
(SCAT) constructed by Rainer Martens (1990). The results revealed that the male
athletes had significantly greater aggression (p<0.05) as compared to the female
athletes. The female athletes were found have significantly higher anxiety level
(p<0.01) when compared to male athletes. In conclusion, the male athletes were
more aggressive whereas female athletes were more anxious.
Dr. Jitender Singh Yadav et.al (2011) this exploratory study
investigated the comparison of aggression level of players of team games and
individual sports of inter-University level. ‘Sports aggression Inventory’
developed by Anand Kumar and Prem Shankar Shukla was selected as criterion
measure. The total sample of the study was “110 players of inter-university level.
Subject were of individual sports, ten each from Badminton Judo and
Gymnastics; seven Swimming while three from 100mts, 200mts, 400mts,
800mts, shut put and long jump. “55” subjects were of team games, twelve each
from basketball and volleyball; fifteen from hockey and sixteen from football.
The data was analyzed by using t-test.
RANBIR SINGH, BODHRAJ (2011) the purpose of the present study was
to find out comparative analysis of aggression and aspiration level between
hockey and football players. The study has been conducted on 50 football and 50
hockey players. To measures the aggression of players researcher used
“aggression questionnaire” constructed by G.C. Pati and for level of aspiration Dr.
Mahesh Bhrgav’s level of aspiration test was used. After collection of Data
researcher analysed it through statistically by using mean. S.D., S.Ed and t-ratio.
From the results, it was found significant difference in aggression of Hockey and
football players and on the other hand level of aspiration has measured in three
different scores i.e. Goal Discrepancy score (GDS), Attainment Discrepancy Score
(ADS) and Number Of Time Goal Reach Score (NTRS). There was found non-
significant difference in level of aspiration with respect to their Goal Discrepancy
Score (ADS) and found significant difference in number Of Time Goal Score
(NTRS) of hockey and football players.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotions are expressed via verbal and nonverbal channels of
communication. The verbal channel of communication is used more often to
establish the logical connections between facts and events. The nonverbal
channels of communication are used to convey affective message and to regulate
interpersonal ex-changes. The channels of nonverbal communication that
transmit emotional messages are facial expression. Paralanguage (nonverbal
aspects of voice and temporal characteristics of speech), and kinesics (gesture,
posture, movement of the body) and proximal (physical distance during face to
face interaction) behaviours. Happiness is a positive emotion which is most
conveniently recognized and frequently expressed during a social interaction.
The experience of happiness may stem from different sources, such as relief from
pain, anticipation of a positive outcome of an event, an event that either
enhances self-concept or allows social approval, and physical pleasure.
Cost and McCrae (1992) found that emotional intelligence significantly
predicted grade point average at the end of the year (4=.32, P<.01). Further it
was highly positively related to openness to experience a trait, a trait from NEO
personality inventory.
Schutte et al (1998) observed that emotional intelligence was negatively
and significantly correlated with pessimism (r = - .43), depression (r = - .37),
impulsivity (r = - .39), but positively correlated with greater clarity of feelings (r
= .52) and greater attention of feelings (r = .63).
Thingujam and Ram (1999) reported that emotional intelligence was
correlated with trait anxiety, coping with stream, and belief in social relations
yielding significant r = .36, .50 and .27 respectively.
Weise, Suckoul and Cropan Zano (1999) this is surprising because (a)
emotions are an important part of organizational life, characterizing and
informing organizational processes as well as acting as communication systems
that help individuals navigate through the basic problems that in social relations.
Thingujam and Ram (2000) found that female seemed significantly
higher than males on emotional intelligence.
Mansi (2002) attempted to study the relationship between emotional
intelligence and decision making among Indian managers. The findings indicated
that not only academic qualifications of manager were important but has
emotional intelligence basin also a factor in decision making.
Warwar (2003) studied the extent to which intensity of expressed
emotional arousal plus depth of experiencing could be pressed emotional arousal
for early to mid-therapy was a significant predictor (BDI) and the global severity
Index (GSI), and that late-therapy depth of experiencing significantly improved
this prediction. Warwar concluded that this indicates the importance of combing
emotional arousal with reflection on aroused emotion, in order to make sense of
it.
Samuel J. Zizzi, Heather R. Deaner, et. al. (2003) explored relationship
between emotional intelligence and athletic performance in a sample of 61
Division 1 baseball players (aged 18-23). Of the Ss, 40 were classified as hitters
(66%) and 21 were classified as pitchers (34%). Ss. completed an informed
consent from and the emotional intelligence scale. Performance data were
obtained through the conference’s website, which has links to each team’s
performance statistics. Research in sports psychology has supported the
relationship between psychological skill and athletic performance. The data
suggest that components of emotional intelligence appear to be moderately
related to pitching performance, but not related to hitting performance. These
results support the previous research of R. Smith et.al. (1995) with baseball
players where coping skill were also related more strongly to pitching
performance compared to hitting performance. Additionally, the results partially
support P. Totterdell’s (2000) study where subjective emotional states were
related to cricket performance.
Segerstrom and Miller (2004) in other words, classifying emotions into
the broad classifications of positive and negative may not be sensitive enough
taxonomy for detecting such relationships. This suggest that specific emotions
and cognitive appraises that are otherwise obscured by broad dimensions (e.g.
Affective balance) may play an important role. Alternatively, other potential
global dimensions of emotion such as level of emotional arousal (calm v/s
excited) and motivational action tendencies (approach v/s withdrawal) may
prove to be significant predictors of cortical and immunity.
L. Tiken, K. Kosana Meitei, A.K. Joy, T. Inaobi (2004) it appears that
enough literature is not available regarding the emotional and social adjustment
of individual participating in body contact sports and team sports. The
investigator has failed to ascertain objectively the existing differences in
emotional and social adjustment among in athletes participating in team and
individual body contact sports. The investigator used Bell’s adjustment scale
(1961). The study was conducted on 100 boys who understand in SAI (NERC)
Imphal, inmates from 7 disciplines at 7 centres. Games i.e. football, Hockey and
sepak takes fifty another fifty athletes participated in individual body contact
sports i.e. tae-kwondo, Judo, Boxing and Karate and were randomly selected and
used as subjects in this study. To find out the differentiating value social and
emotional the mean, standard deviation and standard error were calculated. The
significant difference between the mean in social adjustments of individual body
contact sports and team sports.
Jolly Roy (2006) Finding are reported of an evaluation of emotion
intensity distribution, on a category ratio scale (CR-10), from six elite athletes
(M=21,SD=1.4). Intensity Distribution Scores were obtained using Hanin’s
Individual Zone of optimal Functioning and Modified Borg’s CR-10 scale. It was
found that the CR-10 ratio scale was effective to quantify a wide range of
emotion intensities. Inter-individual distribution reflected variations
complimenting respective emotion categories. Applied implications focus on
emotion regulation
Greenberg, Aurra and Hertmann (2007) did not find a significant
relationship between frequency of higher level of expressed emotional arousal
and outcome variable in their intensive of the whole course of treatment of four
good outcome clients. The authors measured both aroused emotional
intelligence expression and productivity of the expressed emotional expression
and productivity of the expressed emotion and concluded that productivity of
aroused emotional expression was more important to therapeutic outcome.
Rajendran, Downey Stough (2007) a study was made by Rajendran,
Downey & Stough of Swinburne University, Australia on “assessing emotional
intelligence in the Indian workplace: a preliminary reliability study” published in
electronic journal of applied Psychology. In the study they have concluded that
the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) has recently attracted a great amount
of interest from HR practitioners and academics alike. Whilst the majority of
research in this area has been concluded in western countries, recent studies
have begun to assess the generalisability and validity of the EI concept in cross-
cultural settings. The purpose of the study was to assess the reliability of the
workplace version of the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test
(workplace SUEIT) in an Indian population. The workplace SUEIT demonstrated
adequate reliability in the sample of participants in India, although the mean
scores for the sub-scales were significantly lower than in the Australian
normative population. The results are discussed in the context that EI tests need
to undergo cross-cultural examination to assess their validity and cultural
relevance. Researchers using Indian workplace sample are need to evaluate the
predictive of tests of EI in the Indian context.
Seher BALCI & KM Engin (2008) conducted “A Comparison of scouts”
emotional intelligence levels with regards to age and gender variables: A Cross-
Culture Study)”. The aim of this study was to investigate whether or not there
differences between the emotional levels of Turkish scouts and scouts from
other countries (England, Portugal, America, Holland, Norway and Ireland) with
regards of the age and the gender variables. The participants were 215 scouts
who attended who attended to an international scout camp in England. 90 of the
participants were Turkish and 125 were from other countries. The age range of
the scout was 11 – 20. Results demonstrated that Turkish Scouts emotional
intelligence levels were significantly higher than the other countries scouts
(p<0.001).
Sonia Kanwar & Rajinder Bishnoi (2008) the purpose of the study was
to analyze the mental health between champion and non champion, and male
and female judokas. To achieve the objective of the study, 280 judokas were
randomly selected as subjects, from the inter-college competitions of the
northern was administered for the collection of data. The six area of mental
health covered by the battery are emotional stability, over all adjustment,
autonomy, security-insecurity, self concept, and intelligence. The analysis of the
data shows that there were significantly differences between champion and non
champion judoka on the variable emotional stability, adjustment, and overall
mental health. The champions were found to be better than non- champions on
the indices of mental health. The male judokas also differed significantly from
their female counterparts on the variable emotional stability. The male players
were found to be more emotionally stable. However, the interaction effect was
not found to be significant on the variables of mental health. Surprise is an
emotion of a very short duration with a positive or a negative emotional tone. We
are surprised at events that are not expected to occur. The surprise emotion
becomes positively valence if the unexpected event brings delight (for example,
seeing an old friend after a long time. The pervasiveness of the term also creates
a difficulty in defining it. For instance, the categories happiness, sadness, fear,
anger, surprise, and disgust are accepted by all as emotions but opinions differ
on such categories as sex and aggression. To include these letter categories in the
term, theorists sometimes use a more pervasive term, viz., motivation. Abnormal
emotional reactions, e.g. anxiety, depression, and guilt, pose a different problem.
Opinions differ in considering them as variants of natural emotion. Difficulties in
defining emotion also arise due to the changes it produces in the organism, such
as changes in the physiological system (body) and in the psychological state
(mind). For many years, psychologists were engaged in examining the temporal
sequence of these changes (in mind and body) that accompany an emotion. To
reduce the conceptual complexity, it is important that we discuss the theoretical
perspectives and behavioural components associated with emotion. Research on
emotion has given rise to four major theoretical perspectives, namely, (a)
cognitive perspective, that puts emphasis on cognition of environmental cue and
physiological arousal, (b) evolutionary perspective, that stresses adaptation
functions, (c) behavioural perspective, that emphasizes conditioned response,
and (d) psycho-dynamic perspective, that highlights the role of unconsciousness
in emotion regulation. The cognitive perspective was developed on the basis of
the notion that an understanding of an emotional state is contingent upon the
cognition of an external (environmental) or an internal (physiological) cue. An
empirical support for this notion has been available from the classic study of
Schachter and Singer (1962. In this study, the subjects were injected
epinephrine, a petrochemical substance that produces an autonomic arousal. The
revival of the Jameson model of emotion has been brought about by a number of
theorists, for example, There are multiple mechanisms, namely, cortical,
subcritical, autonomic, and hormonal, controlling the experience and expression
of emotion. Likewise, there are various study areas, e.g. neurophysiology,
neurochemistry, and neuropsychology, examining the emotional behaviour in
human and non-human primates. The focus of neuron-physiology is to explicate
the role of the nervous system, peripheral and central, in the regulation of
emotion. Neurochemistry deals with the chemical agents altering the nervous
system function. The subject studies the process and regulation of metabolic
activity and the changes in neurotransmitters and hormones during the
emotional reaction. Neuropsychological studies are conducted to ascertain the
role of the cerebral hemispheres and lobes in the mediation of emotional
functions. Since a separate discussion (Laterality and Emotion,) exclusively deals
with this issue, emphasis in this chapter will be on the neurophysiologic and
petrochemical factors influencing emotion. Different emotions produce
characteristic bodily changes. These changes occur either at the physiological or
at the overt behavioural level. The physiological changes are measured by three
methods, in general. In one, the changes in emotional response following a lesion
/task. For example, an electro dermal response may vary as a function of such
factors as affect valence, affect intensity, sex and basal sweat gland activity. The
interacting effects of these factors may prevent one from making an accurate
inference.
Dr. Nivedita Gupta (2009) conducted a study on emotional intelligence.
The study was an experimental type of study, undertaken with the objectives to
find out the effects of specifically designed mental simulation training
programme on the variable emotional intelligence as well as on the selected
three basketball players who had been classified into experiment and control
groups for the purpose of this study the sample consisted of a total numbers of
100 boys and girls in the age group of 15 to 19 years studying in 9th to 12th
grades of senior secondary schools at Dehradun in the state of uttarakhand. The
sample was divided into two parallel groups, i.e. experimental and control
groups. The experimental group comprised 50 boys and girls who were
subjected to the mental simulation training and control groups comprised 50
those basketballs playing boys and girls who were not be subjected to any
mental simulation training , but had continued with their routine training and
practice schedule. For finding out the level of emotional intelligence the seven
fold emotional intelligence scale constructed by Khera, Ahaja and Sarbjeet
(2002) was used. Results of one way ANOVA regarding pre-test male and female
groups and post-test male and female groups within the experiment group on
the variables emotional intelligence. The mean and SD were 178.76 and 10.59,
for pre-test female group these were 177.40 and 15.43, for the group test post
test female group value were 202.00 and 19.127. This difference has also been
found to be significant (p<0.01). Mean difference between post-test male and
post-test female group was 1.80 which was not significant.
David Crombie, et. al. (2009) the relationship between team emotional
intelligence (team EI) of six cricket teams and their sports performance in a
South African national cricket competition over two consecutive seasons was
investigated. Team EI was based on cricketers measured prior to the start of
competition in each season using the MSCET ability test and averaged over all
games for that season. This was correlated with a team sports performance
measure, the final log points standing for the team at the end of a competition.
The results showed that team EI was positively associated with the sports
performance of the cricket teams. Further, team EI was shown to be a significant
predictor of sports performance, with 61% of the variation in the log points
explained. This finding suggests EI may contribute to the success of teams
participating in complex sports like cricket.
Andrew M. Lane, Barbara B. Meyer, Tracey J. Devonport, Kevin A.
Davies, Richard Thelwell, Gobinder S. Gill, Caren D.P. Diehl, Mat Wilson and
Neil Weston (2009) above researchers of Universities of UK conducted a study
on validity of the emotional intelligence scale for use in sports. This study
investigated the factorial validity of the 33-items self rated emotional
intelligence scale (EIS: scuttle et.al. 1998) for use with athletes. In stage 1,
content validity of the EIS was assessed by a panel of experts (n = 9). Items were
evaluated in terms of whether they assessed EI related to oneself and EI focused
on others. Content validity further examined items in terms of awareness
regulation, and utilization of emotions. Content validity results indicated items
describe 6-factors: appraisal of own emotions, regulations of own emotions,
utilization of own emotions, optimism, social skills, and appraisal of others
emotions. Results highlighted 13-items which make no others emotions. Results
highlighted 13-items which make no direct reference to emotional experiences,
and therefore, it is questionable whether such items should be retained. Stage 2
tested two competing models: a single factor model, which is the typical way
researchers use the EIS and the five–factor model (optimism was described as it
become a single-items scale following stage 1) identified in stage 1. Confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) results on EIS data from 1681 athletes demonstrated
unacceptable fit indices for the 33-items single factor model and acceptable fit
indices for the 6-factor model. Data were re-analyzed after removing the 13-
items lacking emotional content and CFA results indicate partial support for
single factor model, and further support for a five – factor model (optimism was
discarded as a factor during items removal). Despite encouraging results for a
reduced item version of the EIS, they suggest further validation work is needed.
Anupama Shrivastava and Anjana Mukhopadyay (2009) A study was
conducted by these researchers of Banaras Hindu University Published in journal
of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, January 2009, Vol.35, No.1, 99-105
under the topic “Alienation and Emotional Intelligence of Adolescents with
Internalising Symptoms”. The study has assessed the level of alienation and
emotional intelligence of emotional adolescents with Internalizing symptoms.
Multi-dimensional Assessment of personality (form-t) test was used as screening
tool in the first phase. Total 510 adolescents in the age group of 14-18 years
studying in various schools of Varanasi were screened for internalizing
symptoms. Those who scored above the cut – off point were identified as the
“affected group” having internalizing symptoms showing more than 6 symptoms,
the sample showing 4-5 symptoms as “moderate group”, sample showing 1-2
symptoms as “mild group” and adolescents without internalizing symptoms
were identified as “normal group”. Students Alienation scale and Mangal
emotional intelligence Inventory were than administered on all the four groups
each having 15 subjects for the final study. The result obtained revealed that the
affected group is significantly alienated and emotionally immature in awareness
and management compared to their comparative normal group.
a) Emotions have different aspects or components, viz., neuron-
physiological expressive, and experiential;
b) An artificially –induced physiological arousal does not allow one to
experience emotion, and Bhatia (1954) and Lehman (1959) reported that
rural subjects scored lower than urban subjects in intelligence.
c) Emotions are discrete in nature, and the qualitatively different emotions
have unique motivational properties;
d) The transmission of sympathetic arousal is much slower than the process
of experiencing emotion.
Shobha Nandwana and Kushagra Joshi (2010) A study was conducted
by Shobha Nandwana and Kushagra joshi Department of human Development and
Family Studies, College of Home Science, Maharanaa Partap University of
Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur on the topic “Assessment of Emotional
Intelligence of Tribal Adolescents of Udaipur”. The study was conducted on 60
tribal adolescents (30 boys and 30 girls) of 16 – 18 years studying in senior
secondary school of purposively selected “Tidi” village of Udaipur. The level of
emotional intelligence of the tribal adolescents was assessed by administering a
standardized emotional intelligence inventory – MEII (2004) by S.K.Mangal and
Shubhra Mangal. Percentages were calculated to draw inferences and t – test was
applied to assess the impact of gender on emotional intelligence of tribal
adolescents. From the results of the present study, it could be concluded that the
more emotionally intelligence an adolescent is, more easily he bears the
turmoil’s and pressures of this age group. The socio cultural, economic and
educational variables of tribal population operate as a limiting factor for
adolescents to be emotionally intelligent. Thus, to bring this culturally and
socially isolated population into the mainstream which is a need for national
integration their emotional intelligence needs to be enhanced.
Madhavi S. Waddar and Vijayalaxmi A. Aminabhavi (2010) the
present study aimed at investigating whether PG student staying at home and
hostel do difference significantly from each other in some of the important
personality variables such as self-efficacy and emotional intelligence? The study
was conducted on a sample of 200 PG students, out of which 100 students
staying at home and 100 PG students staying at hostel. Both groups (consisting of
50 female and 50 male students) are selected from different department of
Karanatak University Dhawad. General self-efficacy scale by Brackett and Rivers
were used to collect the data. The data were analyzed and the results revealed
that PG students staying at home have significantly higher self-efficacy and over
all emotional intelligence compared to hostilities. An incidental analysis also
revealed that demographic variables such as age, gender, order of birth, and
caste have significantly contributed to the self-efficacy and emotional
intelligence of PG students staying at home and hostel.
Andrew M. Lane, Tracey J. Devonport, et. al. (2010) this study
investigated relationship between self-reports measures of emotional
intelligence and memories of pre-competitive emotion before optimal and
dysfunctional athletic performance. Participant-athletes (n = 284 completed a
self-report measure of emotional intelligence and two measures of pre-
competitive emotions; a) emotions experienced before an optimal performance,
and b) emotions experienced before a dysfunctional performance, Consistent
with theoretical predictions, reported MANOVA results demonstrated pleasant
emotions associated with optimal performance and unpleasant emotions
associated with dysfunctional performance. Emotional intelligence correlated
with pleasant emotions in both performances with individuals reporting low
scores on the self-report emotional intelligence scale appearing to experience
intense unpleasant emotions before dysfunctional performance. We suggest that
future research should investigate relationships between emotional intelligence
and emotion-regulation strategies used by athletes.
Mallika Dasgupta (2010) emotional intelligence is considered to be a
very powerful tool to an employee to manage relationship and achieve success at
work. The study explored its relation to some of the important psychological
variables in order to assess what exactly makes this component so useful indeed.
The psychosocial variables included in the study were quality of work in life,
work-family role conflict and perceived happiness of female I T professionals.
The variables were assessed through the following questionnaire – (i) A measure
of emotional Intelligence, developed by Schutte et. al. 1997, (ii) Quality of life
Scale and family – work Conflict Scale developed by Dasgupta and Pal , (iii) work-
family conflict scale and family – work conflict scale developed by Netemeyer et.
al. 1996 and (iv) Subjective Happiness scale developed by Lyubomirsky and
Leeper, 1997. Purposive sampling was used in the study and correlation design
was followed. The sample consisted of 30 female I T professionals of Kolkata. The
findings were encouraged as emotional intelligence had been found to bear
significant relationships with all others variables. It was positively correlated
with quality of work – life and Happiness, indicating that it contributes toward
achieving higher quality of work – life and greater perceived Happiness and was
negatively correlated with both the domain of work – family role conflict,
indicating that emotional intelligence tones down the perception of role conflict,
and there by reduced the stress produced by it. The implication of the study is
far-reaching, as it suggests +an important tool to HR professionals to developing
to deal with some of the very important variables like stress discontentment,
quality of work life and work-family life balance. It may be assumed with fair
amount of certainty that developing individual and group emotional intelligence
among employees through training would prove to be much less expensive than
dealing with all these problems in isolation.
Teresa Fonseca (2011) the physical capabilities and tactics of basketball
players are, currently very similar, and besides their psychological skills, also
their emotional state is crucial to the respective performance. Indeed, the sport
practice emotional state and in the heat of competition can favour both the
players or hurt them, since they may prescribe the expertise of their sports
practices. In this context, we carried out a study with a sample of 32 young
female studying the perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) in their three
dimensions (attention to emotions, clarity of feelings and repair of emotional
state). The PEI was assessed with the trait Meta-Mood scale (TMMS-24; salovey
statistically significant in women’s team in all aspect of the PEI, but in men’s
team.
Baljinder Singh Bal, Kanwalijeet Singh, et, al. (2011) the purpose of
this study was to determine if there are cognitive psychological factore used in
competition and training which differentiate athletes participating in an open
and closed skill sport. In addition, factors discriminating successful participants
in the sport of football and the closed skill sport of gymnastics were identified. A
total of 40 inter-varsity athletes (n=20; footballers) from open-skill and (n=20;
gymnasts) from closed-skill sports completed the emotional intelligence
questionnaire (EIQ 16). The EIQ 16 measures 16 emotional competencies
covering the ability to accurately perceive emotions in one-self and others. Use
emotions to facilitate thinking, understand emotional meanings, and manage
emotions. Student’s t-test for independent data was used to assess the between
group differences. The level of p<0.05 was considered significant. The results
revealed significant difference in self-analysis (p= 0.0004), analysis of others
(p=0.0137), self-expression (p = 0.0274), thinking (p = 0.0189), judgment (p =
0.0010), problem solving 9p = 0.0562) and others (p = 0.0490), (p < 0.05) among
open-skill and closed-skill athletes. Results further indicated no significant
difference in the in-discrimination (p = 0.17890), sensitivity (p = 0.0761),
symptoms (p = 0.2617), outcomes (p = 0.0770) and monitoring (p = 0.02258) (p
> 0.05). in conclusion, emotional intelligence is an important construct in the
sports domain (Meyer and Fletcher, 2007). Accordingly, interest in emotional
intelligence has increased specifically in the realm of athletics (Zizi et. el., 2003).
Proponents have claimed that emotional intelligence can enhance leadership
performance, team cohesion, and coping with pressure.
Kurt , Darryn Lifson, Tim Noakes (2012) numerous article have been
published regarding the link between emotional intelligence (EI) and leadership
in the business domains [ 1-4]. Yet there is a paucity of research in the domain of
EI and leadership in sport. The purpose of this study was to investigate if there
was a similarity between the EI of elite business executives and elite sports team
coaches. A further aim was to investigate it EI can be used as a measure to
differentiate between an elite and average group of leaders in the sports and
business environments. We approached this study by selecting a self-report
measure of EI, (The Trait emotional intelligence questionnaire) and a sample
group of thirty eight (38) candidates consisting of elite coaches, elite executives,
and average executives. The sample group completed the questionnaire
anonymously allowing the quantitative data to be gathered and analysed.
Examination revealed that there is a similarity between the EI of elite coaches
and executives, and between elite and average executives. Minor differences
were noted between the elite average coaches. The results indicate that are
transparencies between the two environments and that the sports team leaders
are similar to business leaders. However, caution needs to be taken when
determining if EI can used as an indicator to differentiate between elite and
average leaders.
OVERVIEW
Review of related studies implies locating, reporting and evaluation
reports of research as well as report of casual observations and opinions that are
related to the individual planned research project. It gives an understanding of
previous work that has been done. It enables him to know the means to the
frontier in the field of a problem. Until we have learnt what others have done and
what still remains to be done in one area, we cannot be move forward. The
review provides us with an opportunity of gaining insight into the methods,
measures, subjects and approaches employed by other research workers. The
review of related studies in any filed from the foundation upon which all future
work will be built.
Investigator has also attempted to study the anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among the team and individual sports men representing
Himachal Pradesh University Shimla. Some study revealed that overall anxiety,
aggression and emotional intelligence level was directly proportional to the level
of coaching and performance. Another study reported that anxiety, aggression
and emotional intelligence were correlated with depersonalization component of
sports psychology. Great deal of research has shown that there is a close
association between anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence with
coaching and performance. A perusal of literature makes it amply clear that role
of anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence among team and individual
events has not been adequately investigated in the Indian setting. Even western
research the area considered have single variable. In India very few studies has
been conducted by the researcher on the variables of anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among team and individual events. But in Himachal
Pradesh at inter-university there not been the study of such kind on the
variables. The present study can be seen as integrated in the light of the available
evidence.
Although previous studies paid have less attention to investigate the role
of anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence among team and individual
events. This component has been widely observed like authors/authorities
Elizur and Beck (1994).Devires and Steven (1999) Dr. Nivedita Gupta
(2009) etc.
Anxieties, aggressive and emotional intelligence in sports have been
investigated by many scholars from different fields of behavioural science.
Keeping in view the determining role of anxieties, aggressive and emotional
behaviour in competitive performance, the investigator decided to undertake
this study at the inter-university level team events and individual events. The
investigator is of the opinion that such a study would not only reveal the
phenomenon of anxiety, aggression and emotional Intelligence, but also enable
us to make overall assessments of inter-university level team and individual
events with respect to variables like anxieties, aggressive and emotional.
CHAPTER 3
PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY
This study has been under taken to assess and evaluate Anxiety,
Aggression and Emotional intelligence among the male players belonging to
team and individual sports events. For this purpose, the procedure adopted for
selection of subjects, Selection of variables, selection of test, description of tests,
administration of questionnaire, collection of data, method of scoring and
“statistical design utilized has been described in this chapter.
3.1 SAMPLING
The samples for the present study included all male sportsmen who were
selected to represent the Himachal Pradesh University Shimla in inter-university
level tournaments in randomly various selected team and individual sports
events.
For this purpose first of all two groups were selected.
1). Team events
2). Individual events.
Total Samples=86
↓
Team events (Male) Individual events (Male)
↓ ↓
43 43
3.2 DATA OF THE TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL EVENTS
The data were collected by the researcher himself with the help of
coaches related to the games and camps. The data were collected from the
various camps of team and individual sports events representing Himachal
Pradesh University, session 2010-11.Fourty three (43) subjects from team and
forty three (43) subjects from individual sports events were selected as subjects
for the data. Questionnaires were distributed among them and they filled it. Data
were collected carefully and honestly. There was no time bound to fill up the
questionnaire. List of the events and camps are as follows:
3.1: Table of the Team Events
Sr.
No.
Name of games Place of the camps Dated Subjects
1 Kabaddi P.G.C.Bilaspur 27-12-10 12
2 Cricket M.L.S.N.C.S/Nager 4/12/2010 16
3 Hockey M.L.S.N.C.S/Nager 22-12-10 15
Total = 43
3.2 : Table of the Individual Events
Sr.
No.
Name of games Place of the camps Dated Subjects
1 Boxing I.G.S.C.Shimla 19-12-10 12
2 Judo P.G.C.Hamirpur 3/12/2010 7
3 Athletics P.G.C.Hamirpur 24-12-10 15
4 Cross country G.C.Nalagarh 18-12-10 9
Total= 43
3.3 SELECTION OF VARIABLES
Three psychological variables and four sub variables has been selected as
variables for the present study. The variables are as follows:
1. Anxiety
2. Aggression
3. Emotional intelligence
a). Intra personal awareness (own emotions)
b). Intra personal awareness (others emotions)
c). Intra personal management (own emotions)
d). Intra personal managements (others emotions)
3.4 TOOLS USED
The following tool was used to investigate the variables selected for the
present study:
1). To measure the anxiety test (SCAT) constructed by the A.K.P.Sinha and
L.N.K.Sinha (1980) was administered.
2). To measure the aggression level the aggression scale constructed by
Roma pal and Tasneem Naqvi (1980) was administered.
3). To measure the emotional intelligence, the emotional intelligence
inventory constructed by Dr.S.K.Mangal and Dr.Subhra Mangal. (1971)
was administered.
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF TEST
Anxiety
To measure anxiety and to achieve the objectives of the study, anxiety test
constructed by A.K.P.Sinha and L.N.K.Sinha was administered. The test consists
90 statements related to the personality of an individual which they answered by
making a HCK mark (x) to the yes and no. It should be emphasized that there is
no right or wrong responses to statements. They are designed to study
individual‘s reactions to different situations.
a. It should be pointed out that each item has to be responded in either
positive or negative terms .i.e. yes or no. No statement should be left out
b. It is undesirable to tell the tester about aim of the test.
c. The instructions printed on the test form, should be made clear by the
administrator to the tester.
d. No time limit is fixed for completing the test. However, usually an
individual takes 15 to 20 minutes in completing the test form.
“Specimen copy of the anxiety questionnaire is given in Appendix”.
i). Reliability
The reliability of the anxiety test (SCAT) was found 0.92.
ii). Validity
The coefficient of validity was determined by computing the coefficient
between score on comprehensive anxiety test and on Taylor’s manifest anxiety
scale. It was .62, which is significant beyond .001 level of confidence.
3.6 METHOD OF SCORING
The procedure for scoring anxiety test was as follows:-
Scoring was done according to key in the respective manual of the tool.
The individual score of subject the statements were totalled to arrive at the score
of subjects. The subjects were already classified earlier.
The data of the both groups were gathered according to the game.
Scoring
For each item one of two was possible:
i). Yes
ii). No
All items were scored accordingly to the following key by hand accurately.
For any response indicated as ‘yes’, the tested should be awarded the
score of one and zero for ‘no’. The sum of the entire positive, (yes) response
would be the total anxiety score of the individual.
i). Yes – 1
ii). No – 0
3.7 CLASSIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF SCORES
All the score were totalled individually of all the subjects. The individual
score was classified according to the range of score as follow:
3.3 : Table of the Classification and Interpretation of Scores
Sr. No. Scores Interpretation
1 69-42-35-30 Extremely high anxiety
2 28-29 High anxiety
3 23-20-17 Normal anxiety level
4 15-14 Low anxiety
5 12-8-3 Extremely low anxiety
3.8 DESCRIPTION OF TEST
AGGRESSION
To measure aggression to achieve the objective of the present study,
aggression scale constructed by Roma Pal and Tasneem Naqavi (1980) was
administered. The test consist 30 statements related to the personality of an
individual which they answered by marking a HCK mark (√) corresponding to
the ‘very much’, ‘much’, ‘ordinary’, ‘less’, ‘very less’, and not at all. Thus, each item
had five alternate answers graded on five point scale on the positive dimension
and a zero point on the negative dimension. All the statements of this scale were
matter of behaviour in daily life. All the items were scored to yield aggression
measure. “Specimen copy of the aggression questionnaire is given in Appendix”.
i). Reliability
The reliability of the aggression scale was found .78.
ii). The validity
The validity of the aggression scale was developed by Roma pal and
Tasneem Naqavi (1980). The validity coefficient was also found .78.
3.9 METHOD OF SCORING
The procedure for scoring aggression scale was as follow:
Scoring was done according to the key in the respective manual of the
tool. The individual score of all the statements were totalled to arrive at the score
subjects. The subjects were classified in to the groups which were already
classified earlier.
The data of both groups were gathered according to the game.
The procedure for scoring aggression scale was as follow:
For each item one of six responses was possible:
i). Very much
ii). Much
iii). Ordinary
iv). Less
v). Very less
vi). Not at all
All the items were scored accordingly to the following key:
5 = very much
4 = much
3 = ordinary
2 = less
1 = very less
0 = Not at all
The range of scores of aggression scale varies in between 0 to 150.
3.10 INTERPRETATIONS OF SCORES AND CLASSIFICATION
All the scores were totalled individually of all the subjects. The
individually score was classified according to the range of scores as follow:
3.4: Table of the Scores and Classification
Sr. No Range of scores Interpretation
1. 107 and above The saturated
2. 90 -106 The high
3. 61 – 89 The average
4. 46 – 60 The low
5. 45 and below The clean
3.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST
Emotional Intelligence Inventory
To achieve the objectives of the present study the Mangal emotional
intelligence inventory constructed by Dr. Shubhra Mangal and Dr.S.K. Mangal
was used. Emotional intelligence inventory has been designed for measurement
of emotional intelligence (total as well as separately) in respect of four areas
intra-personal awareness (knowing one’s own emotions), inter-personal
awareness (knowing about other’s emotion), intra-personal management
(managing one’s own emotions), inter-personal management (managing other’s
emotion’s) respectively.
i). Reliability
The reliability of the Mangal emotional intelligence inventory was found 0.92.
ii). Validity
The validity of the Mangal emotional intelligence inventory developed by
Dr.S.K.Mangal and Dr. Shubhra Mangal has been established by adopting two
different approaches namely factorial and criterion related approach.
3.12 FACTORIAL APPROACH
For adopting factorial approach inter-correlations among the four areas
of the inventory were calculated.
The derived correlation matrix is presented in the table:-
3.5: Table of the Correlation Matrix of the four Areas of the Inventory
(N=600-300 males and 300 females)
3.13 CRITERION RELATED APPROACH
The validity coefficients (The product movement correlation coefficients
obtained between total scores on emotional intelligence inventory and
adjustment inventory as well as emotional maturity scale) of trained through
these two measures have been given in the table. 3. 6.
3.6: Table Criterion Related Approach
Adjustment inventory for college students
(N=400)
Validity coefficients
-0.662 Emotional maturity scale (N=400) -0.613
3.14 METHOD OF SCORING
The procedure for scoring emotional intelligence was as follow:-
Scoring was done according to the key in the respective manual of tool.
The individual score of all the statements were totalled to arrive at the two
groups which were given already.
The data of both groups were gathered according to the game.
Intra.P.
Aw.
Own.
Emotion
Inter.P.
Aw.
Other’s
Emotion
Intra.P.
Mang.
Own.
Emotion
Inter.P.Mang.
Other’s Emotion
Intra P.A.Own.E - .716 .501 .437
Inter P.A.Oth.E. .716 - .452 .480
Intra P.M.Own.E. .501 .452 - .476
Inter P.E M.Oth. .437 .480 .476 -
SCORING
The procedure for scoring Mangal emotional intelligence inventory was
as follow:
For each item one of two responses was possible:-
i) Yes
ii) No
All items were scored accordingly to the following Key.
Key
3.7: Table of the Classification of the Scores
Scoring scheme of Emotional intelligence
inventory
Mode of
response
Score
Sr.No. of items (where ‘yes’ response show’s presence of intelligence)
6,18,19,20,23to25,27to29,31,41to44,51to56, 58to68,70,71,73to76,79to82,84,88to90,96,99.
‘Yes’.
No.
1
0
Sr.No. of the items (where ‘no’ response show presence of intelligence)
1to5,7to17,21,22,26,30,32to40,45to50,57,69, 72,77,78,83,85to87,91to95,97,98,100.
‘No’.
Yes
1
0
The range of score of emotional intelligence inventory varies in between 0 to 100.
3.15 INTERPRETATION OF SCORES AND CLASSIFICATION
For a rough estimation and quick interpretation of the emotional
intelligence score earned by an individual student attempts were also made for
providing a fivefold categorization. It was done by dividing the base line of the
normal curve in to five equal units being equal to – table- present the
classification of emotional intelligence with regard to the total score. The mean
and standard deviations of the population upon which these norms are based
already given in the table number 3.8.
3.8 : Table of the Classification of Emotional Intelligence Inventory
in Terms Categorises
3.16 SCORING PROCEDURE
Scoring can be done by hand with the help of stencil. The mode of
response to each of the items of the inventory is in the form of a forced choice i.e.
either yes or no, indicating complete agreement or disagreement with the
proposed statement respectively. In the present emotional intelligence inventory
thus there are item where the response ‘yes’ is indicative of the presence of
emotional intelligence and ‘no’ for lack of emotional intelligence. Similarly there
are items where ‘no’ response provide clue for the presence of emotional
intelligence and ‘yes’ for its absence.
For scoring ‘one’ marks in to be provided for the response indicating
presence of emotional intelligence and ‘zero’ for the absence of emotional
intelligence
CATEGORIES DESCRIPTION RANGE OF SCORES
A Very good 90 and above
B Good 77 to 89
C Average 63 to 76
D Poor 49 to 62
E Very poor 48 and below
3.9: Table of the Classification of Emotional Intelligence Inventory in Terms
of Categories in four Areas
√ The list of the responses to the items indicative of the presence ‘or’
absence of emotional intelligence is provided here in table 3.7.
3.17 ADMINISTRATION
The test was administrated by the research himself with the help of team
coaches’ of the related events. The players selected for the sample were made to
sit in one place where the above mentioned tool was distributed. Students were
guided to fill up the questionnaire as per applicability.
Area Description Range of score
Intra personal awareness Own emotion.
A B C D E
Very good Good Average Poor Very poor
23 , above 20-22 15-19 1014 9,below
Inter personal awareness Other’s emotion.
A B C D E
Very good Good Average Poor Very poor
25, above 20-24 14-19 9-13 8, below
Intra personal management Own management
A B C D E
Very good Good Average Poor Very Poor
25, above 21-24 15-20 11-14 10, below
Inter personal management Other’s emotion
A B C D E
Very good Good Average Poor Very poor
24, above 20-23 15-19 11-14 10, below
3.18 TABULATION OF DATA
After scoring, the data was tabulated for anxiety, aggression and
emotional at intelligence proneness score. The score were obtained by the T-test.
3.19 STATISTICAL TECHNIQUE USED
The investigator has employed ‘t’ test.
1). The data pertaining to Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
were analysed for the two groups of sportsmen on the basis of given
respective manual.
2). Significant difference in Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
towards physical activity and two groups of sportsmen were determined
through ‘t’ test.
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The objectives of the present study were to study and compare the level
of anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence among team and individual
sportsmen. To achieve this objective, a sample of 86 sportsmen was taken out of
these 43 belongs to team sports and 43 belongs to individual sports.
The data on the selective variables was calculated using appropriate tools
as described in chapter 3. The data thus obtained on the three variables was
tabulated separately for two groups of sportsmen and was analysed in the
manners described below.
4.1 COMPARISON OF SPORTSMEN REPRESENTING UNIVERSITY
IN TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL EVENTS ON DIFFERENT VARIABLES USING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND
GRAPHS
One of the objectives of the present study was to study the nature of
distributions of scores for sportsmen representing university in team and
individual events on the variables of anxiety, aggression and emotional
intelligence. For this purpose, the use of frequency distributions and graphs was
made which is given as under.
4-1.1 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Anxiety among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Anxiety among sportsmen
representing university in team events is given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Anxiety among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent
0-4 4 9.3 9.3
5-9 4 9.3 18.6
10-14 4 9.3 27.9
15-19 11 25.6 53.5
20-24 6 14.0 67.4
25-29 6 14.0 81.4
30-34 6 14.0 95.3
35-39 2 4.7 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 19.16 Standard Deviation = 9.68
Kurtosis = -0.75 Skewness = 0.3
Minimum = 2 Maximum = 38
It is evident from table 4.1 that the scores on Anxiety for the sportsmen
representing university in team events are spread over a range of 36, minimum
and maximum being 2 and 38.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Anxiety came out to be
19.16 and 9.68 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.75 and 0.3 respectively.
Table 4.1 further reveals that 17 (39.6%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 15 to 24. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of anxiety as under.
Table 4.2: Classification of Anxiety Scale
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 8
2 High Anxiety 7
3 Normal Anxiety Level 14
4 Low Anxiety 4
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
Figure 4.1: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Anxiety among Sportsmen
representing university in Team Events
Figure 4.2: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Anxiety among Sportsmen
representing university in Team Events
4 4 4
11
6 6 6
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
4 4 4
11
6 6 6
2
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
-05--01 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.2 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Anxiety among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Anxiety among sportsmen
representing university in Individual events is given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Table Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Anxiety among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
0-4 3 7.0 7.0
5-9 5 11.6 18.6
10-14 4 9.3 27.9
15-19 5 11.6 39.5
20-24 8 18.6 58.1
25-29 4 9.3 67.4
30-34 3 7.0 74.4
35-39 4 9.3 83.7
40-44 3 7.0 90.7
45-49 1 2.3 93.0
50-54 2 4.7 97.7
55-59 0 0 0
60-64 1 2.3 100.0
Total 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 24.26 Standard Deviation = 14.41
Kurtosis = -0.22 Skewness = 0.53
Minimum = 2 Maximum = 61
It is evident from table 4.3 that the scores on anxiety for the sportsmen
representing university in individual events are spread over a range of 59,
minimum and maximum being 2 and 61.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Anxiety came out to
be 24.26 and 14.41 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.22 and 0.53 respectively.
Table 4.3 further reveals that the scores on anxiety among sportsmen
representing university in individual events are not concentrated over a specific
scores range. Rather the scores are more or less evenly distributed in all the class
intervals.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basis of anxiety as under.
Table 4.4: Classification of Anxiety Scale
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 14
2 High Anxiety 5
3 Normal Anxiety Level 12
4 Low Anxiety 2
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
Figure 4.3: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Anxiety among Sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events
Figure 4.4: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Anxiety among Sportsmen
Participating in Individual Events
3
5
4
5
8
4
3
4
3
1
2
0
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
3
5
4
5
8
4
3
4
3
1
2
0
1
00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.3 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Aggression
among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Aggression among
sportsmen representing university in team events is given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Aggression among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
45-49 1 2.3 2.3
50-54 2 4.7 7.0
55-59 4 9.3 16.3
60-64 3 7.0 23.3
65-69 2 4.7 27.9
70-74 11 25.6 53.5
75-79 11 25.6 79.1
80-84 5 11.6 90.7
85-89 3 7.0 97.7
90-94 0 0 0
95-99 1 2.3 100
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 72.16 Standard Deviation = 10.62
Kurtosis = -0.21 Skewness = 0.3
Minimum = 49 Maximum = 95
It is evident from the table 4.5 that the scores on Aggression for the
sportsmen representing university in team events are spread over a range of 46,
minimum and maximum being 49 and 95.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Aggression came out
to be 72.16 and 10.62 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.21 and 0.3 respectively.
Table 4.5 further reveals that 22 (51.2%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 70 to 79. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of aggression as under.
Table 4.6 Classification of Aggression Scale
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 0
2 The High 1
3 The Average Level 35
4 The Low 7
5 The Clean 0
Total 43
Figure 4.5: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Aggression among Sportsmen
representing university in Team Events
Figure 4.6: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Aggression among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
1
2
4
3
2
11 11
5
3
0
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1
2
4
3
2
11 11
5
3
0
1
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.4 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Aggression
among Sportsmen representing university in Individual
Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Aggression among
sportsmen representing university in individual events is given in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Aggression among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
20-24 1 2.3 2.3 25-29 0 0 0
30-34 0 0 0
35-39 0 0 0
40-44 0 0 0
45-49 1 2.3 4.7
50-54 2 4.7 9.3
55-59 4 9.3 18.6
60-64 2 4.7 23.3
65-69 3 7.0 30.2
70-74 2 4.7 34.9
75-79 7 16.3 51.2
80-84 7 16.3 67.4
85-89 5 11.6 79.1
90-94 3 7.0 86.0
95-99 2 4.7 90.7
100-104 1 2.3 93.0
105-109 1 2.3 95.3
110-114 1 2.3 97.7
115-119 1 2.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 77.44 Standard Deviation = 17.96
Kurtosis = 1.1 Skewness = -0.45
Minimum = 23 Maximum = 115
It is evident from the table 4.7 that the scores on Aggression for the
sportsmen representing university university in Individual events are spread
over a range of 92, minimum and maximum being 23 and 115.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Aggression came out
to be 77.44 and 17.96 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 1.1 and -0.45 respectively.
Table 4.7 further reveals that 19 (44.2%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 75 to 89. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basis of aggression as under.
Table 4.8 Classification of Aggression Scale
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 3
2 The High 6
3 The Average Level 25
4 The Low 8
5 The Clean 1
Total 43
Figure 4.7: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Aggression among Sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events
Figure 4.8: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Aggression among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
1
0 0 0 0
1
2
4
2
3
2
7 7
5
3
2
1 1 1 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95-99
100-104
105-109
110-114
115-119
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1
0 0 0 0
1
2
4
2
3
2
7 7
5
3
2
1 1 1 1
00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-94
95-99
100-104
105-109
110-114
115-119
120-124
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.5 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university
in Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Intra-Personal Awareness
(own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in team events is given in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Team-Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
0-4 1 2.3 2.3
5-9 1 2.3 4.7
10-14 20 46.5 51.2
15-19 19 44.2 95.3
20-24 2 4.7 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 14.07 Standard Deviation = 3.78
Kurtosis = -0.29 Skewness = -0.28
Minimum = 4 Maximum = 21
It is evident from the table 4.9 that the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence for the
sportsmen representing university in team events are spread over a range of 17,
minimum and maximum being 4 and 21.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out to be
14.07 and 3.78 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.29 and -0.28 respectively.
Table 4.9 further reveals that 39 (90.7%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.10 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Intra-Personal Awareness( Own
Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 2
3 Average Level 19
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
Figure 4.9: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Intra-personal Awareness (own
Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in Team
Figure 4.10: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Intra-personal Awareness
(own Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
1 1
20
19
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1 1
20
19
2
00
5
10
15
20
25
-05--01 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.6 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Intra-Personal Awareness
(own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in individual events is given in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
5-9 2 4.7 4.7
10-14 7 16.3 20.9
15-19 24 55.8 76.7
20-24 10 23.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 16.60 Standard Deviation = 3.39
Kurtosis = -0.37 Skewness = -0.32
Minimum = 7 Maximum = 20
It is evident from the table 4.11 that the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence for the
sportsmen representing university in individual events is spread over a range of
13, minimum and maximum being 7 and 20.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out to be
16.60 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.37 and -0.32 respectively.
Table 4.11 further reveals that 24(55.8%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basses of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.12 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Intra-Personal Awareness (Own
Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 1
2 Good 9
3 Average Level 24
4 Poor 7
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
Figure 4.11: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Intra-Personal Awareness (own
Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
Figure 4.12: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness own Emotion among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
2
7
24
10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
2
7
24
10
00
5
10
15
20
25
30
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.7 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence, among Sportsmen representing university
in Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Inter-Personal Awareness
(others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in team events is given in Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
5-9 9 20.9 20.9
10-14 16 37.2 58.1
15-19 17 39.5 97.7
20-24 1 2.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 13.2 Standard Deviation = 4.9
Kurtosis = -1.7 Skewness = -0.19
Minimum = 5 Maximum = 20
It is evident from the table 4.13 that the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence for the
sportsmen representing university in team events are spread over a range of 15,
minimum and maximum being 5 and 20.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out to
be 13.2 and 4.9 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -1.7 and -0.19 respectively.
Table 4.13 further reveals that 33(76.7%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.14 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Inter-Personal Awareness (Others
Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 20
4 Poor 14
5 Very Poor 8
Total 43
Figure 4.13: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Inter-personal Awareness
(others emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in Team
Events
Figure 4.14: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Inter-personal Awareness
others Emotion among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
9
16
17
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
9
16
17
1
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.8 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence, among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Inter-Personal Awareness
(others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in individual events is given in Table 4.15.
Table 4.15: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
5-9 2 4.7 4.7
10.14 18 41.9 46.5
15-19 19 44.2 90.7
20-24 4 9.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 15.00 Standard Deviation = 3.39
Kurtosis = -0.37 Skewness = -0.32
Minimum = 7 Maximum = 20
It is evident from the table 4.15 that the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence for the
sportsmen representing university in individual events are spread over a range
of 13, minimum and maximum being 7 and 20.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out to
be 15.00 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.37 and -0.32 respectively.
Table 4.15 further reveals that 37(86.1%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basis of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.16 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Inter-Personal Awareness (Others
Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 16
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
Figure 4.15: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Inter-Personal Awareness
(others Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in Individual
Events
Figure 4.16: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
2
18
19
4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
2
18
19
4
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.9 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own emotions) component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Intra-Personal management
(own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in team events is given in Table 4.17.
Table 4.17: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
0-4 1 2.3 2.3
5-9 4 9.3 11.6
10-14 16 37.2 48.8
15-19 16 37.2 74.4
20-24 6 14.0 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 14.26 Standard Deviation = 4.27
Kurtosis = -0 .5 Skewness = -0.36
Minimum = 3 Maximum = 21
It is evident from the table 4.17 that the scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events are spread over a range of 18,
minimum and maximum being 3 and 21.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
management (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out
to be 14.26 and 4.27 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.51 and -0.36 respectively.
Table 4.17 further reveals that 32(74.4%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.18 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group I.P.M. Own Emotions No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 9
5 Very Poor 12
Total 43
Figure 4.17: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Intra-Personal Management
(own Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in team Events
Figure 4.18: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Intra-personal
Management (own Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events
1
4
16 16
6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1
4
16 16
6
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
-05--01 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.10 Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own emotions) component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university
in Individual Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Intra-Personal management
(own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in individual events is given in Table 4.19.
Table 4.19: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
10-14 4 9.3 9.3
15-19 22 51.2 60.5
20-24 17 39.5 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 18.51 Standard Deviation = 3.00
Kurtosis = 0.12 Skewness = -0.52
Minimum = 10 Maximum = 23
It is evident from the table 4.19 that the scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events are spread over a range
of 13, minimum and maximum being 10 and 23.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
management (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out to
be 18.51 and 3.00 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 0.12 and -0.52 respectively.
Table 4.19 further reveals that 22(51.2%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basis of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of
emotional intelligence as under.
Table 4.20 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Intra-personal Management.
(Own Emotions).
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 11
3 Average Level 28
4 Poor 3
5 Very Poor 1
Total 43
Figure 4.19: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Intra-Personal Management
(own Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in Individual
Events
Figure 4.20: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Intra-Personal
Management (own Emotion) among Sports representing university in
Individual Events
4
22
17
0
5
10
15
20
25
10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
4
22
17
00
5
10
15
20
25
5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.11Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others emotions) component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Inter-Personal management
(others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in team events is given in Table 4.21.
Table 4.21: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence
among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
0-4 1 2.3 2.3
5-9 9 20.9 23.3
10-14 18 41.9 65.1
15-19 14 32.6 97.7
20-24 1 2.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 12.72 Standard Deviation = 3.95
Kurtosis = -0.43 Skewness = -0.69
Minimum = 4 Maximum = 21
It is evident from the table 4.21 that the scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Team Events are spread over a range of 17,
minimum and maximum being 4 and 21.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
management (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out
to be 12.72 and 3.95 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 0.43 and -0.69 respectively.
Table 4.21 further reveals that 32(74.5%) sportsmen fall between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed
below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basis of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Table 4.22 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Inter-Personal Management
(Others Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 14
4 Poor 17
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
Figure 4.21: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Inter-Personal Management
(others Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in Team
Events
Figure 4.22: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Inter-personal
Management (others Emotion) among sportsmen representing university
Team-Sports.
1
9
18
14
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1
9
18
14
1
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-05--01 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.12Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others emotions) component of Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Inter-Personal management
(others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence, among sportsmen
representing university in individual events is given in Table 4.23.
Table 4.23: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others Emotions) among Sportsmen representing university
in Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
5-9 2 4.7 4.7
10-14 20 46.5 51.2
15-19 21 48.8 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 14.49 Standard Deviation = 2.58
Kurtosis = 0.50 Skewness = 0.66
Minimum = 7 Maximum = 19
It is evident from the table 4.23 that the scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence among
Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events are spread over a range
of 12, minimum and maximum being 7 and 19
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
management (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came out
to be 14.49 and 2.58 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 0.50 and 0.66 respectively.
Table 4.23 further reveals that 41(95.3%) sportsmen fall in the scores 10
to 19. The rest of the sportsmen are less evenly distributed below this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basis of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of
emotional intelligence as under.
Table 4.24 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Inter-Personal Management
(Others Emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
Figure 4.23: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Inter-Personal Management
(others Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in Individual
Events
Figure 4.24: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Inter-Personal
Management (others Emotion) among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
2
2021
0
5
10
15
20
25
5-9 10-14 15-19
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
2
2021
00
5
10
15
20
25
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4-1.13Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Total Emotional Intelligence
among sportsmen representing university in team events is given in Table 4.25.
Table 4.25: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
25-29 1 2.3 2.3
30-34 4 9.3 11.6
35-39 3 7.0 18.6
40-44 2 4.7 23.3
45-49 1 2.3 25.6
50-54 5 11.6 37.2
55-59 10 23.3 60.5
60-64 6 14.0 74.4
65-69 8 18.6 93.0
70-74 3 7.0 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 54.30 Standard Deviation = 12.21
Kurtosis = 0.54 Skewness = 0.63
Minimum = 29 Maximum = 74
It is evident from the table 4.25 that the scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events are
spread over a range of 45, minimum and maximum being 29 and 74.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on total Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 54.30 and 12.21 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis
and Skewness for the distribution was 0.54 and 0.63 respectively.
Table 4.25 further reveals that 21(48.9%) sportsmen fall in the scores 50
to 64. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed below and
above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events can be grouped on the
basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Table 4.26 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 12
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
Figure 4.25: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Total Emotional Intelligence
among Sportsmen representing university in Team Event
Figure 4.26: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Team Events
1
4
3
2
1
5
10
6
8
3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
1
4
3
2
1
5
10
6
8
3
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79
Axis
Tit
le
Axis Title
4-1.14Frequency Distribution for the Scores on total emotional
intelligence among sportsmen representing university in
individual events
The frequency distribution for the scores on Total Emotional Intelligence
among sportsmen representing university in individual events is given in Table
4.27.
Table 4.27: Frequency Distribution for the Scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
Class Interval Frequency Percent Cum. Percent.
45-49 2 4.7 4.7
50-54 3 7.0 11.6
55-59 5 11.6 23.3
60-64 12 27.9 51.2
65-69 11 25.6 76.7
70-74 4 9.3 86.0
75-79 5 11.6 97.7
80-84 1 2.3 100.0
Total = 43 100.0 100.0
Mean = 64.68 Standard Deviation = 8.44
Kurtosis = -0.30 Skewness = -0.26
Minimum = 46 Maximum = 80
It is evident from the table 4.27 that the scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events are
spread over a range of 34, minimum and maximum being 46 and 80.
The mean and standard deviation for the scores on total Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 64.68 and 8.44 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and
Skewness for the distribution was -0.30 and -0.26 respectively.
Table 4.27 further reveals that 23(53.5%) sportsmen fall in the scores 60
to 69. The rest of the sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed below and
above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events can be grouped on
the basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Table 4.28 Classification of Emotional Intelligence in Terms of Categories
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 9
4 Poor 28
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
Figure 4.27: Bar Diagram for the Scores on Total Emotional Intelligence
among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
Figure 4.28: Frequency Polygon for the Scores on Total Emotional
Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events
2
3
5
12
11
4
5
1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
0
2
3
5
12
11
4
5
1
00
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89
Fre
qu
en
cy
Scores
4.2 COMPARISON OF SPORTSMEN REPRESENTING UNIVERSITY
IN INDIVIDUAL AND TEAM EVENTS ON DIFFERENT
VARIABLES USING ‘T’-TEST
One of the objectives of the present study was to compare sportsmen
representing university in Individual and Team Events in respect to their means
on the variables of Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional Intelligence. To serve this
purpose, the use of t-test was made. The results of t-test in respects of the three
variables are presented as under.
4-2.1 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on the Variable of Anxiety
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on the
variable of Anxiety is presented in Table 4.29.
Table 4.29: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on the Variable of Anxiety
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 19.16
5.1
9.68 1.48
1.92 Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 24.26 14.41 2.20
Not Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.29 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on the variable of anxiety came out to be 1.92, which is not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing
university in Team and Individual Events do not differ significantly with respect
to their mean scores on anxiety. Hence, the hypothesis that
“Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their mean scores on anxiety” is rejected.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual and Team Events exhibit more or less similar level of anxiety.
4-2.2 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on the Variable of Aggression
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on the
variable of Aggression is presented in Table 4.30.
Table 4.30: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on the Variable of
Aggression
Group N Mean Mean
Diff.
S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 72.16
5.28
10.62 1.62
1.66 Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 77.44 17.97 2.74
Not Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.30 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on the variable of aggression came out to be 1.66, which is not
significant at 0.05 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing
university in Team and Individual Events do not differ significantly with respect
to their mean scores on aggression. Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen
representing university in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with
respect to their mean scores on aggression” is rejected.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual and Team Events exhibit more or less similar level of aggression.
4-2.3 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on “Intra-Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.31.
Table 4.31: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 14.07
2.53
3.78 .58
3.14* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 16.60 3.71 .57
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.31 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Intra-Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 3.14, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Intra-
Personal Awareness (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.31 that the mean score on “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison to their
counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may be
inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.4 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on “Inter-Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.32.
Table 4.32: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing
university in
Team Events
43 13.02
1.98
4.09 .62
2.44* Sportsmen
representing
university in
Individual Events
43 15.00 3.39 .52
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.32 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Inter-Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 2.44, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Inter-
Personal Awareness (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.32 that the mean score on “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.5 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores on
“Intra Personal Management (Own Emotions)” Component
of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Intra-
Personal Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence is
presented in Table 4.33.
Table 4.33: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 14.26
4.25
4.27 .65
5.34* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 18.51 3.00 .46
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.33 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Intra-Personal Management (Own Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 5.34, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen participating in Team and Individual
Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence. Hence, the
hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.33 that the mean score on “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.6 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores on
“Inter-Personal Management (Others Emotions)”
Component of Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on “Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence
is presented in Table 4.34.
Table 4.34: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” Component of Emotional Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 12.72
1.77
3.95 .60
2.45* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 14.49 2.58 .39
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.34 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on “Inter-Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 2.45, which is significant at 0.05 level of
confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on “Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence.
Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen representing university in Team and
Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean scores on Inter-
Personal Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence” is
accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.34 that the mean score on “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” component of Emotional Intelligence for
sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher in comparison
to their counterparts representing university in Team Events. From this, it may
be inferred that sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit
superior emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” is concerned.
4-2.7 Comparison of Sportsmen representing university in Team
and Individual Events with Respect to their Mean Scores
on Total Emotional Intelligence
The t-value along with number, means, mean difference, standard
deviations and standard errors of means for two groups of sportsmen on
Emotional Intelligence is presented in Table 4.35.
Table 4.35: t-Value for Two Groups of Sportsmen on Total Emotional
Intelligence
Group N Mean Mean Diff. S.D. SEM ‘t’
Sportsmen
representing university in
Team Events
43 54.30
10.37
12.21 1.86
4.58* Sportsmen
representing university in
Individual Events
43 64.67 8.45 1.29
* Significant at 0.05 Level
It is evident from Table 4.35 that the t-value for the means of two groups
of sportsmen on Emotional Intelligence came out to be 4.58, which is significant
at 0.01 level of confidence. This indicates that sportsmen representing university
in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with respect to their mean
scores on Emotional Intelligence. Hence, the hypothesis that “Sportsmen
representing university in Team and Individual Events differ significantly with
respect to their mean scores on “Emotional Intelligence” is accepted.
It is revealed from Table 4.35 that the mean score on Emotional
Intelligence for sportsmen representing university in Individual Events is higher
in comparison to their counterparts representing university in Team Events.
From this, it may be inferred that sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events exhibit superior emotional intelligence.
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Present world is scientific world. There is no denying the fact that man
has covered a long journey starting from caves to big sky scrapers man has left
no stone unturned to reach height but as it has been proved that in order to gain
something we have to pay a price for it human being has paid a huge cost for this
development and is still in its way of Dearing the debt. Human beings have lost
their basic values. If we are winners at the materialistic front at the same time
we have lost the battle at the psychological level.
SUMMARY
If people sports are surveyed and asked to identify the characteristics of
successful athletes, anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence would be high
on the list in sports; anxieties, aggressive and emotional behaviour have positive
meaning in popular culture. The successful athlete is often described as one who
is hungry, anxious, aggressive, and emotional, competitor on the other hand.
Teacher often describe trouble making or destructive students as anxious,
aggressive, and emotional. But such behaviour in athletes is demanded by
coaches; it may be discouraged in students and be prohibited by teachers. The
last decade has evidenced renewed interest in the phenomenon of anxieties,
aggressive emotional intelligence in sports. Anxieties, aggressive and emotional
intelligence in sports have been investigated by many scholars from different
fields of behavioural science. Keeping in view the determining role of anxieties,
aggressiveness and emotional behaviour in competitive performance, the
investigator decided to undertake this study at the inter-university level team
events and individual events. The investigator is of the opinion that such a study
would not only reveal the phenomenon of anxiety, aggression and emotional
intelligence but also enable us to make overall assessments of inter-university
level teams and individual events with respect to variables like anxieties,
aggression and emotional intelligence.
To Summarise, Forty three teams and forty three individual events
players of various colleges has been taken the subjects for every variables who
have represented the Himachal Pradesh University in inter-University camps
2010-11.
1. Boxing camp held at Indira Gandhi sports complex Shimla.
2. Judo camp held at P.G.College Hmirpur.
3. Athletics camps held at P.G.College Hmirpur.
4. Cross-country camps held at govt. College Nalagarh.
5. Kabaddi camp held at P.G.College Bilaspur.
6. Cricket camp held at M.L.S.N.College Sunder Nager.
7. Hockey camp held at M.L.S.N.College Sunder Nager
5.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Comparative Study of Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence
among Team and Individual Sportsmen
5.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results of the present study will help to identify anxiety, aggression
and emotional intelligence of sportsman representing university in team and
individual events. This will further help to identify sportsmen who may have
potential to be of high calibre. Competitive sports are full of challenges, so
youngsters taken to competitive sports must display the required psychological
attributes including aggression, anxiety and emotional intelligence to meet the
challenges successfully.
The variables anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence need to be
studied properly, both from the theoretical and practical point of view. The
knowledge about the variables may enable the teacher and coaches to takes
decisions in their work with young players taking part at different levels and
train them in a proper way. The investigation can help the University coaches
who are attached with University camps to find out the talent and how to wide
out them so as to enable them to perform better in future in the teams and
individual games and find out the weakness of the sportsmen who are attending
the coaching camps.
5.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives lay down for the present study:
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Anxiety’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Aggression’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Team events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
� To study the nature of distribution of scores for sportsmen representing university in Individual events on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence”.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Anxiety.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Aggression.
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Intra-Personal Management (own emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of Inter-Personal Management (others emotions).
� To compare the Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual events with respect to their mean scores on the variables of ‘Total Emotional Intelligence’.
5.4 HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses are formulated which will be tested in the
present study:
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Anxiety.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Aggression.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal Awareness
(Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal Awareness
(Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� The Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events
differ significantly with respect to their level of Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions) component of Emotional Intelligence.
� Sportsmen representing university in Team and Individual Events differ
significantly with respect to their level of “Emotional Intelligence”.
5.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study had been delimited as stated below:
� Aggression levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through aggression scale constructed
by Roma pal and Tasneem Nagavi (1980) consists 30 items.
� Anxiety levels of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla were measured through Anxiety Test constructed by
A.K.P. Sinha and L.N.K. Sinha’s comprehensive anxiety test consists 90
items.
� Emotional Intelligence of the sportsmen representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla was measured through Emotional Intelligence
Inventory constructed by Dr.S.K. Mangal and Shubhra Mangal consisted
100 items.
� Only male sportsmen, who were representing Himachal Pradesh
University Shimla in team and individual events at inter-university level,
were selected for the investigation.
5.6 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
Terms used in the present study having different connotations may be
defined as under:-
� Aggression: Is behaviour directed towards the goal of having or injuring
another living being. The term seems to draw automatic associations and
produce positive or negative value judgements and emotional responses.
� Classification: The placement of individual into groups for a particular
purpose.
� Behaviour: Technically the observable activity of muscle and glands of
external secretion.
� Team Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
team sports events.
� Individual Events: It refers to the players who representing university in
the individual sports events.
� Anxiety: The term anxiety is also used to refer to a complex psychological
process in essence, the concept of anxiety as process implies a theory of
anxiety that includes stress as fundamental constructs.
� Emotion: The word emotion is a derivative of Latin word ‘emorer’ which
mean to excite or shudder. Thus emotion is a state of the individual which
deprives him equilibrium.
� Emotional Intelligence: It refers to the area of emotional experience and
behaviour.
5.7 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The following had the Limitation of the study
� The present study is limited to the university campers of team and
individual games players.
� The present study is limited to senior players of the teams and individual
games.
� The factor such as socio-economic status, family environment, health
status, health status, etc. the subject were not controlled.
� The questionnaire itself has some limitations which served as limitations
of the study.
5.8 SAMPLING
The samples for the present study included all male sportsmen who were
selected to representing, the Himachal Pradesh University Shimla in inter-
university level tournaments in various team and individual sports events.
For this purpose first of all two groups were selected.
1). Team events
2). Individual events.
5.9 TOOLS USED
The following tool was used to investigate the variable selected for the
purpose of the study:
1). To measure the anxiety test (SCAT) constructed by the A.K.P.Sinha and
L.N.K.Sinha was administered (1980).
2). To measure the aggression level the aggression scale constructed by
Roma pal and Tasneem Naque (1980) was administered.
3). To measure the emotional intelligence, the emotional intelligence
inventory constructed by Dr.S.K.Mangal and Dr.Subhra Mangal. (1971)
was administered
5.10 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF DATA
The investigator has employed ‘t’ test.
1). The data pertaining to Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
were analysed for the two groups of sport’s man on the base of given
respective manual.
2). Significant difference in Aggression, Anxiety and Emotional intelligence
towards physical activity and two groups of sport’s men were determined
through ‘t’ test.
5.11 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of analysis and interpretation of data, following conclusions
may be drawn for the present study:
1. The scores on Anxiety for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 36, minimum and maximum being 2
and 38. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Anxiety came
out to be 19.16 and 9.68 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -0.75and 0.3 respectively. Further 17 (39.6%)
sportsmen fell between the scores 15 to 24. The rest of the sportsmen
were more or less evenly distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on
the basis of anxiety as under.
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 8
2 High Anxiety 7
3 Normal Anxiety Level 14
4 Low Anxiety 4
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
2. The scores on anxiety for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 59, minimum and
maximum being 2 and 61. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Anxiety came out to be 24.26 and 14.41 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.22 and 0.53
respectively.
Further reveals that the scores on anxiety among sportsmen representing
university in individual events were not concentrated over a specific scores
range. Rather the scores were more or less evenly distributed in all the class
intervals.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of anxiety as under.
Group Level of Anxiety No. of Sportsmen
1 Extremely High Anxiety 14
2 High Anxiety 5
3 Normal Anxiety Level 12
4 Low Anxiety 2
5 Extremely low Anxiety 10
Total 43
3. The scores on Aggression for the sportsmen representing university in
team events were spread over a range of 46, minimum and maximum
being 49 and 95. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on
Aggression came out to be 72.16 and 10.62 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.21 and 0.3 respectively.
Further reveals that 22 (51.2%) sportsmen fell between the scores 70 to
79. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below
and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of aggression as under.
4. The scores on Aggression for the sportsmen representing university in
Individual events were spread over a range of 92, minimum and
maximum being 23 and 115. The mean and standard deviation for the
scores on Aggression came out to be 77.44 and 17.96 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 1.1 and -0.45
respectively. Further reveals that 19 (44.2%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 75 to 89. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 0
2 The High 1
3 The Average Level 35
4 The Low 7
5 The Clean 0
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of aggression as under.
5. The scores on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 17, minimum and maximum being 4
and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came
out to be 14.07 and 3.78 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -0.29 and -0.28 respectively. Further reveals that
39 (90.7%) sportsmen fell between the scores 10 to 19. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
Group Level of Aggression No. of Sportsmen
1 The Saturated 3
2 The High 6
3 The Average Level 25
4 The Low 8
5 The Clean 1
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal awareness
(own emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 2
3 Average Level 19
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
6. The scores on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Intra-Personal Awareness (own emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 16.60 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.37 and -0.32
respectively. Further reveals that 24(55.8%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basses of intra-personal awareness (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal awareness
(own emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 1
2 Good 9
3 Average Level 24
4 Poor 7
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
7. The scores on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in team
events were spread over a range of 15, minimum and maximum being 5
and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-Personal
Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence came
out to be 13.2 and 4.9 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness
for the distribution was -1.7 and -0.19 respectively. Further reveals that
33(76.7%) sportsmen fall between the scores 10 to 19. The rest of the
sportsmen are more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Inter-personal awareness
(others emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 20
4 Poor 14
5 Very Poor 8
Total 43
8. The scores on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence for the sportsmen representing university in
individual events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 20. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Inter-Personal Awareness (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 15.00 and 3.39 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was -0.37 and -0.32
respectively. Further reveals that 37(86.1%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of inter-personal awareness (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
9. The scores on Intra-Personal Management (own emotions) component of
Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in Team
Events were spread over a range of 18, minimum and maximum being 3
and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Intra-Personal
management (others emotions) Component of Emotional Intelligence
came out to be 14.26 and 4.27 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and
Skewness for the distribution was -0.51 and -0.36 respectively. Further
reveals that 32(74.4%) sportsmen fell between the scores 10 to 19. The
rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and
above this range.
Group Inter-personal awareness
(others emotions)
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 16
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal management
(own emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 9
5 Very Poor 12
Total 43
10. The scores on Intra-Personal Management (own emotions) component of
Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events were spread over a range of 13, minimum and
maximum being 10 and 23. The mean and standard deviation for the
scores on Intra-Personal management (own emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 18.51 and 3.00 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.12 and -
0.52 respectively. Further reveals that 22(51.2%) sportsmen fell between
the scores 15 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of intra-personal management (own emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Intra-personal management (own
emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 11
3 Average Level 28
4 Poor 3
5 Very Poor 1
Total 43
11. The scores on Inter-Personal Management (others emotions) component
of Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Team Events were spread over a range of 17, minimum and maximum
being 4 and 21. The mean and standard deviation for the scores on Inter-
Personal management (others emotions) Component of Emotional
Intelligence came out to be 12.72 and 3.95 respectively. Further, the
Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.43 and -0.69
respectively. Further reveals that 32(74.5%) sportsmen fell between the
scores 10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were more or less evenly
distributed below and above this range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the basis
of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
12. The scores on Inter-Personal Management (others emotions) component
of Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen representing university in
Individual Events were spread over a range of 12, minimum and
maximum being 7 and 19. The mean and standard deviation for the scores
on Inter-Personal management (others emotions) Component of
Emotional Intelligence came out to be 14.49 and 2.58 respectively.
Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the distribution was 0.50 and 0.66
respectively. Further reveals that 41(95.3%) sportsmen fell in the scores
10 to 19. The rest of the sportsmen were less evenly distributed below
this range.
Group Inter-personal management
(others emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 1
3 Average Level 14
4 Poor 17
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basis of inter-personal management (others emotions) component of emotional
intelligence as under.
Group Inter-personal management
(others emotions )
No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 21
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
13. The scores on Total Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen
representing university in Team Events were spread over a range of 45,
minimum and maximum being 29 and 74. The mean and standard
deviation for the scores on total Emotional Intelligence came out to be
54.30 and 12.21 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was 0.54 and 0.63 respectively. Further reveals that
21(48.9%) sportsmen fell in the scores 50 to 64. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in team events were grouped on the
basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 0
3 Average Level 12
4 Poor 20
5 Very Poor 11
Total 43
14. The scores on Total Emotional Intelligence among Sportsmen
representing university in Individual Events were spread over a range of
34, minimum and maximum being 46 and 80. The mean and standard
deviation for the scores on total Emotional Intelligence came out to be
64.68 and 8.44 respectively. Further, the Kurtosis and Skewness for the
distribution was -0.30 and -0.26 respectively. Further reveals that
23(53.5%) sportsmen fell in the scores 60 to 69. The rest of the
sportsmen were more or less evenly distributed below and above this
range.
On comparing the scores with the norms given in the manual of the test,
the sportsmen representing university in individual events were grouped on the
basses of total emotional intelligence as under.
Group Total Emotional Intelligence No. of Sportsmen
1 Very Good 0
2 Good 4
3 Average Level 9
4 Poor 28
5 Very Poor 2
Total 43
15. Sportsmen representing university in Individual and Team Events exhibit
more or less similar level of anxiety.
16. Sportsmen representing university in Individual and Team Events exhibit
more or less similar level of aggression.
17. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Awareness (Own Emotions)” were concerned.
18. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Awareness (Others Emotions)” were concerned.
19. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Intra-Personal
Management (Own Emotions)” were concerned.
20. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence as far as its component of “Inter-Personal
Management (Others Emotions)” were concerned.
21. Sportsmen representing university in Individual Events exhibit superior
emotional intelligence.
5.12 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings of the present study have obvious applied implications for physical
education and sports in our country. Sportsmen /women, participating in
various categories of sports activities, express significant variations in their
psyche. Sport participation helps in increasing the crystallized adjustment and
managed anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence that further contribute
to better performance.
Anxiety, Aggression and Emotional Intelligence are highly related to
performance in sports and games. Anxiety, Aggressiveness and Emotional
Intelligence contribute to increment in sports capacity in one category of games
while the same may not help or moderate quantity of anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence are essential for sportsmen/women irrespective of their
participation in varied and sometimes opposing sports categories.
This study assumes significance in view of the anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among the team and individual sportsmen of Himachal
Pradesh University Shimla. It has been suggested that team and individual
sportsmen with respect of findings of the present study there are clear linkages
of the variables of perceived impact of life changes. The finding also suggested
that on anxiety, aggression and emotional intelligence individual sportsmen
were high on mean scores. The two variables anxiety and aggression not finding
the significant difference but differ on mean scores. These finding can lead to
indigenous intervention package for coaches belonging to University teams.
Research evidence revealed the level of anxiety, aggression and
emotional intelligence among team and individual sportsmen. These
psychological factors are important in the field of coaching and performance. It is
clear from the review of related literature that anxiety, aggression and emotional
intelligence played significance role in sports performance. The study may help
in developing efficient coaching performance considering the above component
of the psychology in the field of physical education.
5.13 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
On the base of present study the investigator has recommendations for
further study
i) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male inter-college teams
and individual events.
ii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male national levels
teams and individual events.
iii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male state levels teams
and individual events.
iv) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the male district levels teams
and individual events
vi) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female inter-college
levels teams and individual events.
vii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female national levels
teams and individual events.
viii) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female state levels teams
and individual events.
ix) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female inter- university
levels teams and individual events.
x) A similar kind of study may be conducted on the female district levels
teams and individual events.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alderman, M. (2005). Motivation for achievement: possibilities of teaching and
learning. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers.
Andrew M. Lane & et. al (2009) “Validity of emotional intelligence scale for use
in sports” .Journal of sports science and Medicine (2009) vol.8 pp. 289-
295.
Andrew M. Lane, Tracy j. et. al. (2010)”Emotional Intelligence and emotions
associated with optimal and dysfunctional athletic performance” .Journal of
sports science and Medicine vol.9, pp.388-392.
Andrew, J. W., and Holly, A.M. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical modes
of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, pp. 16,628-644.
Ashcraft, M., & Kirk, E.P (2001). The relationship among working memory, math
anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,
pp. 130, 224-237.
Balasubramaniam. Smt. Savitri. S. Patil. Dr. Rajkumar. P. Malipatil (2011).
A study of anxiety behaviour among the sportswomen and non
sportswomen. ISSN 0975-7732 Asian Journal of Physical Education and
Computer Science in Sports volume 4, No. 1 pp 35-37.
Barbara B. & Teresa B. Fletcher (2007) “Emotional Intelligence: A Theoretical
overview and Implications For Research And professional Practice” Journal
of Applied sport Psychology Vol.19. Issue 1,
Basu, J. (1991). Study on influence of gender stereotype on projection of
aggression and frustration. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Calcutta
University, Calcutta.
Baumrind, D.L. (1971). Current Parental Authority. Developmental
Psychological Monograph, pp. 4 (1), 2.
Bhatia, C.M. (1954). “Performance tests of intelligence under Indian conditions
Geoffrey Cambridge” Oxford University Press.
Blake, S. (2009). Practical recommendations and interventions: Test Anxiety
Retrieved from www.utea.org.
Blankstein, K.R., Plett, G.L., & Batlen, I. (1989). Test Anxiety and problem
solving self-appraisals of college students. Journal of social Behaviour and
Personality, pp. 4 (5), 531-540.
Brad J. Bushman and Gary L.Wells (1998) “Trait Aggressiveness and Hockey
Penalties: Predicting Hot Tempers on the Ice.” Journal of applied
Psychology Vol. 83, No. 6, 969-974.
Bredemeie, B.J. (1995). Divergence in child’s moral reasoning about issue in
daily life and sports specific contexts. International Journal of sports
psychology, pp. 26,453-464.
Bredemeier, B.J. (1985). Moral reasoning and the perceived Legitimacy of
intentionally injurious sports acts. Journal of sports psychology, pp. 7, 110-
124.
Bredemeier, B.J., Weiss M.R., Shiels, D.L. & Cooper, B.A.B (1986). The
relationship of sports involvement with Children’s Moral Reasoning and
Aggression Tendencies. Journal of sports psychology, 8, pp: 304-318 .
Bredemeir, B.J. ., Weiss M.R., Shiels, D.L. & Cooper, B.A.B (1989). The
relationship between children’s legitimacy judgements mod their Moral
reasoning, aggression tendencies and sports involvement. Sociology of
sports Journal, pp. 4, 48-60.
Calvo, M. G., Eysenck, M.W. and Estever (1994). Ego threat-interpretive bias in
test Anxiety. On line interference, cognition and emotion, pp. 8, 127-146.
Carver, C. S. and Scheier, M.F. (1988). A control process perspective on anxiety.
Anxiety research: An International Journal, pp.1, 17-22.
Carver, C. S. and Scheier, M.F. (1989). Expectancies and coping: from test
anxiety to pessimism. Advance in test Anxiety Research, pp. 6, 3-4.
Choksi, A (1975). A study of Achievement Motivation Adjustment, Academic
Motivation and Anxiety in relation to sex and socio-economic background of
pupils of ninth standards of English Medium School of Baroda, Journal of
Psychological and Educational Research, pp.81, 11-15.
Clark, J.W., Fox, P.A and Schneider, H.G. (2006). Feedback, test Anxiety and
performance in a college courses. Psychological reports, pp.82, 203-208.
Costa, P.T., and McCare, R.R. (1992). “Revised Personality Inventory (NEO-R)
and NEO five factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)”. Professional Manual.
Dasgupta Malika (2010) “Emotional Intelligence emerging as a significant tool
for Female Information Technology professional in managing role and
enhancing quality of work-life and Happiness” Asian Journal of
Management Research. ISSN 2229 – 3795.
David Crombie, et. al. (2009) “Emotional Intelligence Scores Predict Team
Sports Performance In a National Cricket Competition” International
Journal of Sports Science & Coaching Vol.4 No.2.
Dececco, J.P. & Crawford, W. (1977). The psychology of learning and instruction:
Education Psychology prentice Hall of India, Private limited.
Deffenbacher, J. L. (1980). Worry and emotionality in test anxiety. Sarason (Ed.),
Test Anxiety: Theory, Research and Application, pp.111-128. Hillsdale, N.J.
Erlbaum.
Devries and N. Steven (1999). Approval of Aggression Acts in Wrestling.
Unpublished Dissertation. University of lowa, pp 229.
Diana Rajendran, Luke A. Downey, Con Stough (2007). “Assessing Emotional
intelligence in the Indian Workplace.” Electronic Journal of Appiled
Psychology.” Assessing Emotional Intelligence in the Indian Workplace.
Vol.- 3 (2)
Driscoll Richard (2010). “Test Anxiety Program and Test Gains With Nursing
Classes”.
Dureha D.K., S. Yaduvanshi and Mishra (2011). “A Comparative Study of
Incentive Motivation, Achievement Motivation and Anxiety level Between
National and International Hockey Players Vol. 44.
Dweck, C.S. (1991). Self theories, goals: their role in motivation, personality and
development. In R.A. Dienstbier (Ed.),. Nebraska Symposium on
Motivation, 1990: Perspectives on Motivation; Vol. 38, Current theory and
Research in Motivation pp. (199-235). Lincoln, N.E: University of
Nebraska Press.
Elizur, D. and Beck, M. (1994). Gender differences in achievement motive: A fact
analysis of Hungarian Samples. The Journal of psychology, pp.821, 63-70.
Galton, F. (1883). “Inquiries into human faculty and its development”. MacMillan,
London.
Gardner, R.E. & Janelle. C.M. (2002). Legitimacy judgement ofPerceived
aggression and assertion by contact and non-contact Sport participants. Int.
J. Sport. Psychology, 33, 290-306, Florida.
Ginsburg, G.S. and Bronstein, P. (1993). “Family factor related to
children’s/extrinsic motivational orientation and academic performance.”
Child Development, 64, 1461-1474.
Goleman, D.C. (1995). “Emotional Intelligence”. New York, Bantom Books.
Greenberg, L.S., Ausbra, L. Adnd Herrmann, I.R. (2007). “The relationship
among emotional productivity, emotional arousal and outcome in
experimental therapy of depression”. Psychotherapy Research, pp. 17, 482-
492.
Grelow, H. (1973). “The relationship of some Parental variables to achievement
and academic performance.” Child Development, pp. 66, 203-209.
Gupta Dr.Nivedita, (2009) “Efficacy of mental simulation training on emotional
intelligence of Basketball players” Penalty Corner Vol. 9 Issue 1.
Gupta, V. K. (1982). “Impact of anxiety and achievement motivation on self
concept of high school students”. Indian Psychological review, pp. 22, 26-
29.
Hansen, C., Stevens, L.C., J.R. (2001). “Exercise Duration and Mood state: how
much is enough to feel better?” Health Psychology, pp. 20, 267-275.
Hasegawa, E. (1990). An Analysis of Anger Related Aggression in
Hembree, R. (1988). Correlated cause Effects and Treatment of test anxiety.
Review of education Research, pp. 53, 47-77.
Hicks, D.J. (1965) limitation and retention of film mediated aggression Peer and
adult modes. Journal of Press Social Psychology, 5 : 1, 97-100.
Hodapp, V. (1989). “Anxiety, fear of failure, and achievement: two path analytical
models”. Anxiety Research: An International Journal, pp. 1, 301-312.
Ibrahim A. Gazer (2010) “Sport Aggression and its Relationship with Ranking of
the Junior Egyptian Wrestlers” World Journal of Sport Sciences vol.3 (s):
pp. 252-257.
Institute of Heart Math. (2009). “Test Anxiety, It affects most people, but you can
learn to overcome it. IMH Newsletter. Vol. 8 No. 1.
Johan D. Mayer and Peter Salovey. (1997). “Emotional Developement and the
Emotional Intelligence”.
Johan G.H., Dunn et.al.(1999) “Goal orientations, perceptions of Aggression, and
Sportsperson ship in Elite Male Youth Ice Hockey Players” The sport
psychology ,vol.13 pp.183-200.
Johan Parthiban. A.S. Nageswarain. A. Palanisamy (2006). “Effects of Mental
Training on Selected Psychological Variables of University Soccer players”.
Journal of sports and sports Sciences, Vol-29, No.3 July 2006.
Kanwar Sonia, Bishnoi Rajender (2007) “Analysis of mental health
differentials among judokas” Journal of sports and sports sciences, Vol.30,
no. 4. 2007.
Kapur, D. (1982). “The effect of test anxiety, Locus of control and intelligence on
academic achievement in school children.” Unpublished Master of
Philosophy Dissertation Punjab University Chandigarh.
Kaul R., V. Kumar, M. Mittal January (2004). “Effect of imagery training on
selected psychological variables and field performance in relation to penalty
corner conversion in hockey” Journal of sports and sports sciences, Vol.
27(1);11-26-2004.
Kaur Amarjit (2010). “The Comparative Study of Aggression between Female
Players and Non-Players”. Journal Health & Fitness 2(2): 30-34 .
Khan Zamirullah, Sartaj Khan and Naseem Ahmed Khan. (2010). “Anxiety
among players of Asian Countries: A study”. Journal Health & Fitness 2(2):
1-5 (2010).
Krampen (1991). “Competence and control orientations as Predictor of test
anxiety in students longitudinal results.” In R. Schwarzer and R.A. Wickland
(Eds.), Anxiety and Self-focused attention. Pp. 111-123. London: Harwood
Academic Publishers.
Kumar Mahesh (2006) “study of Contact Game Sports Person in Context to
Aggressive Tendency” Indian Journal of sports studies july to dec.2006. vol.
No. 6, no. 2.
Kumar Mahesh and Vikram Singh. (2010) “Study of Aggressive Tendency
among sport persons in context to contact, semi-contact and non-contact
games”. Journal of Sports Traumatology & allied sports Sciences; vol. 9;
Kurt & Darryn Lifson (2012) “EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF SPORTS
LEADERS & ELITE BUSINESS LEDERS”. International Journal of Business
and commerce. Vol. 1, No. 5. Pp. 82-115.
L. Tiken, K. Kosana Meitei, A.K. Joy, T. Inaobi (2004). “Social and emotional
adjustment of athletes on Body contact sports and Team sports of SAI
(NERC) Imphal Inmates”. Journal of sports and sciences, Vol. 27(1): 43-47.
Leith, L.M. (1982). An experimental Analysis of The Effect Of Vicarious
Participation in Physical Activity on Subject Aggressiveness Int. J Sp. Psy. 13
Pp 234-241.
M. W. Collins, et.al. (1999) “Relationship between concussion and
neuropsychological performance in college football players” The Journal of
The American Medical Association.
Mandler & Sarason, S.B. (1952). “A study of anxiety and learning. Journal of
abnormal and social Psychology”, pp. 47, 166-173.
Mangal. S.K.(2007). “Essentials of Educational Psychology”.
Mansi, H. (2002). “A multivariate study of decision making and emotional
intelligence”. Department of Psychology, University of Delhi.
Mark Griffiths (1999) “VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSION: A REVIEW OF
THE LITERATURE” Aggression and Violent behaviour, vol. 4, no. 2. Pp.
203-212.
Maryam Sasanfar & Maryam Koushkie Jahromi (2010). “Comparison of
anxiety student of physical education & sport science and other students in
Iran”. Volume 5 Pages 2416-2418 WCPCG 2010
Mayer. J.D. and Salovey, P. (1997). “What is Emotional Intelligence?” In P.
Salovey and D.J. Slylet (Eds.). Emotional Development and Emotional
Intelligence. New York: Basic Book.
Mc Carthy, J.E Kelly, B.R. (1978). Aggression Behaviour and its Effect on
Performance Over Time in Ice Hockey Athletes: An Archival Study.
International Journal of Sports Psychology Vol. 9, No. 2, Pp 90-96.
Mc Gowan, R. W., Pierce, E. F., & Jordan, D. (1991). “Mood alterations with a
single bout of physical activity”. Perceptual & Motor Skills, pp. 73. 657-658.
Meijer, J. (2001). “Learning potential and anxious tendency.” Test Anxiety as a
bias in education testing. Anxiety, Stress and Coping. Pp. 14, 337-362.
Meijer, J., Elshout, J.J. (2001). “The predictive and discriminate validity of the
zone of proximal development”. British Journal of Education of Psychology,
pp. 71, 93-113.
Najma, S. and Satyanarayan, B.S. (1978). “Test Anxiety Among High School
Children”. Quest in Educational pp. 15, 120-127.
Nijhawan, H. K. (1972). “Anxiety in school children, Delhi, Willey Eastern.
Obodo Beauty, N.O. Obadan (2008). “Efficacy of Rational-Emotive Behaviour
Therapy on the Reduction of Test Anxiety among Adolescents in Secondary
Schools”. Vol.6.
panda Yogamaya, Reena Kaul and Madalsa Mittal (2004). “Comparative study
of elite and sub-elite athletes across sports competition trait Anxiety and
goal orientations” Journal of sports and sports sciences, vol. 27
(4):October 2004.
panda Yogamaya, Reena Kaul and Madalsa Mittal (2004). “Gender differences
in task and ego orientations, sport self- confidence, Trait Anxiety and goal
setting styles in elite Indian athletes” Journal of sports and sports sciences,
vol. 27 (2) : April 2004.
Patel Dr. Shrikrishana (2010). “Comparison of competitive state anxiety
components among individual, dual and team sports”. Asian Journal of
Physical Education and Computer Science in sports. Volume. 4, No. 1 pp.
148-150.
Patel Minaxi (2009). Analyzing Anxiety among School players and non players.
ISSN 0975-7732 Asian Journal of Physical Education and computer
Science in Sports Volume-4, No.1 pp 56- 57.
Patrice Lemieux, Stuart J. McKelvie et. al. (2002) “Self-Hostile Aggression in
Contact Athletes, No Contact Athletes and Non-athletes” Athletic Insight
2002.
Paulman, R. G. and Kennelly, K. J. (1984). “Test anxiety, ineffective test taking:
Different names, same constructs”. Journal of Educational Psychology, pp.
76, 279-288.
Petzel, S. V., Riddle, M. (1981). “Adolescent suicide: Psychological and Cognitive
aspect”. Adolescent. Psychiatry, 9, 342-398.
Prof. Jaowad Ali, Mohd. Tanveer Khan, Abdual Rahaman, Arvined Bahadur
Singh. (2011) “A comparative study of multidimensional trait anxiety
between intervarsity and national level hockey players of Uttar Pradesh.
Golden Research Thoughts. Vol.-1, ISSUE-[December 2011].
Rainey, D.W. (1986). A gender difference in acceptance of sport aggression: A
classroom activity. Teaching of psychology, 13, 138-140.
Rao, S. and Murthy, V. N. (1984). “Psychosocial correlates of Locus of control
among college student”. Psychological studies, pp. 29, 51-56.
Rao, U. (1983). “Academic Achievement a Related to self Acceptance, Test Anxiety
and Intelligence. Among different school and Groups”. Unpublished
Doctoral thesis, Department of psychology Himachal Pradesh University,
Shimla.
Roy Jolly (2006). “Emotion intensity Distribution on Category Ratio Scale among
Indian Female Rowers” Journal of sports Sciences, Vol. 29 (2).
Ruisel, I. (2000). “Is the Anxiety-intelligence Relationship Relevant?” Studio
Psychological, pp. 9, 12, 3-13.
Sameer E. Bagirathi, et. all. (2010). “Comparative study of the psychological
profiles of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh national & international level
male cricket players” Asian Journal of Physical Education and allied
Sciences in Sports. Vol.9.
Samuel J. Zizzi, Heather R Deaner, et.al. (2003) “The Relationship Between
Emotional Intelligence and Performance Among College Baseball Players”
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology.
Sarason (1959). “What Research says about Test Anxiety in Elementary School
Children?” NFA Journal, pp. 48, 26-27.
Sarason, I. G. (1978). “The test Anxiety scale: concept and research”. In C.D.
Spielberger & I. G. Sarason (Ed.), Stress and Anxiety. Vol.5, Washington
DC: Hemisphere.
Sarason, I. G. (1984). “Stress, Anxiety and Cognitive Interference reactions to
test”. Journal of personality and Social Psychology Vol. 48 (4), pp. 929-
938.
Sarason, I. G. Johan, J. H., & Seigel, J.M. (1978). “Assessing the impact of life
changes: Development of the life experience survey”. Journal of consulting
and clinical Psychology, pp. 46(5), 932-946.
Sarason, S. B. & Mandler, G. (1952). “some correlates of test Anxiety”. Journal of
abnormal and social Psychology, pp. 47, 810-817.
Sarason, S. B. & Sarason, B.R. (1990). “Test Anxiety in H. Leitenberge
(Eds.)”.Handbook of social and Evaluation Anxiety, New York: Plenum.
Sarason,I.G. (1980). “Test Anxiety”: theory Research and Application: Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schuttee, N.S., Malouft, J.M., Hall, L.E., Haggerty, D.J., Cooper, J.T., Golden, C.J.
and Derheim, L. (1998). “Development and Validation of a measure of
emotional intelligence, personality and individual difference,”. Vol. 25. Pp.
167-177.
Segerstrom, S.C. and Miller, G.E. (2004). “Psychological stress and the human
immune system: A meta analytic study of 30 years of inquiry”. Psychological
Bulletin, pp. 130, 601-630.
Seher BALCI CEL, M Engin DEN (2008). “A comparison of scouts’ Emotional
Intelligence Levels”.
Sethi, A. zsS., & Sud, M. (1980). “Effect of test anxiety and intelligence on
academic achievement in different school course among higher secondary
school girls”. Psychology. pp. 23, 43-46.
Sewell, T.E., and Severson, R.A. (1974). “Learning ability and intelligence as
cognitive predictors of achievement in first-grade black children”. Journal of
Educational Psychology, pp. 66(6), 948-955.
Shaikh Dr. Shafioddin S. (2009). “A study of Anxiety and self-Concept among
Junior . and Senior Ball Badminton Players”. Asian Journal of Physical
Education and Computer Science in sports. Volume. 4, No. 1 pp. 132-133.
Sharma, S. (1978). “Stress and Anxiety”. In J. Pandy (Ed.), Psychology in India:
the state-of the –art, Vol. 1, pp. 191-246. New Delhi: Sage.
Sharma, S. and Rao, U. (1984). “The Effects of self-esteem, Test Anxiety and
Intelligence on Academic Achievement of High school Girls”. Personality
study and Group Behaviour. pp. 3, 48-55.
Shaun, M. Galloway, Mark Groves, Tracey Devonport (2006). “Emotional
Intelligence and friendship patterns among sport studies students”.
University of Wolverhampton Learning and Teaching projects (2005/6).
Shobha Nandwana and Kushagra Joshi (2010). “Assessment of Emotional
Intelligence of tribal Adolescents of Udaipur”. Kamla-Raj, Stud Tribes
Tribals, Vol-8(1).
Shrivastava Anupama and Anjana Mukhopadhyay (2009). “Alienation and
Emotional Intelligence of Adolescents with Internalising Symptoms”.
Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35.
Sieber, J. F., O’ Neils, H., & Tobias, S. (1977). “Anxiety, learning and instruction”.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbum.
Silva, J.M. (1983). The Perceived Legitimacy of rule violating behaviour in sport.
Journal of sports psychology, 4, 438-448.
Sindhu Jaskaran Singh, Karanjit Singh and Charanjit Singh (2011). “Anxiety
and Aggression Level between male and female Athletes at university level:
An Empirical Study”. Journal of Health & Fitness 3(1): 84-88 (2011).
Singh Andersh Pal (2007). “Exploration of Anxiety among School Children”
Journal of sports and sports sciences, Vol. 30. No. 4. 2007.
Singh Baljinder Bal, et. al (2011) “EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND SPORTING
PERFORMANCE: A COMPARISION between open- and closed-skill athletes”
Journal of Physical Education and sports Management Vol. 2(5) pp. 48-52.
Singh Brij Bhushan and e.t. al. January (2010). “A study on sports competition
Anxiety and Performance of Intercollegiate Top Ranking Male and Female
Power lifters”. J. Health and Fitness 2(1): pp. 66-70.
Singh Hari, Surender Kumar Sharma (2006). “Aggression Among Judokas of All
India Inter-University and Inter-College Level”. Journal of sports and Sports
Sciences. Vol.32 No. 4. Pp. 5-11.
Singh Ranbir (2011) “AComparative Study of Aggression And Level of Aspiration
Between Hockey And Football Players” ECONSPEAK Volume 1, issn 2231-
4571.
Singh, S. and Kaur, H. (1976). “The Relationship of motives, aspirations, and
anxiety among women teachers at different professional levels”. Psychology
and Education, pp. 30, 11-30.
Singru, M. (1972). “Relationship between Achievement Motivation and test
Anxiety”. Journal of Education and Psychology, pp. 30, 11-13.
Sisodiya A.S. and P. Purashwani (2011). “Relationship between Achievement
Motivation and Anxiety of Shuttler”. Vol. 2.
Sonia Kanwar. & Rajinder Bishnoi. “Analysis of mental Health Differentials
among Judokas”. Journal of sports and sports sciences, Vol. 30, No. 4.
Spence. S. H., Duric, U. Roeder, U. (1996), “Performance realism in test anxious
students. Anxiety, stress and coping:” An International Journal, pp. 339-
355.
Spielberger, C. D. & Vagg. P. R. (Eds.) (1995). “Test anxiety: theory, Assessment
and treatment, Taylor & Francis.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). “Anxiety as an emotional state. In C.D Spielberger
(Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and Research”, Vol. I. New York:
Plato Aeto, CA: Consulting Psychologists press.
Spielberger, C. D. Gonzalez, H.P. Taylor, C.T., Algaze, B. & Anton, W. (1978).
“Examination stress of test anxiety”. In C.D. Spielberger & I.G. Sarason
(Eds.) “stress and anxiety” Vol. 5. New York. Hemisphare/Wiley.
Spielberger. C., Anton, W., & Bedell, J. (1976). “The nature and treatment of
test anxiety”. In M. Zunkerman & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.) Emotion and
Anxiety: New Concepts, Methods, and applications. Pp. 317-345. Hill
Solale, N.J: Eribaum.
Sud, A. & Prabha, I. (1997). “Interactive effect of social supports, test anxiety a
stress on anagram task performance and cognitive interference”.
Personality study and group Behaviour. pp. 7, 27, 35.
Sud, A. & Sharma, S. (1990b). “Two short terms cognitive interventions for the
reduction of test anxiety”. Anxiety Research: An International Journal. Pp.
3, 133-147.
Sud, A. & Sud, P. (1997). “Mannual of test Anxiety Inventory Hindi (TAI-H).”
Roupa Psychology center, Varansi.
Sud, A. (2001). “Test Anxiety Research in India:” Twentieth century in retrospect
Psychology and Developing Societies, 13(1), 51-69. Sage Publication, New
Delhi.
Sud. A. & Awasthi, M. And Sud, A (2001). “Study Habits, Test Procrastination.
Test Anxiety and Academic Performance of High School Institutionalized
Children”. Journal of Research and Applications in Clinical Psychology.
Teresa Fonseca (2011) “Sport and emotional requirements: comparative study
of Perceived emotional intelligence among young men and women’s
basketball play” Research Canter in Sports Sciences, Health Science and
Human Development (CIDESD) – UTAD, UTC Sports and Expressions –
ESECD Polytechnic Institute of Guarda.
Tewary. A.N. and Mishra., G. (1977). “A study of Achievement Motivation in
relation to Prolonged Deprivation Psychologies, pp 20, 172-197.
Thingujam, N. and Ram, U. (1999). “Indian norms of emotional intelligence scale
and some co-relation Banglore paper presented at 5th International 36th
IAAP applied Psychology Conference. Dec. 27-29.”
Thingujam, N. and Ram, U. (2000). “Emotional intelligence Scale: Indian
Norms:” Journal of Educational and psychology, Vol. 58, pp. 2-3, 40-45.
Tiwari Lalit Mohan (2011) “A Comparative study of aggression between
University Level Throwers and Jumpers” International Journal of Health,
Physical Education and Computer Science in sports. Vol. No. 3. Pp.39
Tobias, S. (1978). “Overcoming math Anxiety”. New York: Norton.
Tryon, G.S. (1980). “The measurement and treatment if test anxiety”. Rew of
Educational Research, 50, 343-372.
Tucker, L.W. (1999): Perceived Legitimacy of Aggression among female and male
collegiate athletes. Microform Publications, University of Oregon Eugene.
Van Zile-Tamsen, C. & Livingston, J.(2004). “The differential impact of
motivation on the self-Regulated strategy use of high and low-Achieving
college students”. Journal of college student Development. 40 (1), 54-60.
Waddar Madhavi S. and Vijayalaximi et. al. (2010) “Self-Efficacy and
Emotional Intelligence of PG Students”. Journal of the Indian Academy of
Applied Psychology Vol. 36. No. 2, pp. 339-345.
Warwar, S.H. (2003). “ Relating emotional processes to outcome in experiential
psychotherapy of depression”. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, York,
University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Weiner, B. (1986). “An attribution theory of achievement motivation and emotion
Psychology Review”. pp. 92, 548-543.
Weiss, H.M., Suckow, K. and Crokanzano, R. (1999). “Effects of justice
Conditions on discrete emotions”. Journal of Applied Psychology, pp. 84,
786-794.
Wentzel, K. R. (1997). “Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived
pedagogical caring”. Journal of Educational Psychology, pp. 89, 41-49.
Widmeyer, W.N. & Mc Guire, E.J. (1997). Frequency of Competition and
Aggression in Professional Ice Hockey. International Journal of Sports
Psychology 28 (1), Pp 57-66.
Wiest, D. J.; Wong, E.H. and Cusick, L.B. (1997). “High school students
perceptions of the school experience: A qualitative look”. Issues in Teacher
Education, pp. 6, 40-54.
Wine, J. (1971). “Test Anxiety and the direction of attention”. Psychology Bulletin,
pp. 76, 91-104.
Wine, J. (1980). “Cognitive intentional theory of test anxiety”. In I. G. Sarason
(Ed.) Test Anxiety. Journal of consulting and clinical Psychology, pp. 349-
385, Hill Sdale, N.I.: Erlbanem.
Wittmaier (1976). “A Performance Related to Achievement Motivation and Test
Anxiety”. Journal of consulting and clinical Psychology, pp. 34, 343-344.
Yadav Dr. Jitender Singh et.al. (2011) “COMPARISON BETWEEN THE
AGGRESSION LEVEL OF PLAYERS’ OF TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL” A Journal
of all India council of physical education vol.1, Issue 2
Yaussi, S.C. (2005). “The obesity epidemic: How non-PE teachers can improve the
health of their students”. The clearing House, pp. 79(2), 105-108.
RAW SCORE TEAM EVENT
Anxt. Agg. I.P.A.OW.E. I.P.A.OT.E. I.P.M.OW.E. I.P.M.OT.E. T.E.I.
72 12 10 10 9 6 35
76 2 10 10 12 9 41
56 17 19 20 17 17 73
75 38 21 18 16 16 71
72 15 17 16 20 13 66
70 9 10 10 3 8 31
72 7 15 11 17 14 57
87 16 16 15 17 10 58
65 32 13 18 16 18 65
76 4 10 8 10 7 35
76 20 17 18 15 7 67
88 19 10 8 9 16 43
95 16 18 16 12 14 60
78 30 21 17 14 13 65
70 5 16 13 20 14 63
49 17 15 15 10 16 56
51 2 10 6 10 7 33
59 31 10 5 18 6 39
55 26 18 18 13 12 61
61 26 10 7 7 5 29
78 16 17 15 9 13 54
79 29 17 18 16 16 67
81 11 15 14 14 17 60
76 11 16 16 18 15 65
73 26 10 9 10 4 33
62 26 8 14 13 15 50
79 8 14 19 16 17 66
71 19 13 8 18 14 53
80 20 4 14 20 13 51
78 4 16 11 17 12 56
74 16 19 17 18 20 74
70 18 18 13 20 14 65
84 15 16 8 20 14 58
67 30 10 6 12 6 34
72 21 12 12 21 12 57
62 34 18 10 15 14 57
72 23 13 16 10 16 55
75 20 14 11 13 14 52
83 13 13 12 10 12 47
88 24 18 17 10 15 60
84 37 13 12 18 14 57
59 33 14 11 19 16 60
53 26 11 18 11 16 56
RAW SCORE INDIVIDUAL EVENTS
Anxt. Agg. I.P.A.OW.E. I.P.A.OT.E. I.P.M.OW.E. I.P.M.OT.E. T.E.I.
78 22 19 13 18 12 62
95 26 16 13 15 15 59
73 2 21 19 23 14 77
77 31 17 16 18 13 64
79 17 18 20 17 11 66
52 22 17 15 20 17 69
83 30 21 18 22 17 78
79 37 18 17 19 14 68
67 16 19 19 22 11 74
55 9 19 17 15 17 68
115 39 14 17 20 13 64
83 7 22 19 20 14 75
60 28 11 12 18 12 53
87 36 12 14 18 11 55
94 23 11 13 19 16 59
67 19 15 20 23 14 72
54 22 8 13 16 16 53
85 27 18 18 22 18 76
56 45 15 20 23 14 72
74 20 22 16 15 16 69
82 50 20 14 21 14 69
77 61 15 13 20 14 62
64 22 15 11 22 14 62
88 9 19 20 22 19 80
75 12 15 12 16 17 60
77 19 20 15 17 12 64
48 41 22 13 18 16 69
56 33 17 11 19 14 61
91 5 15 13 16 17 61
84 36 16 16 20 16 68
80 24 15 13 17 16 61
59 2 15 19 22 16 72
82 18 23 19 18 19 79
89 44 22 16 17 11 66
80 21 9 11 19 16 55
102 10 16 12 10 13 51
110 41 21 18 13 16 68
23 14 15 16 14 16 61
95 9 12 16 14 13 55
69 4 12 7 20 7 46
109 11 13 7 17 9 46
90 26 15 13 19 16 63
87 53 19 11 22 17 69