communities@RICS - FINDINGS IN BUILT AND …...©RICS – July 2010 ISBN: 978-1-84219-585-7 Published by: RICS Parliament Square London SW1P 3AD United Kingdom The views expressed

FiBRESERIESFINDINGS IN BUILT AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS JULY 2010

assessing the potential of gis in the identification of primevineyard sites in south east englandchris foss and david morris, plumpton college, uK, niall Burnside and neil ravenscroft, university of Brighton, uK

Research

comes to england:

About the authors

Chris Foss

was born into a wine-producing family, and returned to Bordeaux after a degree in Microbiology to study wine and manage the family estate. He worked at Chateau d’Yquem in Sauternes and Chateau Rozier in St Emilion before becoming winemaker for the GFA Leclerc estates, producing around half a million bottles of wine a year. Since returning to England and joining the staff at Plumpton College in 1988, Chris has successfully established undergraduate courses in wine production and business, supported by a 10-hectare vineyard and semi-commercial winery. His main teaching/research areas are vineyard establishment, vine pathology and sustainable viticulture. Chris is now not only Head of Department of Wine at Plumpton, but also Chairman of the South East Vineyards Association and of the Vineyard Manager’s Forum.

Dr Neil Ravenscroft MRICS

is Professor of Land Economy at the School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, where he specialises in research on the access to, and sustainable management of, natural resources. He has advised the United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization on land tenure and is part of the team preparing the UK’s National Ecosystem Assessment for the United Nations Environment Programme. Dr Ravenscroft has published and spoken widely on a range of issues related to land management and is past managing editor of Leisure Studies.

©RICS – July 2010ISBN: 978-1-84219-585-7

Published by: RICSParliament SquareLondon SW1P 3ADUnited Kingdom

The views expressed by the author(s) are not necessarily those of RICS nor any body connected with RICS. Neither the authors, nor RICS accept any liability arising from the use of this publication.

This work was funded by the RICS Education Trust, a registered charity established by RICS in 1955 to support research and education in the field of surveying.

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CHAMPAGNE COMES TO ENGLAND

Dr Niall Burnside

is a Landscape Ecologist with specialist expertise in the development and use of Geographical Information Systems for broad-scale landscape evaluation. Current research interests centre upon grassland ecology and management, and the application of Geographical Information Systems within environmental and ecological management. Prominent areas of work include:

• The expansion of methodologies drawn from landscape ecology and Geographical Information Systems to evaluate landscape scale perspectives and approaches for environmental and ecological management

• The application of Landscape Ecological and Biogeographical theory within environmental and

conservation management

• Restoration and management in grassland systems, with particular focus on calcareous grassland ecology

• The development and implementation of Geographical Information System application for environmental and ecological management.

David Morris

graduated from Plumpton College with a BSc (Hons) in Viticulture and Oenology in June 2009. All through his studies, he worked for Nyetimber Vineyards in West Sussex, the largest wine producer in the UK. His interest in establishing a methodology for determining vineyard site locations stemmed from his former employer’s very rapid expansion and from the establishment of his parents’ own vineyard, Ancre Hill Estates, in Monmouthshire, Wales. He is currently living and working in Burgundy, France.

CONTENTS

Key findings 05

Introduction 06

Details of the work – overview 07

Generating maps 08

Findings 14

Implications of the research 16

About the study 17

Further information 17

Glossary of terms 18

References and further reading 19

04

HErE iS A STrONG UK market for high quality sparkling wines, most of which are currently imported. Improvements in wine production techniques, allied to a changing climate and to the presence of geological formations similar to those found in the Champagne region, mean that it is increasingly possible to grow and produce such wines in south east England. Not only will this reduce wine imports to the UK, but it will also offer diversification potential to farms in south east England, while creating new employment opportunities.

In order to realise this potential, there is a need to find the best locations for growing vines. This can be achieved by analysing where in the region particular combinations of geological, topographical and meteorological factors combine to reproduce the conditions likely to produce quality grapes. With funding from the RICS Education Trust, Chris Foss and David Morris of Plumpton College and Niall Burnside and Neil Ravenscroft of the University of Brighton have explored the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to support this. Using a standard GIS package of the sort available to many chartered surveyors, 11 parameters were mapped according to their threshold values; i.e. the point at which the parameter was judged to become marginal from a viticultural point of view. A hard logic approach was employed and areas were deemed to be either

suitable or unsuitable for viticultural purposes (this is termed a ‘Boolean approach’). These maps were then digitally overlaid to identify prime vineyard areas.

They found that the prime areas in the region were:

• The southern edge of the Weald in Kent and East Sussex

• The southern slopes of the Chilterns north west of London

• Chalk outcrops in the western South Downs and southern Hampshire.

The lack of suitable datasets at a field scale mean that the GIS approach cannot be more accurate than this, with soil analysis and meteorological monitoring required to find where within these areas is most likely to grow the best vines. Nevertheless, while there is much further work needed, this project has demonstrated the considerable potential of this approach to surveying regional features. In addition to their application to vineyards, GIS packages offer much potential in other areas of resource planning and management, especially in cases where evidence has to be collated for feasibility studies, environmental impact assessments and grant applications.

Key findings

1INSEE

CONTENTST

“THE ENGLiSH WiNE iNDUSTry iS GrOWiNG vEry rAPiDLy, AND HAS ExCELLENT POTENTiAL fOr THE PrODUCTiON Of WOrLD-CLASS SPArKLiNG WiNES”

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Introduction

EOGrAPHiC iNfOrMATiON SySTEMS (GIS) are becoming an increasingly common analytical tool for chartered surveyors in a number of areas of professional work. While primarily viewed as a means of spatial recording, analysis and representation, GIS is also widely used in transport planning, land use modelling, feasibility studies and remote sensing. However, there is little information about the potential of GIS readily available to those who have yet to assess its value to their work. This research, conducted in part by the University of Brighton’s Biogeography and Ecology Research Group (BERG) and involving a workshop with chartered surveyors working in a number of professional areas, provides an example of an application of GIS that demonstrates its ease of use and its potential value to chartered surveyors.

The subject of the research is also one of increasing interest to chartered surveyors: the diversification of agricultural land into viticulture. There is a strong UK market for high quality sparkling wines, most of which are currently imported from France – particularly the Champagne region. For climatic and geological reasons it is increasingly possible to grow and produce wines in south east England with the potential, over the next two decades, to rival the quality of Champagne. Not only will this reduce wine imports to the UK, but it will also offer new commercial opportunities to some farmers in south east England, while creating new professional opportunities for chartered surveyors.

In order to realise this potential, there is a need to identify which locations are best suited to wine production. Wine research in Australia, New Zealand and the USA (Badcock, 1998; Boyer & Wolf, 2000; Tesic, et al., 2001) has established that GIS can be used as a predictive tool, by developing and applying an ‘expert system’ that can identify and locate the key environmental factors that contribute to the quality of wines. However, the factors that contribute to the quality of Champagne are poorly defined and it is not currently possible to apply them to the south east of England in a manner suitable to establishing the ‘best’ or most appropriate sites for growing vines. Building on previous work by BERG (Burnside et al., 2001; Burnside et al., 2002a; Burnside et al., 2002b), this research has identified 11 environmental parameters that contribute to the quality of wines and, for each parameter, has established threshold values beyond which viticulture becomes marginal. In undertaking this work using a standard GIS package and approach, the research demonstrates the value of GIS as an analytical tool.

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HiS WOrK ExTENDS previous landscape modelling research undertaken by BERG, by developing a simple and generic methodology for the identification and prioritisation of areas for vine growth. The methodologies proposed have previously been successful in the field of suitability modelling, and this research suggests that they could be applied, in a modified form, at either or both the regional and the local level in viticulture. The aims of the suitability modelling exercise are shown in Figure 1.

The process used to address these aims involved acquiring suitable datasets that could be analysed in a standard Geographic Information System of the type available to chartered surveyors. The data were sourced from the following organisations:

The data were then compared against parameters for vines grown in the Champagne region of France. The appropriate values for these data were drawn from published sources. This allowed maps to be drawn showing the suitability of the south east region according to the criteria. These maps, and the processes by which they had been generated, were used to inform a focus group held with six chartered surveyors working locally to Plumpton College. The focus group was asked to assess the utility of the process and outputs, the applications to which such processes might be applied, and the constraints and barriers to use in the profession.

Details of the work – overview

Resolution Data Source (cell size)

Climate data UK Meteorological Office (Hadley Centre, UKCIP) (5km x 5km)

Topographic Data Ordnance Survey (DigiMap, Panorama data) (50m x 50m)

Soil Data SILSOE University of Cranfield (UK) (250m x 250m)

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Figure 1: Aims of the Suitability Modelling Exercise

• To provide a simple, yet robust, tool to identify large scale areas for viticulture in south east England

• To model suitability at the regional scale by incorporating a range of environmental parameters including climatic, topographic and edaphic factors; and

• To present the results in a format that can be accessed and used by Chartered Surveyors and is accessible to the general public.

Generating the maps

Regional Suitability Analysis

rADiTiONAL METHODS of site selection for cropping, based upon local knowledge and rudimentary soil analyses, have typically been opportunist and ad hoc.While acceptable for crops that are well established in an area, such an approach is inadequate for assessing the potential viability of new crops. This research offers a systematic approach to finding sites that meet the growing criteria of vines - a crop that, while not new to south east England, is in the early stages of establishment. The system used for the analysis involved dividing the region on a grid basis and ranking the cells according to their suitability (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Regional Site Suitability

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Each cell given a value for suitability

RegionalSite Suitability

Major urban areas

South East England

Mapping completed byGeoSpec, University of Brighton, 2009

Data sources:BERG University of Brighton, OS DigiMap, GoogleMap, Sitsoe Cranfield, Met Office

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“ THE iDENTifiCATiON Of PriME viNEyArD ArEAS iS ESSENTiAL fOr THE SUCCESSfUL DEvELOPMENT Of ENGLiSH WiNE”

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Generating the maps

Parameter Acceptable Not acceptable Comments

pH 5–8 Less than 5; more than 8

High acidities are toxic to vine growth due to the high availability of copper and aluminium (Seguin 1986)

Depth to bedrock (cm) 20+ Less than 20 Soils where root penetration is problematic due to shallowness are considered unsuitable for vine cultivation (Jackson 2008)

Soil drainage (mm/day) 500 + Less than 500 Poor soil drainage excludes oxygen from the soil pores, which adversely affects grapevine nutrient assimilation (Wilson 1998). Free-draining soils will also cause a mild stress during ripening, which improves grape quality (Seguin 1986).

Organic matter (%) 1–10 Over 10 Excessively fertile soils will lead to excessive growth and dominance of vegetative over reproductive activity, leading to yield of low quality and quantity (Smart & Robinson 2001).

Growing degree days (°days)

850 + Less than 850 This figure represents the sum of the temperatures that a region gets above 10°C over the year, and is a clear indication of the region’s potential for the vine to complete its annual growth cycle (Coombe & Dry 2004).

Total annual rainfall (mm) 450–850 Less than 450; more than 850

450 mm is regarded as the minimum level of rainfall required by an un-irrigated vine (Coombe & Dry 2004), whereas high rainfall sites typically suffer from excessive vegetative growth (Coombe & Dry 2004) and increased disease pressure (Smart & Robinson 2001). Typical rainfall for French vinegrowing regions is 680 mm (Wilson 1998).

Frost days during growing season (days)

0–9 More than 9 Vines are very sensitive to frost during the growing season (Jackson 2001), as this will kill all green shoots (Coombe & Dry 2004) and cause extensive yield reduction (Wilson 1998). Secondary shoots will grow, but these are over 60% less fruitful (Coombe & Dry 2004).

Average wind speed over growing season (knots)

0–15 More than 15 Strong winds will increase drought stress on plants and cause reduced stomatal conductance on the leaves, thus reducing photosynthesis. This will affect both growth and yield (Coombe & Dry 2004). Wind will also have cooling effect and can cause shoot and trellis damage (Coombe & Dry 2004).

Angle of slope (°) 0–45 Greater than 45 Sloping land will aid in the drainage of cold air thus alleviating frost risk (Jackson 2008, Coombe & Dry 2004), but excessive slopes will hamper the use of machinery and render cultivation uneconomical.

Elevation (m) 0–250 More than 250 Mean site temperatures decrease by 5–6°C for every increase in 100m in elevation (Coombe & Dry 2004), plus there is an increase in the negative effects of wind exposure.

Aspect E–SE–S–SW NE–N–NW–W In northern latitudes, southern-facing slopes will gain in solar radiation (Coombe & Dry 2004), particularly during the ripening period, and reduce the lag phase during which a site heats up after a cold night (Jackson 2008), thus increasing the potential for photosynthetic activity by the plant. Westerly aspects have the disadvantage of being more exposed to the dominant winds in the area.

Figure 3: Parameters of Acceptability for Growing Vines

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Suitability, in this case, was determined by reference to the key growing parameters established for vines grown in the types of conditions found in the Champagne region of France. The parameters relate to soils and geology (4 criteria), climate (4 criteria) and topography (3 criteria). The data were analysed for each set of criteria, to identify those cells which met the selection criteria and those that did not (Figure 3).

With the south east region divided into cells (see figure 2), each individual cell was identified, in Boolean terms, as being either ‘suitable’ or ‘unsuitable’ for each variable included. Figure 4 illustrates the findings for eight of the criteria illustrating, for example, that the parameters for soil drainage and frost free days appear to be the most restricting in terms of where vines can be grown, while other factors such as wind speed, rainfall, water holding capacity and soil pH appear to be less restrictive.

Figure 4: Acceptable Sites for Growing Vines according to Individual Criteria

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Generating the maps

Conceptually, Boolean approaches use Standard Query Language (SQL) operators between two (or more) parameters or other values (for example, “climate AND soil”). It is therefore possible to combine more than one variable, to identify any locations (cells) that contain suitable scores/values for all the parameters, not just one (see Figure 5 for a series of simple 2 and 3 parameter models).

Figure 5: Boolean Analysis

Climate AND Soil

Climate AND Soil AND Topography Climate AND Soil OR Topography

Soil

Soil

Topography Topography

Climate

Climate SoilClimate

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Figure 6 shows the results for two parameters, indicating where in the region there are sites that are acceptable in terms of rainfall and wind speed. A similar analysis can be done for all the criteria under consideration, to determine whether any sites meet all the criteria set out in Figure 3.

Once all the sites that meet the criteria have been identified, local-scale suitability analysis can be used to determine more precisely where (within the ‘suitable’ cells) the most suitable sites are located. A lack of suitable datasets at a local, or field, scale mean that such data will have to be generated through on-site collection and monitoring (through soil sampling and meteorological monitoring, for example) although, of course, such data can be used to create a local data layer within the GIS model.

Figure 6: Site suitability for rainfall and wind speed

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Boolean logic approach

Red cells show areas which are suitable for vines using rainfall and wind speed data

Rainfall (mm/mth) Windspeed(knot)


Mapping completed byGeoSpec, University of Brighton, 2009

Data sources:BERG University of Brighton, OS DigiMap, GoogleMap, Sitsoe Cranfield, Met Office

Major urban areas

South East England

Not suitable

Suitable

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Findings

HE SOUTH EAST Of England is not a large area in geographical terms and therefore does not have a large latitudinal or topographical range. It is thus to be expected that the climate parameters (growing degree days, total annual rainfall, frost days during growing season, and average wind speed over growing season) are unlikely to be highly significant in determining appropriate sites for growing vines. This proved to be the case (Figure 7), although the Hampshire and Berkshire Downs and some parts of the Sussex Downs were ruled out, largely on the basis that they have insufficient frost free days.

In contrast, the soil and geological characteristics of the region (pH, depth to bedrock, soil drainage, and organic matter) offer greater variation in determining suitable sites for growing vines. As Figure 8 indicates, the acceptable sites are largely limited to the North Downs, Chilterns, Salisbury Plain South Downs, sections of the Sussex High Weald and Thames Valley. The main determinant of geological suitability is soil drainage. The less suitable sites have characteristics such as poor drainage, low lying relief and clay-rich soils. In contrast, the suitable sites are typically associated with chalk, limestones and sandstone dominated rock types.

The topographical features (angle of slope, elevation and aspect) identify much of the same territory as the geological features (Figure 9), largely due to aspect (southern and western facing slopes). However, it should be noted that the areas suitable for growing vines are more restricted than for the geographical and climatic features, suggesting that a combination of aspect, slope and elevation are extremely important in determining which sites are likely to be suitable for growing vines.

Figure 7: Composite map of climatic factors indicating areas acceptable for viticulture

Figure 8: Composite map of geological features, indicating suitable areas for vine cultivation

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Composite Layer


Mapping completed by GeoSpec, University of Brighton, 2009

Data sources: BERG University of Brighton, OS DigiMap, GoogleMap, Sitsoe Cranfield, Met Office

Not acceptable

Acceptable

Soil suitability analysis

Figure 9: Composite map of topographical features, indicating suitable areas for vine cultivation

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Composite Layer




Unsuitable

Suitable

Topographic suitability analysis

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Composite Layer




Not acceptable

Acceptable

Climatic suitability analysis

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Adding all three sets of criteria together (Figure 10) demonstrates that there are sites in the south east of England that meet all 11 parameters. Indeed, the southern slopes of the Chilterns, to the north west of London, represent a comparatively large area of potentially suitable sites, as do the Hampshire Downs and parts of the Lee Valley immediately north of London. Suitable conditions are also found on the North and South Downs and parts of the Sussex and Kent High Weald.

The comparison with the location of current vineyards is particularly interesting. As Figure 11 illustrates, there are already many vineyards in the south east, the majority of which are located in or close to areas that have been found to be acceptable for growing vines. This is particularly striking for the cluster of vineyards in southern Hampshire, those on the North and South Downs and most of those in the Chilterns. While it is not possible to give precise details of individual vineyards and the quality of their wines, it should be noted that ten of the

largest vineyards in the region (denoted as white dots on the map) are all – despite their dispersal across the region – located in areas deemed ‘suitable’ by the GIS model. Indeed, given the prior lack of evidence about which areas are suitable, the fact that most vineyards are in areas acceptable for viticulture is remarkable, and a testament to those who decided where to plant vines. There are a few vineyards that appear to be located in areas that are not acceptable. It is not possible to determine the extent to which the location affects the quality of the wines produced from these vineyards.

Some of the acceptable areas, especially the Sussex coast, north Hampshire and the central Chilterns, do not yet appear to be supporting many vineyards. There may be reasons beyond cultivation that are influencing this, such as high property prices, but the evidence from this research suggests that site-level investigation should be conducted in these areas to establish how good they are likely to be for viticulture.

Figure 10: Composite suitability map

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Not acceptable

Acceptable

Topography, soil & climatic suitability analysis

Figure 11: Comparison with existing vineyards

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Unsuitable

Suitable

Topography, soil and climatic suitability analysis

Vineyard locations


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Implications of the research

HE rESEArCH iNDiCATES that there is good reason to undertake regional-scale suitability analysis in many parts of south east England, with a view to developing new vineyards in areas not yet associated with the wine industry. With a population the size of London’s literally on the doorstep, there is clearly potential to develop new diversified businesses, although detailed feasibility studies will be required to establish the potential viability of these enterprises.

However, as the focus group identified, the real significance of this work does not lie in locating suitable sites for growing vines. Rather, it lies in demonstrating the simplicity and power of geographical information systems to generate suitability models for a range of applications. The methods employed are not overly complex and focus on basic skills sets and activities which include: data creation; querying; analysis; and mapping. To undertake this level of analysis practitioners would require core practical GIS skills which would typically be delivered at undergraduate level, or via professional training programmes. ESRI (2007) highlights that GIS organises geographic data so that users can easily select specific data groups or features with particular properties (e.g. soil types, elevation ranges, land use types) and then combine these features to identify the areas that maintain all the necessary qualities. This level of expertise is within the curriculum and skill sets of most entry-level courses in GIS, any of which could be made available to those entering the

profession. A grounding in the operation and use of industry-standard software platforms (e.g. ArcGIS™, MapInfo™, GRASS) is clearly advantageous, as is a critical awareness and understanding of the appropriate use and application of Geographical Information Systems and spatial analysis techniques (addressing data resolution issues, ground-truthing and model verification procedures, for example). Nevertheless, to complete an activity such as this the practitioner would not require an advanced knowledge of GIS, spatial modelling and mathematical interpolation methods, or computer programming skills.

In addition to the practical GIS skills, there are some data licensing and access issues that need to be addressed. Few of the data used in this study are free of charge, especially for commercial applications, while licences are also required in order to use and reproduce some data. Access to these data could therefore be expensive for individual practitioners or small surveying firms. However, these constraints could easily be overcome by collective action in the profession. These issues aside, it is clear that GIS - even at the relatively basic level used in this work – has many potential applications, particularly where different parameters (such as climate, topography and geology) need to be combined. Critically, the regional-scale analysis can also be undertaken without the need for extensive site visits, thus speeding up and potentially reducing the carbon footprint of feasibility studies and ensuring that site visits and analysis are concentrated where they are most likely to be successful.

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About the study

HE rESEArCH WAS undertaken by a team drawn from the Wine Department at Plumpton College [Chris Foss BSc, BTS (Viti/Oeno), PGCE, WSET Dip (Hons), Head of Wine Department at Plumpton College, Previously Winemaker for the Leclerc Wine Group (Bordeaux); and David Morris, final year student on the BSc (Hons) Viticulture & Oenology course at Plumpton College] and the School of Environment and Technology at the University of Brighton [Dr Niall Burnside, Senior Lecturer in Geographic Information Systems; and Dr Neil Ravenscroft MRICS, Professor of Land Economy]. The work was funded by Plumpton College and the RICS Education Trust, and advice and guidance was provided by a group of local chartered surveyors.

GIS Analysis was performed using ArcGIS 9.3, Environmental Systems Research Institute; Climate Data supplied by the Hadley Centre, UK Meteorological Office; Soil and Geology Data supplied by National Soil Resources Institute, Cranfield University (LC0056/001); Topographical Data Supplied by Ordnance Survey (100024463)

Further information

Full information about the project and research outputs are available from Chris Foss, Plumpton College.

Chris Foss Head of Wine Department Plumpton College Ditchling Road Nr Lewes East Sussex BN7 3AE

t 01273 890454e [email protected] www.plumpton.ac.uk

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Glossary of terms

BERG

Biogeography & Ecology Research Group, University

of Brighton

Boolean

a system where an element has only one of two outputs

“true” or “false”

GIS

Geographical Information Systems

GPS

Global Positioning System

ESRI

Environmental Systems Research Institute

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References and further reading

Badcock J.B., (1998) Spatial information systems: a tool to assist site selection and vineyard management, Australian & New Zealand Wine Industry Journal, Vol. 13, N°2, May 1998, 196-200

Boyer J., Wolf T., (2000) GIS and GPS aid the exploration of viticultural potential in Virginia, Vineyard and Winery Management, USA, 26 (6) 48-54.

Burnside N.G., Smith R.F & Waite S. (2001) ‘Habitat Suitability Modelling for calcareous grassland restoration on the Sussex and East Hampshire downland landscape’ A report to English Nature Sussex & Surrey Team, University of Brighton.

Burnside N.G., Smith R.F., & Waite S. (2002a) Habitat suitability modelling for calcareous grassland restoration on the South Downs, United Kingdom. Journal of Environmental Management 65 (2): pp. 209-221.

Burnside N.G., Carrett C.J., Metcalfe D. & Waite S. (2002b) GIS habitat suitability modelling for woodland restoration via landscape enhancement on the South Downs, A report to English Nature Sussex & Surrey Team, University of Brighton.

Coombe B.G. & Dry P.R. (2004) Viticulture: volume 1 Resources. Winetitles, Australia.

ESRI (2007) GIS Best practices: education. http://www.esri.com/library/bestpractices/education.pdf Accessed December 2009

Jackson, R.S. (2008) Wine Science: Principles, Practice, Perception, Academic, London

Seguin G (1986) “Terroirs” and pedology of wine growing. Experientia 42 pp.861-873

Smart, R and Robinson, M (2001) Sunlight into Wine: A Handbook for Winegrape Canopy, Winetitles, Adelaide

Tesic D., Woolley D.J., Hewett F.W., Martin D.J., (2001) Environmental effects on cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grown in Hawke’s Bay, New Zealand. Development of a site index, Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 8, 15-26.

White R.E. (2006) Principles and Practice of Soil Science, 4th Edition, Blackwells Publishing, Victoria, Australia.

Wilson J.E. (1998) Terroir: the role of geology, climate and culture in the making of French wines. Mitchell Beazley, UK

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communities@RICS - FINDINGS IN BUILT AND …...©RICS – July 2010 ISBN: 978-1-84219-585-7 Published by: RICS Parliament Square London SW1P 3AD United Kingdom The views expressed