COMMUNICATING IN GROUPS: APPLICATIONS AND SKILLS

Third Edition

Gloria J. Galanes Southwest Missouri state University

John K. Brilhart Southwest Missouri state University

Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, Illinios Dubuque, Iowa Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California St Louis, Missouri

mmrems

Preface xiii

A R T O N E

Orientation to Small Group Systems

C H A P T E R 1

Small Groups ds the Heart oF Society 2

Groups in Your Life 5 Groups as Problem Solvers 6 Participating in Groups 6

Groups Versus Individuals as Problem Solvers 7

When a Group Is a Good Choice 9 When a Group Is Not a Good Choice 9

Groups, Small Groups, and Small Group Theory 11

Groups 11 Small Groups 12 Group Dynamics 13 Communication 13 Small Group Communication 14

Classifying Groups by Their Major Purpose 14

Primary or Secondary Groups 14 Primary Groups 15 Secondary Groups 15

Types of Secondary Groups 15 Learning Groups 15 Organizational Groups 16

Being a Valuable Group Member 18 Being an Ethical Group Member 19 The Participant-Observer Perspective 20 Summary 21 Review Questions 22 Bibliography 22 References 23

C H A P T E R 2

Groups as Structured Open Systems 24

Overview of General Systems Theory 26 The Small Group as a System 27

Definition of a System 27 Concepts Vital to Understanding

Systems 28 Inputs 29 Throughput Processes 29 Outputs 31 Environment 31

Characteristics of Systems 32 Open and Closed Systems 32 Interdependence 34 Feedback 34 Multiple Causes, Multiple Paths 35 Nonsummativity 36

Life Cycles in the System 36 Organizations as Systems of Groups 37 Summary 39 Review Questions 40 Bibliography 40 References 40

vii

Foundation^ Small Group Communicating

C H A P T E R 3 Interpersonal Communication

Principles for Group Members u

communication: What's That? 45 implications for Small Group

Communication 49 Listening: Receiving, Interpreting, and

Responding to Messages from Other Group Members 51

Listening Defined 51 The Effects of Culture on the

Communication Process 52 Habits of Poor Listeners 57 Listening Actively 58 Focused Listening 60

Summary 61 Review Questions 62 Bibliography 62 References 63

C H A P T E R 4 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages 64

Creating Messages in a Small Group 67 How Communication structures the Small

Group 67 Using Language to Help the Group

Progress 68 Follow the Rules 69 Adjust to the Symbolic Nature of

Language 70 Use Emotive Words Cautiously 72 Organize Remarks 74 Make Sure the Discussion Question Is

Clear and Appropriate 76 Nonverbal Signals in Small Group

Communication 80 Principles of Nonverbal

Communication 80

Functions of Nonverbal Signals 82

Appearance 83 Space and Seating 83 Facial Expressions and Eye

Contact 84 Movements 85 Voice 86 Timing 86

Summary 87 Review Questions 88 Bibliography 88 References 88

C H A P T E R 5 Critical Thinking in the Small Group 90

What Makes Thinking "Critical"? 92 When Is Critical Thinking Appropriate? 94

Attitudes 95 Gathering Information 97

Assessing Information Needs 97 Collecting Needed Resources 98

Evaluating Information 100 Determining the Meaning of What Is

Being Said 101 Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

and Inference 102 Identifying and Clarifying Ambiguous

Terms 103 Evaluating Opinions by Determining

the Credibility of the Source 104 Assessing the Accuracy and Worth

of the Information 104 Checking for Errors in Reasoning 106

Overgeneralizing 107 Attacking a Person Instead of the

Argument 108 Confusing Causal Relationships 108 Either-or Thinking 109 Incomplete Comparisons 109 Begging the Question 110

Asking Probing Questions 111 Behaviors Counterproductive to Critical

Thinking 112 Impulsiveness 112

viii Contents

Overdependence on Personal Experience 113

Overdependence on Authority Figures 113

Lack of Confidence 114 Dogmatic, Inflexible Behavior 114 Unwillingness to Make the Effort to

Think Critically 115 Summary 116 Review Questions 116 Bibliography 117 References 117

P A R l T H R E E

Understanding and Improving Group Throughput Processes

C H A P T E R 6

Becoming d Group 120

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Tensions 122

Phases in the Development of a Group 125

Rules and Norms 127 Development of Group Norms 128 Enforcement of Group Norms 130 Changing a Group Norm 132

Group Roles 132 Types of Roles 133 Role Functions in a Small Group 134 The Emergence of Roles in a

Group 137 Development of the Group's Culture 139

Fantasy Themes 139 Group Climate 141

Trust 141 Cohesiveness 142 Supportiveness 144

Summary 145 Review Questions 146 Bibliography 146 References 147

C H A P T E R 7 Perspectives on

Leading Small Groups 148

Leadership and Leaders 151 Leadership and Sources of Power in

the Small Group 151 Leaders 154

Designated Leader 154 Emergent Leader 155

Myths About Leadership 156 Current Ideas About Leadership 159

The Functional Concept of Group Leadership 160

Leader as Completer 161 The Contingency Concept of Group

Leadership 161 Distributed Leadership 164

Summary 165 Review Questions 166 Bibliography 166 References 167

C H A P T E R 8

Applying Leadership Principles 168

What Groups Expect Leaders to Do 170 Performing Administrative Duties 171

Planning for Meetings 171 Following Up on Meetings 173

Leading Group Discussions 173 Initiating Discussions 173 Structuring Discussions 175 Equalizing Opportunity to

Participate 177 Stimulating Creative Thinking 178 Stimulating Critical Thinking 179 Fostering Meeting-to-Meeting

Improvement 180 Developing the Group 181

Establishing a Climate of Trust 181 Developing Teamwork and

Promoting Cooperation 182

Contents ix

Managing the Group's Written Communication 183

Personal Notes 183 Group Records 183 Written Notices and Visuals 185 Reports and Resolutions 187

Encouraging Distributed Leadership 188 Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders 190 Summary 192 Review Questions 192 Bibliography 193 References 193

C H A P T E R 9 Procedures For a

Problem-Solving Group 194

Scientific Method as the Basis for Problem Solving 198

Characteristics of Problems 199 Definition of Problem 199 Problem Solving Versus Decision

Making 200 Problem Characteristics 201

Task Difficulty 201 Solution Multiplicity 201 Intrinsic Interest 201 Member Familiarity 201 Acceptance Level 202 Area of Freedom 203

The Procedural Model of Problem Solving (P-MOPS) 203

1. Describing and Analyzing the Problem 205

2. Generating and Explaining Possible Solutions 207

3. Evaluating Possible Solutions 207 Criteria for Evaluating Solutions 208 Narrowing a Long List of Proposed

Solutions 209 Charting the Pros and Cons 209

4. Deciding on a Solution 209 5. Planning How to Implement the

Solution 212 Applications of P-MOPS 212

Summary 215 Review Questions 216 Bibliography 216 References 216

C H A P T E R 1 0 Managing Conflicts Productively 218

What Is Conflict? 221 Myths About Conflict 221 Groupthink 224

Symptoms of Groupthink 225 Preventing Groupthink 227

Managing Conflict in the Group 229 Conflict Management styles 230

Avoidance 231 Accommodation 232 Competition 232 Collaboration 233 Compromise 233

Expressing Disagreement 234 Maximizing Your Chances to Influence

the Group 236 Steps in Principled Negotiation 237 Breaking a Deadlock 240

Principled Negotiation by the Leader or Outside Facilitator 240

Third Party Arbitration 241 Summary 242 Review Questions 243 Bibliography 243 References 243

Special Techniques For Small Groups

C H A P T E R 11 Group Techniques in Organizations 246

Generating Information and Ideas 249 Focus Groups 249 Buzz Groups 250

X Contents

Enhancing Group Creativity 253 Brainstorming 253 Synectics 256

identifying Problems 256 Problem Census 257 RISK Technique 259

Solving Problems and Making Decisions Effectively 259

Nominal Group Technique 260 Group Support Systems 263

Implementing Group Solutions 264 Improving Organizational

Effectiveness 265 Quality Circles 265 Self-Managed Work Teams 268 Teambuilding 269

When Members Cannot Meet Face-to-Face 270

Delphi Technique 271 Teleconferencing 273

Summary 274 Review Questions 275 Bibliography 276 References 276

C H A P T E R 1 2

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups 278

The Role of the Observer 280 Observation Instruments and

Techniques 283 Verbal Interaction Analysis 283 Content Analysis Procedures 285 SYMLOG 288 Member/Observer Rating Scales 291

Rating Scales for General Evaluation 291

Postmeeting Reaction Forms 293 Evaluating Individual

Participants 294 Evaluating Group Leadership 297

Summary 301 Review Questions 301 References 301

Index 303

Contents xi