(Collected Works of Karl Mannheim 1) Karl Mannheim-Ideology and Utopia-Routledge (1998)

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Ideology an Utopia

An Introduction to the

Sociolo Knowled ge

By

KA MANNM

The London School Economics and Political Science(Universiy London)

Foery Pressor Socioloy in the Universi Frankfurt/Main

With a Preface by OIS WIRTHAssociate Pressor in the Universi Chicago

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Frst publ hed n England 1936'b Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd

39 Store StreetLondon WCIE 7DD and

Broadwa Hoe, Newtown RoadHenly-on-Thames

Oxon RG9 ENReprinted 1940 1946 1948 1949 1952 1954Reprinted and rst publshed �

as a Routledge Paperback 1960Reprinted 1966 1968 1976 and 1979

Printed in Great Britan bLowe Bdone Printers Ltd . , Theord, Noolk

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FOREWORD i

PRECE. y Lo ih ii

PRELIMINARY pROACH TO THE PROBLEM

The Sociological Concept of Thought

2. The Contemporary Predicament of Thought 53 The Origin of the Modern Epistemological, Psych-

logical and Sociologcal Points of View 12

4. Conrol of the Collective Unconscios as a Problemof our Age 30

DEOLGY AND UTO

Denition of Concepts 492 The Concept of Ideoogy in Historcal Perspectie 53

3. From the Parcular to the Total Conception ofIdeoloy 57

4. Objectivity and Bias 62

5. The Transition om the Theory of Ideoogy to theSociology of Knowledge 67

6. The Non-Evaluative onception of Ideology 74

7. From the Non-Evaluative to the Evaluatve on- cepton of Ideology 78

8. Ontological Judgments Impt in the on- Evaluative Conception 8

. The Problem of" False Consciosness 84

0. The Quest 'for Reaity thoh Ideologcal andUtopian Analysis 8

ll. HE PROSECTS O CETIC PLTICS: heeohp beee Soci Theory PoicPrcice 7

Why is there no Science of Ptcs? 97

2. The Poiical and Social Determinants ofKnowledge 104

3 Synthesis of the Various Perspectves as a Problemof Political ociology 13



Slgal Pbl Inlgntsa " . 6

. a Pal nlg 46

6. nablty Plal nlg 3. Vats h Slgy Knlg 65

V. H UTON NTTY 73 Upa Ilgy, an h Pbl Ralty 3. Wslnt an Utpan Mntalty 843. hangs n h ngatn h Utpan

Mntalty: Is Stags n Mn s (a h Fs F th Utpan Mntalty

h Ogast hlas h Anabaptsts () h Sn F h Utpan Mnaly:

h LbalHanaan Ia h h F th Upan Mnalty:

h nsvatv Ia 6) h Fh F th Upan Mntaly:

Salsns Upa 5

4. Upa n h Psnt Statn

V. H OCOOGY O KNOWDG 37 Is a n Sp 3

nn an Svsn h Slgy nlg . . 3

() Slgy nlg an h hy

Ilgy 38 h vsns th Slgy nlg 3

(A) The Theory f the Social Detemnaton fKnwledge. 3

Purely empirical aspect of he invesigation of thesocial deermiaion of knowledge.

Social processes inuencing he process of knowledgeEssenial peneration of the social process ino the

perspecive" of thought.

The special approach characterisic of he ociologyof KnowledgeThe acquisitio of perspecive as a precondition for

the ociology of Knowledge.Relationism.Paricularzation

B Epsemlgcal Cosequences of the Socolgy Knwlege . 6

Eseg he Sec Sceces



CONTENTS ixPG

Demnsran he Paral Nare Tradnal Epsemlgy 26

a Orenan ars Narl Scence as amdel hgh 26 Relanshp beeen crera rh and

he scalhsrcal san 264 Psve Rle he Sclgy Knledge 262

Revisin f he hesis ha he genesis f a ppsiins nde a cicmsances ieevan is h.

Fhe cnseqences f he cigy f nwedgef Episemgy

Discvey f he acivisic eemen in knwdgehe esseniay Pespecivisic eemen in ceain yps

nwedgehe Pbm f he sphee f h as schw diecins Episemgy

5 Prblems Technqe n HsrcalSclgcalResearch 27

6 A re Srvey he Hsry he Sclgy Knledge 278

BILIGPHY 28r

NDEX F NE 3NDE F SUJE 3





W

HE present volume combines a number of dierent wriingsof the autho Parts II-IV epresnt Professo Mannhim's

dolog nd op F Cohen, Bonn, 1now, SchuleBulmke, FrankfurtamMain; Par V consists of his aicl Wissenssoziologie ", oiginally published in Alfred Viekandt'sHandrrb dr Soolog F Enke Sutgar 11)Par I wa especially written to inroduce the pesent volumeto the AngloSaxon eade

Whereas Pars II deal with the central problems of thesociology of knowledge and exmplify he ehod of thisemerging discipline as applied o some of th os signicanphases of recent and contemporary socia life h las parseeks to formulae a concise prospectus of this new scienticintest

Stylisically the rst fou pats of his book will be found toder markedly from the last Whereas he forme develop heirespective themes rathe fully, he latter being oiginally aarticle fo an Encyclodia, is scarcely more than a schemaicoutlin

A classied bibliography is appended containing all of the

works cited by Professo Mannheim in he abovemenonedaticle To hese items have been added some of the oresignicant presentaive contribuions of American, Engish,rench and Geman hough on his subjec which appearedto the translators to be elevant and suggesive

Despite the involved language of the oiginal, he translatorshave thought i worth while to adhee a closely as possible othe German ex Whil certain modications have a times

seemed necessary fo the sake of inteligibility, stenuous eothave been made to convy he autho's meaning accuraelyThanks are du o Profssor Robert Cooly Angell of he

University of Michigan, fo reading sections of Pas II and V,and to M Arthu Bergholz, of th University of Chicago, whoread sections 1 of Ideology and Upia Thanks ae alsotendered to Mrs E Ginsbeg MA, Oxon, and Miss JeanMcDonald BSc Econ Lond, fo h l and vaul

x



i FOREWOR

suggsions oncng h dng of h ranslaion. ThSocal Scinc Rsarch Comm of h Unirsi of Chcagognrousl poidd asssanc n png h manuscrip

UI W IRHEDWARD A S.



By OUIS WIRTH

T . E original German editio �f deoogy and toia appeare

an atmosphere of acute tellectual tensO arked byidespread discusion which subsided only with the exile oreforced silence of those thinkers who sought an honest and tenable solution to the problems raised Snce then the conicts which in Germany led to the destruction of the liberal Weimarepublic have been felt in various countries all ove the world,especially i Weste Euroe and the Uited States heintelectual problems which at one time were considered thepeculiar preccupation of Germa writers have envlopedvirtuall the hole world What was once regarded as the

ester coce of a few itellectuals i a singl country hasbecom the commo plight of th mode man response to this situatio there has arsen a extensive

literature which speaks of te ( l ed", the ( l decline", theC crsis", the decay", or the death" of Weste civilzatinBut despite the alarm which is heralded i such titles, one looksi ain in most of tis literature for an analsis f the basicfactors and rocesse underlying our social and intellectua

chaos contast wth thes Pofesso Manhei' work stadso as a sobr, critial, and scholal analsis of te social curretsa situaios of ou ime as the bear uo though belief,and action

sees to be haracteisti of our eriod ta norms adtruths hich wee once belied to be absolue, universal, andeteal, or which were accepted with blissful unawareness ofthir implications, are beig questioned the light of mode

thought and ivestigation much of what was once taken forgrated is eclared to be i need of demonstratio an proofh criteia of proof tmsles have become subjects of dispute.W are witnessing ot ol a general distrst of te alidity ofieas but of te motives of those who assert them his situationis aggravated by a war of eac against all in the itelectualara were personal self-aggradizement rather than trutas ome to be the coveted rize ncreased secularization of



iv PEFACE

life sharpened social antagonisms and the accetuation of thespirit of personal compettion have permeated regions which were nce thought t be wholl under the reign of the dis

interested and objective search for truthowever disquieting this change ma appear to be it has hadits whoesome inuences as well Among these might bementioned the tendenc toward a mre thoroughgoing selfscrutin and toward a more comprehensive awareness of theinterconnections between ideas and situations than had hithertobeen suspected Although it ma seem like grim humour tspeak of the benecent inuences arising out of upheaval

that has shake the foundations of our social and intellectualorder it must be asserted that the spectacle of change and cofusion which confronts social science presents it at the sametime with unprecedented opportunities for fruitful new development his new development however depends on taking fullcognizance f the obstacles which beset social thought hisdoes not impl that self-clarication is the onl condition forthe further advncement of social science as be idiatedin what follows but merel that it is a necessar pre-conditionfor further development

he progress of scial knowledge is impeded if not paralsedat present b two fundamental factrs one impinging uponknowledge frm withut the ther perating within the worldof science itself n the one hand the powers that have blockedand retarded the advance of knowledge in the past still are notconvinced that the advance of social knowledge is compatible with what the regard as ther interests and on the other hadthe attempt t carr over the tradition and the whole apparatusof scietic work from the phsical to the social realm has ftenresulted in cnfusion misunderstanding and sterilit Scieticthought about social aairs up to now has had t wage war

primaril against established intolerace and nstitutiona1izedsuppression t has been struggling to estabish itself against itseteal enemies the authoritarian interest of church state adtribe n the course of the last ew centuries however whatamounts at least to a partial victor against these utside forces has been won resulting in a measue of toleration of untrammelledinqui and even encouragement of free thought For a briefnterlude between the eras of medieval spiritualzed arkness



PREFAE x

and the rise of modern, seclar dictatorships, the Western worldgae promise of ng the hope of the enlightened minds oall ages that y the fll exercise of intelligence men ight

trimph over the adversities of natre and the perersities ofculture As so often in the past, however, this hope seems noto e chastened Whole nations have ocially and proudlygien themselves p to the clt of irrationality and even thengloSaxon world which as for so long the haen of freedomand reason has recently proided reials of intellectual witchhnts

n the corse of the dev�lopment of the Western mind theprsit of knowledge aot the physical world reslted, afterthe traail of theological persection, in the concession tnatral science of an atonomos empire of its own Since thesixteenth centry, despite some spectaclar exceptions theoogical dogmatism has receded from one domain of inqiryafter another ntil the athority of the natral sciences wasgenerally recognized n the face of the forward moement of

scientic inestigation the chrch has yielded and time aftertime readjsted its doctrinal interpretations so that theirdivergence from scientic discoveries wold not e too glaring

At length the voice of science was heard with a respect aproximating the sanctity which formerly was accorded only toathoritarian, religios pronouncements The revoltions whichthe theoretical strctre of science has ndergone in recentdecades have left the prestige of the scientic prsit of trth

nshaken Even thogh in the last ve years the cry hasoccasionally een raised that science was exeting a disrptieeect pon economic organition and that its outpt sholdtherefore e restricte, whatever slowing down of the pace ofnatral science research has taken place dring this period isproaly more the reslt of the decreasing economic demandor the prodcts of sciee than the deerate attempt to hamperscientic progress i order to stailize the existing order

The trimph of natral science over theological and metaphysical dogm is sharply contrasted with the deelopent inthe stdies of social life ereas the empirical procedre hadmade deep inroads n the dogmas o the ancients conceingnatre the classical social doctries proved th€mseles moreimpervios to the onslagt of the seclar and empirical spiritThis may in part have een de to the fact that the knowledgeand theozing aot social aairs on the part of the ancients



PFAC

was far in advance of their nions bou physcs and biolog.The oppruniy for demonsrang he praial uily of henew naura siene had no ye come, and he dsuiliy of

esng sal drnes oud no be onvningly esablishedhereas Arsole's logc, ehs, seis, polics, andpsychology were aeped as auhorave by subsequenperids, hs noons of asronomy, physs and bology wereprogressively being relegaed o he scrap-heap of anciensupersins

Unl early in he egheenh cenury poal and soialeory was s under he domnane of he caegories of hough

elaboraed by he anen and meeval phlsophers and operaedlargely win a heoloa framework Tha par of soalsiene ha had any praial uly was coneed, prmarily,wih admnisrave ma�rs Camerasm and polalarhmei, hih represened hs curren, conned hemselveso he homely fas of every-day ife and rarely ook ighs inoheory Consequenly ha par of soal knowledge whch wasonceed h quesions mos subje o onroversy could

carely lay laim o he pracia value whih he nauralscienes, afer a eran poin in her developmen, had acheveNor could hose soa hinkers from whom alone an vncoud me expec e suppor of he church or he saefrom whom he more orhodox wng deved s nanca and

moral susenane The more secularized social nd poliicaheory beae and he more horoughly i dspelled he sancie

mys whih legimized he exsng polial order, he more

prearious beame he posiion of he emerging soa scence A dramac nsane f he ierene beween he eec of

and he aude oward echnologca as nsrase wh soiaknowledge is furnsed by conemporary Japa Once ounry was opene o he sreams of Wese nuence heehnal producs and mehods of he laer were eagerlyaceped Bu socal, economc, and poiia iuenes from heousde are even o-day regarded wh suspon and enacouslyressed

The enhusiasm wi whih he resus of physia biloga sience are embraed n Japan conrass srikinglwh e auious and guarded uvaion of eonomic, polca,and scial nvesgain These laer subjes are sill, for he mos par, subsumed under wha he Japanese ca nssoor "dangerus houghs The auhores regard dscsson



PREFE

of demoay onsiuionalism he empeo soialism anda hos of ohe subjes dangeous beause knowledge on heseopis migh subve he sanioned beliefs and undemine he

eising odeBu les we hink ha his ondiion is peulia o Japan

howeve i should be emphasized ha many of he opis haome unde he ubi of If dangeous hough in Japan weeunil eenly aboo in esen soiey as well Even odayopen fank and objeive nuiy ino he mos saedand heished insiuions and beliefs is moe o less seiouslyesied in evey ouny of he world I is viually impossible

fo insane even in England and meia o inuie in heaual fas egading ommunism no mae how disineesedly wihou unning he isk of being labelled a ommunis

ha hee is an aea of dangeous hough in evey soieyis heefoe saely debaable hile we eognize a whai is dangeous o hink abou may die fom ouny o ounyand om epoh o epoh on he whole he subjes maked wihhe dange signal ae hose whih he soiey o he onollingelemens in i believe o be so val and hene so saed ha heywill no oleae hei pofanaion by disussion Bu wha is noso easily eognized is he fa ha hough even in he abseneof oial ensoship is disubing, and unde eain ondiions dangeous and subvesive o hough is a aalyiagen ha is apable of unseling ouines disoganizing habisbeaking up usoms undeining faihs and geneaing

sepiismhe isinive haae of soial siene disouse is o besough in he fa ha evey asseion no mae how objeive may be has amiaions exending beyond he limis ofsiene iself Sine every asseion of a I f fa abou he soiawold ouhes he ineess of some individual o goup oneanno even all aenion o he eisene of eain f faswihou ouring he objeions of hose whose vey rason d r

in soiey ess upon a divegen inepeaion of he I f faualsiuaion

I

he sussion ening aound his isse has adiionallybeen known as he poblem of objeiviy n siene In heanguage of he nglo-Saxon wold o be objeive has meano be impaial, o have no pefeenes pedileions o pejudie



xviii PREFACE

no iases, no preconceie ales o gments in the presenceof the facts This iew was an expression of the oler conceptionof natral law in accor with which the contemplation o te

facts o natre, instea of eing colore y the norms of condcto the contemplaor atomaticaly spplied tese norms1 Aftete natral law approach to �he prolem of obectivity ssided,tis non-personal way of looking at the facts themselves agaifon spport for a time throgh the oge of positiism.Nineteent centry social science aonds in waings againstte istorting inences of passion, political interest, nationalism,and class feeling and in appeals for self-prication

Indee a goo share of the history of modern philosophy· andscience may e iewe as a trend, i not a concerted rive,toward this type of oectivity Tis, it has een assmedinvolves te search for ali knowledge throgh te eiminationof iase perception an falty reasoning on the negative sideand the formlation of a criticaly self-conscios point of iewan the evelopment of son methos of oservation andanalysis on the positive sie If it may appear, at rst glance,

that in the logical an methoological wrtings on science thethinkers of ohe nations hae een more actie than the Englishan Americans, this notion ight well e coecte by calingattention o the long ine of thinkers in the English-speaking word who hae een preoccpie with tese ery same prolems withot specicaly laelling them methoology Certainly theconce ith the prolems an pitfals inole in the searchfor ali knowledge has constitte more than a neglgileportion of the works of a long line o rilliant thinkers fromLoce throgh Hme, Bentham, M an Spencer to writersof or own time We o not always recognize these tretmentso te processes of knowing as serios attempts to formlate theepistemological, logical, an psychological premises of a sociologyof knowlege, ecase they o not ear the explicit lael an werenot eierately intene as sch Nonetheless wherever scientic

activity has een carrie or in an organize and sel-consciosasion, tese prolems have always receie a consierale

I is pcisy ha cu f hugh which subsquy dvpd i h scigy f kwdg ad which csius h mai hmf his bk ha w w h isigh ha piica-hica ms yca b ivd fm h dic cmpai f h facs, bu hmsvs x a mudig iuc up h vy mds f pcivig hfacs Cf amg hs h wks f Thsi Vb Jh DwyO Bau ad Mauic Habwachs



PREFACE xix

mou o io I i suh wks s J S Mi's Sys oLoic d Hrbr Sr's brii d muh gd Sudyo Sociooy h robm o obiv soi kowdg hs

rivd orhrigh d omrhsiv rm I h riodht oowd Sr hs irs i obiviy o soikowdg ws somwh d by th sdy osisi hiqus s rrsd by Fris Go dKr Prso Bu i our ow dy h works o Grhm Wsd Joh A Hobso, mog ohrs sigi rur o hisirs

Amri, dsi h brr icur o is icu d

s ht w so gry d i th wriigs of Euros,hs rodud umbr o thikrs who hv ord hmsvs wih hi issu Ousdig i his rs is th work ofWilim Grhm Sumr, who, ahough h rohd herobm somwht obiquy hrough h alysis of h iueo h olk wys ad mors uo soi orms rhr th diryhrough ismoogi riism, by th vigorous wy i whihh dirctd io o h disorig iu o horismuo kowdg, d h robm o obivity ito disiivy ort soioogi sig Uforuty hisdisis hv fid o xor furthr th rih oiiiso his roh d hv rgy irstd hmsvs iborig ohr hss o his hought Somwht simir ihis rm o this robm is horsi Vb who, i sriso brii d rig ssys, hs exord the itrit

rioshis btw utur ues d icu tiviisFurthr disussio o h sm usio og ristic is isfoud i Jms Hrvy Robiso's Th Mind i h Makini whih his disiguishd histori touhs o my of hois whih th rst voum alyss di Morry Prossor Chrls A Brd's Th Naur o h SociaScincs hs dt th the ossibis of obeti soi knowdg from gogcl ont of iw i mr rig

trs of h iuc of Profssor Mhm's workNessry d whosom s h mhsis o h disorigiu o cuur vus d itrsts uo kowdg wshis give s of h culur riu o kowdg hsrrvd t uur wher h ositiv d cosrutivesigi o h ui ms i hought hd to rogid If th rir disussio of obiviy id srssuo h imiio o rso d oliv bis h mor



PREFACE

modern approa as attention to te posite ogimportane of tis ias Wereas te formr quest for obetiitytended to posit an objet" as distint from te

subjt t atter ses an ntmat ratosip beteente objet and t pereing subjet I fat t most rete matas tat te objet emrgs for t sbjt enn te ours of eperie te terest of t subjet s fousdupon tat partuar aspt of te ord Objeiity tusapears in a tofod aspt: one in objt and subjetare dsrte ad separate entitis te otr i te ntrpay beten tem is empd Weras obetty in terst sens refers to te reabity of our dat and te aidtyof our ousis objtity in t sod sse is on t rae to our intrests I t ram of t sopartuary tut is ot merey a mattr of a smp orrespondn bten tougt and eistee but is tingd tte inestigators interst in s subt mattr s stndpoit

is eauations in sort t dni of is objet of ttntion

T oneption of objetiity oeer does ot impy tat enefort no dstintion beteen trut and error s asertanabe. It dos not an tat aeer pope iagi to be tirprptos attitudes ad idas or at e ant oters tobee tm to e orrspods to t fts. Een in tsonepton of obetity e must reko it te dstoonprodud not mery by inaequate pereption or norret knoege of onesef but aso by te nabity or uningess nder

ertain irumstanes to report pereptions ad ideas nestyT oneption of t probm of objetiity i deriesPrfssor anims ork i ot be found totay stge bytos o ar famiar it tat urrent of mrian iosopyeprntd by ames Pere ead ad Deey. Toug Professoranneim's approa is te produt of a dierent teetua ertage in i Kant ar and a eber ae payedte eadng ros s onusions on many piota ssues are

dntia it tose of te Amerian pragmatists Tis onergene runs eer oy as far as te imits of t ed ofsoa psyooy. Amog Amerian soioogsts tis pont ofie as been epiity epressd by te ate Cares H Cooeyand R . aIer and mpity by W Tomas and Robert EPark. One reason y e do not immedatey onnet e orksof tese riters it te probem ompe of te present oumeis tat in Ameria at te sooogy of knoedge deas it



PEFAE xxi

systematiay ad eiity as bee tued y iietay iti te fame f te seia disie f siasgy as bee a uexited by-dut f emiiaesa.

Te quest f bjetity gies ise t euiay diutbems i te attemt t estabis a igus sieti metdi te study f sia ife Weeas i deaig it te bjetsi te ysia d te sietist may ery e e imseft te extea uifmities a eguaities tat ae teeeseted itut seeig t eetate it te ie meaig

f te emea i te sia te sea is mary a udestadig f tee ie meaigs a etisIt my be tue tat tee ae sme sia emea a

eas sme asets f a sia eets tat a be ieedexteay as if tey ee tigs. ut tis sud t ea tte ifeee tat y tse maifestatis f sia ife ih eessi i mateia tigs ae ea I t ud be a eya eti f sia siee t iit it t tse ete

tigs ae exteay eeiabe ad measuabe.Te teatue f sia siee amy demstates tattee are age ad ey deite sees f sia existee i

i it is ssibe t btai sieti edge i is ty eiabe but i as sigiat beaigs sia yad ati. It es t f fm te fat tat uma beigse dieet fm te bets i atue tat tee is tigdtermiate abt them Desite te fat tat uma beigs

i tei atis s a id f ausati i es t yt ay the bjets i atue amey mtiati it mustst be egized tat detemiate ausa sequees t eassumed t ay t te eam f t sia as tey d t teysia. It migt f use be agued at te eise kedge

e ae f ausa sequees i te eams as t as yet beeestabised i te sia eam. ut if tee is t be ay edge at a beyd te esig f te uique ad tasty

eets f te mmet te ssibiity f dseg geeateds ad edtae series f eets aagus t tse tbe fu i te pysia must be psited f te sia

d as e. Te determism i sia siee esupses ee ad f ih Pfess Maeim eas s uestadigy i tis ume is f a dieet st fm tat iei te N etia eestial mehais.

ee ae e sue sme sia sietists aim at



X PFAC

scence must restrct tself to the causaton of actual phenomenathat scece s not concerned wth what should be done not wth what ouht to be done but rather wth what ca be done andthe mane o don t Accordn to ths vew socal sceceshould be exclusvel nstrumental ather tha a oal-settndscplne But n studyn what we cannot totall ule out

what ouht to be n human lfe, the motves and end of actonare part o the process b whch acton s acheved and areessental n seen the relaton of the parts to the whole Wthoutthe ed most acts would have o meann and no nteres to usBut thee s nevertheless, a derence between takn accoutof ends and settn ends Whateve ma be the possblt complete detachment n dealn wth phscal thns n socallfe we cannot aord to dsreard the alues and oal acts wthout mss the sncance o man of the facts nvolvedn our choce of areas o eseach ou selecto o data our method o nvestaton ou oazaton o matealsnot to speak of the ormulaton o our hpotheses and con

clusons there s alwas mafest some more o less clear explctor mplct assumpton or scheme of evaluatonhere s accordnl a well-founded dstncton betwee

objectve and subjectve acts whch esults from the deecebetween oute ad ne obsevato o betwee nowledeabout ad acuantace wth to use Wllam Jamesterms thee s a deence betwee phscal and mentalpocessesand thee seems to be lttle occason to talk ths

mportat dstncto out of exstecet uests a corespondn derentaton n the modes of known these two kndsof phenomea Phscal objects can be know (and aturalscence deals wth them exclusvel as the could be nown)puel from the outsde whle mental and socal pocesses cabe know onl rom the nsde except n so a as the also exhbtthemselves exteal thouh phscal dexes nto wch ntu we ead meanns ence sht ma be eaded a the

core of socal knowlede t s arrved at b ben o the sdeof the phenomeno to be observed o a Charles Cooleput t b smpathetc ntrospecton t s the patcpato a actt that eerates nteest purpose pont o ew vuemea ad tellgblt as well as bas

the the socal sceces ae coceed th obect that amean ad value the obsere who attempt to udetathem mut ecessal o so b meas o cateoe whch



PREFAE iii

urn deend on is ow vaues and meanins. This oin hasbeen saed ime and aain in he disue whih has raed formany years beween he behaviouriss amon he soial sieniss who would have deal wih soial life elusively as he nauralsienis deals wih he hysial world, and hose who ook heosiion of symahei inroseionism and undersandinalon he lines indiaed by suh a wrier as M Weber.

Bu on he whole, while he evaluaive elemen in soialknowlede has reeived formal reoniion, here has beenrelaively lile aenion iven, eseialy amon Enlish and Amerian soioloiss, o he onree analysis of he role ofaual ineress and values as hey have been eressed in seihisorial dorines and movemens. An eeion mus bemade in he ase of Marism whih, alhouh i has raised hisissue o a enral osiion, has no fomulaed any saisfaorysysemai saemen of he roblem.

I is a his oin ha Professor Mannheims onriuionmarks a disinive advane over he work ha has hihero

been done in Euroe and Ameria. Insead of bein onen wih allin aenion o he fa ha ineres is ineviablyreeed in all houh, inludin ha art of i whih is alledsiene, Professor Manheim has souh o rae ou he seionneion beween aual ineres rous i soiey and he ideasand modes of houh whih hey esoused He has sueededin showin ha ideoloies i.e. hose omlees of ideas whihdire aiviy oward he mainenane of he eisin order,

and uoiasor hose omlees of ideas whih end o eneraeaiviies oward hanes of he revailin orderdo no merelydee houh from he obe of observaion, bu also serveo aenion uon ases of he siuaion whih oherwise

would be obsured or ass unnoied. In his manner e hasfored ou of a enera heoreial formulaion an eeiveinsrumen for fruiful emirial researh.

The meainful haraer of ondu does no warran he

inferene, however, ha his ondu is invaiably he roduof onsious reeion and reasonin. Our ques for undersandin arises ou of aion and may even be onsiouslyrearaory for furher aion, bu we mus reonize haonsious reeion or he imainaive rehearsal of he siuaionha we all hinkin is no an indisensable ar of everya. Indeed, i sees o be enerally areed amon soialsyholoiss h ideas are no sonaneously eneraed and



xxi PREFACE

a desie e asserio of a aiqaed sycology, e accomes before e og Reaso, coscosess ad cosiee caraerisically occr i siaios marked by coic

rofessor aeim, erefore is i accord wi a growigmber of mode ikers wo isead of osiig a reiele, are coceed wi e acal social codiios i wicieligee ad og emerges If, as seems o be rue weare o merely codiioed by e ees a go o i or

world b ae a e same ime a isrume for saig emi follows a e eds of acio are eer fully saable addeermied il e ac is ised or is so comleely relegaed

o aomaic roies a i o loger reqires cosciosessad aeio

Te fac a i e realm of e social e obserer is arof e obsered ad ece as a ersoal sake i e sbecof obseraio is oe of e cief facors i e aceess of eroblem of obeciiy i e social scieces I addiio we mscosider e fac a social life ad ece social sciece is oa oerwelmig exe coceed wi beliefs abo e edsof acio We we adocae someig, we do o do so asomlee osiders o wa is ad wa will ae I woldbe ae o sose a or ideas are eirely saed by eobecs of or coemlaio wic lie oside of s or a or wises ad or fears ae oig waeer o do wi wa weereie or wi wa will ae I wold be earer e ruo admi a ose basic imlses wic ae bee geeallydesigaed as t ieress" acally are e forces wic a esame ime geerae e eds of or raical aciiy ad focsor ielecal aeio Wile i certai seres of fe,eseciay i ecoomics ad o a lesser degree i oliics, ese ieress" ae bee made exlici ad aricae, i mosoer seres ey slmber below e srface ad disguise eseles i sc coeioal forms a we do o always recogize ee we ey are oied o o s Te mos iora

ig erefore a we ca kow abo ma is wa e akesfor graed, ad e mos elemeal ad imora facs aboa sociey are ose a are seldom debaed ad geerally regardedas seled

B we look i ai i e mode world for e sereiy adca a seemed o caracerize e amosere whic soeikers of ages as lied Te word o loger a a coofai ad or rofessed coiy of ires is scarcel



PREFAE xx

more than a gre of speech With the los of a common prposeand common interests we hae also een depried of commonnons modes of thoght and conceptions of the world Een

pic opinion has ted ot to e a set of U phantom plicsMen of the past may hae dweled in smaer and more parochial worlds t the worlds in which they lied were apparently morestale and integrated for al the memers of the commnitythan or enlarged nierse of thoght action and elief hascome to e

A society is possile in the last analysis ecase the indiidalsin it carry arond in their heads some sort of pictre of that

society Or society howeer in this period of minte diisionof laor of extreme heterogeneity and profond conict ofinterests has come to a pass where these pictres are lrredand incongros Hence we no longer perceie the same thingsas real and coincident with or anishing sense of a commonreality we are losing or common medim for expressing andcommnicating or experiences The world has een spnteredinto contless fragments of atomized indiidals and grops

The disption in the wholeness of indiidal experience corresponds to the disintegration in cltre and grop solidarityWhen the ases of nied collectie action egin to weakenthe social strctre tends to reak and to prodce a condition which Emile Drkheim has tened ano y which he meansa sitation which might e descried as a sort of socal emptinessor oid. Under sch conditions sicide crime and sorder arephenomena to e expected ecase indiidal existence nolonger is rooted in a stale and integrated social milie and mchof lifes actiity loses its sense and meaning

That intellectal actiity is not exempt from sch inencesis eectiely docmented y this olme, which if it may esaid to hae a practical oectie apart from the accmlationand ordering of fresh insights into the precontions, the processesand prolems of intelectal life aims at inqiring into the

prospects of rationality and common nderstanding in an eralike or own that seems so freqently to pt a premim ponirrationality and from which the possiiities of mtal nderstanding see to hae anished Whereas he intellectal worldin earlier periods had at least a common frame of reference whichoered a measre of cetainty to the participants in that worldand gae them a sense of mtal respect and trst the contemporary inteectal world is no longe cosmos t presents



PREFACE

the spectacle of a battleeld of warring parties and conictingdoctrnes. Not only does each of the conicting factions have itsown set of interests and purposes, but each has its picture of

the world in which the same objects are accorded quite dierent meanings and values In such a world the possibities ofintelligible communication and oriori of agreement are reducedto a minimum. The absence of a common apperception massvitiates the possibility of appealing to the same criteri ofrelevance and truth, and since the wold is held together to alrge extent by words, when these words have ceased to methe same thing to those who use them, it follows that men will

of necessity msunderstand and talk past one another.Apart from this inherent inabity to understand one another

there exists a furher obstacle to the achievement of consensusin the downright obstinacy of partisans to refuse to consider ortake seriously the theories of their opponents simply becausehey belong to another intellectua or politica camp. Thisdepressing state of aairs is aggravated by the fact that theintellectua world is not ree from the struggle fr persona

distinction and power. This has led to the introduction of thewiles of salesmanshp into the rea of ideas, and has broughtabout a condition where even scientists woud rather be in theright than right.

III

If e fee more thoroughly appalled at the threatening oss ofour inteectua heitage than was the case n previous cultura

crises it is ecause we have become the victims of more grandioseexpectations. For at no time prior to our own were so many

men led to indulge in such 'sublime dreams about the benetswhich science could confer upon the human race. This dissoution of the supposedly rm oundations of knowledge and thedisillusionment that has followed it have riven some o the" tender mnded to romantic yearning for the ret of anage that is past and for a certanty that is iretrievaby lost.

aced by perplexity and bewildement others have sought toignore or circumvent the ambiguities, conicts and uncertaintiesof the inteectual world by humour cyicism, or sheer eniaof te facs of lfe

At a tme in human history ike our own, when al over theworld people are not merey il at ease, but e questioningthe bases of socia existence, the validity of their truths, an the



PRFAC tenabiity of their norms it should become clear that there iso alue apart from nterest and no objectivity apart fromagreement Under such circumstances t is dicult to hold

tenaciously to what one believes to b the truth n th fce ofdssent, and one s nclined to queston the very possibility of anintellectual life. Despite the fact that the Weste world has bennourished by a traiton of hardwon intellectual freedom andintegrity for over two thousand years, men are beginning to askwhether the struggle to acheve these was worth the cost if somany today accept complacently the threat to eterminatewhat ratonality and objectivity has been won n human aairs

The widespread depreciation of the value of thought on the onehand and ts repression on the other hand are ominous sgns ofthe deepening twilight of modern culture. Such a catastrophecan be averted only by the most ntelligent and resolute measures.

dooy and opia is itself the product of this period ofchaos and unsettlement One of the contributions it makestoward the solution of our predicament is an analysis of the forcesthat hve brought t about. It s doubtful whether such a book

as this could have been written in any other perod, for the issueswth which it deals, fundamental as they are, could only beraised in a society and in an epoch marked by profound socialand ntellectual upheaval. It proers no simple soluon to thediculties we face, but it does formulate the leading problemsin a fashion that makes them susceptible of attack and carriesthe analyss of our ntellectual crisis farther than has ever beendone before In the face of the loss of a common conception ofthe problems and n the absence of unanimously acceptedcrteria of truth, Professor Mannheim has sought to point outthe lines along which a new basis for objective investigation ofthe controversal ssues n social life can be constructed.

Until relatvely recently nowledge and thinking, whieregarded as the proper subjec matter of logic and psychologywere viewed as lying outsde the realm of socal scence becausethey were not consdered socal processe. Whereas som� of theideas that Professor Mannhem presents are the result of thegradual development in the critcal analyss of thought processeand are an ntegral part of the scentic heritage of the Westeworld, the distinctive contributon of the present volume mturn out to be the eplicit recognton that thought, besdesbeng a proper subject matter for logic and psychology, becomefully comprehensible only if t is viewed sociologcally. Thi



PRFAnvoves the tracng of the base of soca judgments to therspecc nterestbound roots n socety through whch thepartcuarty and hence the mtatons of each vew w become

apparent It s not to be assumed that the mere reveaton of thesedvergent anges of vson w automatcay cause the antagonststo embrace one another's conceptons or that t w resutmmedatey n uversa harmony But the carcaton of thesources of these derences woud seem to be a precondton forany sort of awareness on the part of each observer of the mta-tons of hs own vew and at east the parta vadty of the vewsof the others Whe ths does not necessary nvove the hodng

of ones nterests n aeyance, t does make possbe at east aworkng agreement on what the facts n an ssue are and on amted set of concusons to be drawn from them It s n somesuch tentatve fashon as ths that soca scentsts even thoughthey are n dsagreeent on utmate vaues, can today erecta unverse of scourse wthn whch they can vew objects fromsmar perspectves and can communcate ther resuts to oneanother wth a mnmum of ambgty

IVTo have rased the probems nvoved n the reatons between

teectua actvty and soca exstence squarey and ucdys n tsef a major achevement But Professor Mannhemhas not rested at ths pont He has recognzed that thefactors at work n the human mnd mpeng and dsturbngreason are the same dynamc factors that are the sprngs

of a human actvty Instead of postng a hypothetcapure nteect that produces and dspenses truth wthout contamnatng t by the socaed nonogca factors he has actuayproceeded to an anayss of the concrete soca stuatons nwhch thought takes pace and nteectua fe s carred on

The rst four parts of the present voume demonstrate thefrutfuness of ths socoogca approach concretey and oean exempcaton of the methods of the new dscpne the

forma foundatons of whch are sketched n Par V undethe tte I The Socoogy of Knowedge Ths new dscpnestocay and ogcay fas wthn the scope of generasocoogy conceved as the basc soca scence If the themesthat Professor Mannhem has treated are systematcaydeveoped the socoog of knowedge shoud becoe aspecazed eort to dea n an ntegrated fashon fo a unfn



PRAC n f vew and b eans appopae echnqes h asees f sbjec aters whch htet have been n crsoryand dscee touched upon I t d be peare o dene

the exact scope whch hs new dscpne eventay takeThe works of the ae Max Schee and of rofessor Mannhehsef have, howeve, gone sucenty far to aow of tentatvestateen of the eadng ssues wth whch t ust conce tsef.

f these the rst and basc one s the socapsychoogcaeabraton of the theo of knowedge tsef, whch hs hthertofound a pace n phosoph n the fo of epsteoogy.Throughou the recoded hsto of tought ths subject has

haunted the successon of great thnkers Despte the ageoeort o esve the reatnshp beween experence andreecton, fact and dea, beef and truth, the probe of thenterconnecton between beng and knowng st stands as achaenge to the odern thnker But t no onger s a probethat s the excusve concern of the professona phosopherIt has becoe a centra ssue not erey n scence, but neducaton and potcs as we To the further understandng of

ths ancent enga the socogy of knowedge aspres to ake acntrbuton Such a task reures ore than the appcatonf weestabshed ogca rues to the ateras a hand, forthe accepted rues of ogc theseves are here caed no uestonand are seen n coon wth the rest of ou nteectua toos,as parts nd prducts of the whoe of our soca fe Ths nvovesthe searchng out of the otves that e back of nteecuaactvty and an anayss o the anner and the extent to whch

the thought processes theseves ae nuenced by the partcpatn of the thnker n the fe of socetyA csey aed ed of nteest for the socoogy of knowedge

es n he reworkng of the data of nteectua hstory wth avew to the dscovey of the styes and ethods of thoughtthat are donant n certan types of hstorcasoca stuatons.In ths connecton t s essenta to nure nto he shfts nnteec nterest and attenton tha accopan changes nothe phases of soca stucture It s here that rofessorMannhes dstncton beween deooges and topas oesprosng drectves fo eseac

In anaysng he enta of a peod o of a gven satn socet the socoogy of knowedge cnces tsef not eeywth the deas and odes of thnkng hat happen t oshbut wth the whe soca settng n whch ths occs. Ths ust



PRFACecessarily take accout of the ctors that are resposible forthe acceptace or the rejectio of certai ideas by certai groupsi society ad of the motives ad iterests that prompt certai

groups cosciously to promote these ideas ad to dissemiatethem amog wider sectiosThe sociology of kowledge furthermore seeks to throw light

o the questio of how the iterests ad purposes of certaisocial groups ome to d epressio i certai theories doctriesad itellectual movemets Of fudametal importace forthe uderstadig of ay society is the recogitio accordedto the various types of kowledge ad the correspodig share

of the resources of society devoted to the cultivatio of each ofthese qually sigicat is the aalysis of the shifts i socialrelatioships brought about by the advaces i certai brchesof kowledge such as techical kowledge ad the icreasedmastery over ature ad socety that the applicatio of thiskowledge makes possible Similarly the sociology of kowledgeby virtue of its coce with the role of kowledge ad ideas the maiteace or chage of he scial order is boud to devote

cosiderable attetio to the agecies or devices through whichideas are iused ad the degree of freedom of iquiry adepressio that prevails. I coectio with this attetio willbe focussed upo the types of educatioal systems that est adthe maer i which each reects ad moulds the society i whichit operates At this poit the problem of idoctriatio whichhas recetly received so much discussio i educatioal litera-ture ds a promiet place I the same maer the fuctios

of the press of the popularizatio of kowledge ad of propa-gada receive appropriate treatmet A adequate uder-stadig of such pheomea as these will cotribute to a moreprecise coceptio of the role of ideas i poltical ad socialmovemets ad of the value of kowledge as a istrumet icotrollig socia reality.

Despite the vast umber of specialized accouts of socialistitutios the primary fuctio of which cetres aroud theitellectual activities i society o adequate theoreticl treat-me of the social orgaizatio of itellectual life eists. Oe ofthe primary obligatios of the sociology of kowledge cosiststherefore i a systematic aalysis of the istitutioal organizatio withi the framework of which iteectual activity is cariedo This ivolves amog other items the study of schoolsuversities academies leared societies museums librarie



PREFAE xxxi

esearch nstittes an laoratores, fonations, an plishingfacilities It is important to now how an y whom theseinstittions are spporte, the ypes of activity hey carry on,

their policies, their inteal organation an nterrelations, anteir place in the social organation as a holeFnally, an in all of its aspects, the sociology of nowlege

is concee with the persons who are the earers of intellectalactivity, namely the intellectals In every society ther areinivials whose special fnction it is to accmlate, preserve,refolate, an isseminate the intellectal heritage of thegrop The composition of ths grop, their social erivation

and the metho y which they are recrite, their organiation,their class aliation, the rewars an prestige hey receive, theirparticipation in other spheres of social life, constitte some othe more crcial qestions to which the sociology of nowledgesees answers The manner in which these factors express themselves in the procts of intelecal activiy provies he centraltheme in a sties which are prse in the name of thesociology of nowlege

In dooy and opia Professor Mannheim presents notmerely the otlines of a new iscipline which promises to givea new an more profon nerstaning of social fe, t alsooers a mchneee clarication of some of the maor moralisses of toay It is in the hope that it will mae some conttion to the soltion of the prolems which inteigent peoplein the English-speaing worl are facing that the present volmehas een translate.





PRLMNARY APPROAC TO T PROBLM

H OIOLOGIL COPT OF HOUGHT

This bk is nerned wih he prblem f hw men ullhink The im f hese sudies is nvesige n hw hinkngppers n exbks n lgi, bu hw rell funins n

publi life nd in plis s n nsrumen f lleve nPhilsphers hve lng nerned hemselves wih herwn hnking When he wre f hugh, he hd n mndprimril her wn hsr, he hisr f phlsph, r quiespeil elds f knwledge suh s mhems r phsisThis pe f hnkng s pplble nl under quie spelirumsnes, nd wh n be leed b nlsng s ndrel rnsferble her spheres f fe ven when s

pplible, refers nl spe dmensin f exsenewhih des n sue fr lvng humn bengs wh re seekng mprehend nd muld heir wrld

Menwhle, ing men hve, fr beer r fr wrse, preeded develp vre f mehds fr he experenil nd nelle-ul penern f he wrld n whh he live, whih hvenever been nlsed wih he sme preisin s he slledex mdes f knwing When, hwever, n humn ivininues ver lng perid whu being subjeed nelle-ul nrl r riiism, ends ge u f hnd

ene i s be regrded s ne f he nmles f r meh hse mehds f hugh b mens f whih we rrve ur ms ruil desins, nd hrugh whh we seek dgnsend guide ur pliil nd sil desin, hve reminedunregnized nd herefre inessible ineeul nrlnd selfriiism This nml bemes ll he mre mnsruswhen we ll mind h in mde imes muh mre dependsn he rre hinking hrugh f siuin hn ws he sen erlier sieies The sgnine f sil knwledge grwsprprnel wih he inresing neessi f regulrnervenin n he sil press his sled presennex mde f hugh, hwever (whih, prdxill, helgiins nd philspher ls ue when he hve mke

1



IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIApractical decisios) is ot to be uderstood solely by the useof logical aalysis. It costitutes a coplex which caot bereadily detached either fo the psychological roots of the

eotioal ad vital ipulses which uderlie it or fro hesituatio i which it arises ad which it seeks to solve.I t is the ost essetial task of this book to work out a suitable

ethod fo the descriptio ad aalysis of this type of thoughtad its chages ad to forulate those probles coectedwith it which will both do ustice to its uique character adprepare the way for its critical uderstadig. The ethod whichwe will seek to preset is that of the sociology of kowledge.

The pricipal thesis of the sociology of kowledge is thatthere are odes of thought which caot be adequatelyuderstood as log as their social origis are obscured. I t isideed true that oly the idividual is capable of thikig.There is o such etaphysical etity as a group id whichthiks over ad above the heads of idividuals or whose ideasthe idividual erely reproduces. Nevertheless it would befalse to deduce fro this that all the ideas ad setiets whic

otivate a idividual have their origi i hi aloe ad cabe adequately explaied solely o the basis of his ow life-experiece

Just as t would be icorrect to attept to derive a laguageerely fro observg a sigle idividual who speaks ot alaguage of his ow but rather that of his coteporaries ad pre-decessors who have prepared the path for hi so it is icorrect toexplai the totality of a outlook oly with referece to its geesisi the id of the idividual. Oly i a quite liited sese doesthe sigle idividual create out of hiself the ode of speechad of though we attribute to hi. He speaks the laguage ofhis group ; he thks the aer i which his group thiks.He ds at his disposal oly certai words ad their eaigsThese ot oly deterie to a large extet the aveues ofapproach to the surroudig world but they also show at thesae tie fro which agle ad i which ctex of activityobjects have hitherto bee perceptible ad accessible to thegroup or the idividual.

The rst poit which we ow have to ephasize is that theapproach of the sociology of kowledge itetioally does otstart with the sigle idividual ad his thikig i order theto proceed directly i the aer of the philosopher to theabstrat heights of t thouht as such ". Rather the sociology



PELMNAY APPOACH TO THE POBLEM

of kedge seeks to cmpreed togt i te ccreteettig f a istricasocia sitati ot of ic idividaydieretiated tgt oy very graday emerges Ts it is

t me i eera tik, r eve isated idividas d te tikig, bt me i certai grups ve devepea particar stye of togt i a dess series of respses certai typica sitatis caracteriig teircmm psiti

Stricty speakig it is icrrect t say tat te sige idivid§tiks ater it is mre crect t isist tat e partiipatesi tikig frter at oter me ave tgt befre imHe ds imse i a ierited sitati it ptters f

gt ic are apprpriate t tis sitati ad attempts teabrate frter te ieited mdes of respse r t sbstitte ters fr tem i rder to dea mre adeatey it tee caeges ic ave arise t te sits ad cages iis sitati Every idivida is terefre i a td sesepredetermied by te fact grig p i a sciety : tee ad ds a readymade sitati ad te tere ds i tat sitati prefrmed patters of tgt ad fcodcte secd eatre caracteiig te metd f te scigyof kedge is tat it des t sver te ccretey existigmdes f tgt rm te ctext f cective acti trgic e rst discver te rd i a iteecta sese Meivig i grps d t merey cexist pysicay as discreteidividas Tey d t crt te bjects te rd fromte abstract eves a ctematig mid as sc, r o teydo s excsivey as sitary beigs O te ctrary tey actit ad agaist oe ater i diversey rgaied grps, adie dig so tey tik it ad agaist e ater Teseperss, bd tgeter ito grps, strive i accrdace itte caracter ad psitio of te grps to ic tey beg tocage te srrdig rd f atre ad sciety r attemptto maitai it i a give cditi t is te directio f ti

i to cage r to maitai f tis cective activity, icprdces te gidig tread fr te emergece f teir prbems teir ccepts ad teir orms of tgt accrd it teparticar ctext f cective activity i ic tey particpate me aays ted to see te rd ic srrds temdierety Jst as pre gica aaysis as severed idividagt frm its grop sitatio so it aso separated tgom actio t did tis o te tacit assmptio tat tose iere



4 DLY AND UPAonnetions whih alwas exist in reait between thought on theone hand and group and ativit on the other are either insigni-ant for i orrect " thinking or an be detached from these

foundations without an resultant diculties But the fact thatone ignores something b no means puts an end to its existenceN or an anone who has not rst given himself wholeheartedlo the exact observation of the wealth of forms in which meneall think decide priori whether this severane from the socialsituation and ontext of activit is alwas reaizabe Nor indeedan it be determined ohand that such a omplete dichotomis full desirable precisel in the interest of objective fatual

knowedget ma be that in certain spheres of knowledge it is the impuseto at whih rst makes the objects of the world aessible to theating subjet and it ma be further that it is tis fator whihdetermines he seection of those elements of relit which enterinto though And it is not inconceivable that if this volitionalfator were entire excluded (in so far as suh a thing is possible)the onrete onten would ompletel disappear from theonceps and the organzing principe which rst makes possiblean inteligent statement of the problem woud be lost

But this is not to sa that in those domains where attachmento the group and orientation towards action seem to be an essentialeement in the situation ever possibilit of intelectua riticasefcontrol is futile Perhaps it is precise when the hithertoonceaed dependence of thought on group exisene and itsrootedness in action beomes visible that it rea beomes possiblefor the rst time through becoming aware of them to attain anew mode of control over previousl unontrolled factors inthought

his brings us to the entral probem of the book heseremarks shoud make it lear that a preoccupation wth theseprobems and their soution wil furnish a foundation for the soialsciences and answer the uestion as to the possibiit of the

scientic guidance of poitica life t is of curse true that inthe social sciences as esewhere the utimate criterion of truthor fasit is to be found in the investigation of the object and thesocioog of knowedge is no substitute for this But the examina-tion of the object is not an isoated act it takes pace in a ontexthich is cooured b values and colectiveunonscious voitionalimpuses n the social sciences it is this inteetual interestoriented in a matrix of oletive activit whih provides no



PRELIMINR PPROCH TO THE PROBLEM 5

oly the geerl estios bt the cocrete hpotheses or reserchd the thoghtmodels or the orderig o experiece. Olys we scceed i brigig ito the re o coscios d explicit

observtio the vrios poits o deprtre d o pprochto the cts which re crret i scietic s well s poplrdiscssio c we hope i the corse o time to cotro thecoscios motivtios d presppositios which i the lstlysis hve broght these modes o thoght ito existece. ew type o objectivity i the socil scieces is ttibleot throgh the exclsio o evltios bt throgh the critic wreess d cotro o them

T H COTMPORRY RDIMT OF T HOUGHT

It is by o mes ccidet tht the problem o the socild ctivistic roots o thikig hs emerged i or geertio.Nor is it ccidetl tht the coscios which hs hithertomotivted or thoght d ctivity hs bee grdlly risedto the evel o wreess d thereby mde ccessible to cotrol.

It wold be ilre to recogize its reevce to or ow plighti we did ot see tht it is specic socil sittio which hsimpelled s to reect bot the soci roots o or kowledge.It is oe o the dmetl isights o the sociology o kowledgeht the process by which collectivecoscios motives becomecoscios co operte i every epoch bt oly i itespecic sittio. This sittio is sociologiclly determible.Oe c poit ot with reltive precisio the ctors which reievitby orcig more d more persos to reect ot merelyabot the thigs o the word bt bot thikig itsel d evehere ot so mch bot trth i itsel s bot the lrmigct tht the sme world c pper dieretl to dieretobservers.

It is cler tht sch problems c become geerl o i ge i which disgreemet is more cospicos th greemet.Oe ts rom the direct observtio o thigs to the cosidertio o wys o thikig oly whe the possibility o the directd cotios elborio o cocepts coceig thigs dsittios hs collpsed i the ce o mtiplicity o dmetlly diverget deitios. Now we re ebled to desigtemore precisely th geerl d orml lysis mkes possibleexctl i which socil d itelectl sittio sch shito tteto rom thgs to dverget opiios d rom thee



6 IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIAo he unonsious oives of hough us neessariy our.In wha foows we wish o poin ou ony a few of he ossignian soia faors whih are operaing in his direion.

Above a he uipiiy of ways of hinking anno beoea probe in periods when soia sabiiy underies and guaraneeshe inerna uniy of a wordview As ong as he sae eaningsof words he sae ways of deduin ideas are inuaed frohidhood on ino every eber of he group divergen hough-proesses anno exis in ha soiey Even a gradua odia-ion in ways of hinking (where i shoud happen o arise) doesno beoe perepibe o he ebers of a roup who ive in a

sabe siuaon as ong as he epo in he adapaions of ways of hinking o new probes is so sow ha i exends oversevera generaions n suh a ase one and he sae eneraionin he ourse of is own ife span an sarey beoe aware aa hange is aking pae.

Bu in addiion o he genera dynais of he hisoria roessfaors of uie anoher sor us ener before he uipiiyof he ways of hinking wi beoe noieabe and eerge as

a hee for reeion Thus i is priariy he inensiaionof soia obiiy whih desroys he earier iusion prevaenin a sai soiey ha a hings an hange bu hough reainseernay he sae And wha is ore he wo fors of soiaobiiy horiona and veria operae in dieren ways orevea his uipiiy of syes of hough Horiona obii(oveen fro one posiion o anoher or fro one ounry

o anoher wiho hanging soia saus) shows us ha dieren

peopes hink diereny As ong however as he radiionsof ones naiona and oa group reain unbroken one reainsso aahed o is usoary ways of hinking ha he ways ofhinking whih are pereived in oher groups are regarded asuriosiies errors abiguiies or heresies A his sage one does

no doub eiher he orreness of one's own radiions ofhough or he uniy and uniforiy of hough in genera

Ony when horiona obiiy is aopanied by inensiveveria obiiy ie raid oveen beween sraa in hesense of soia asen and desen is he beief in he generaand eern vaidiy of ones own houghfos shaken Veria

obiiy is he deisive faor in akin persons uneain and� sepia of heir radiiona view of he ord I is of ourse

rue ha even in sai soieies wih very sigh vria obiiyderen sraa wihin he sae soiey have had dieren way



PELMNA APPACH T TH PBLEM 7

of experieci the wold t is the merit of Mx Weer 1 to hveclely show i his socioloy of reliio how ofte the smereliio is vriously expeieced by pests, rtiss, mechts,

obles, d itellectuls society orized lo the liesof cloed cstes or rks the comprtive bece of veticlmobility served either to isolte from ech other the diveretworldview or if, for exmple, they expeieced commoreliio, ccodi to their dieet cotexts of life, they iter /preted it i dieret wy This ccouts for the fct tht thedivesity of modes of thouht of dieet cste did ot coveei oe d the me mid d hece could ot become problem.

From ocioloicl poit of view the decisive che tkes plcewhe tht ste of hisoicl developmet reched i which thepreiouly isolted stt bei to commuicte with oe otherd certi socil circultio sets i. The mot siictste of this commuictio is eched whe the forms of thouhtd experiece, which hd hitherto developed idepedetlyeter ito oe d the me cosciousess impelli the midto dicover the irrecocilbility of the coicti coceptios

of the world well stbilized society the me iltrtio of the modes ofthouht of the lower strt ito the hiher would ot me verymuch sice the bre perceptio by the domit oup of possiblevritios i thiki would ot reult i thei bei itellectullyhke As lo s society is stbilized o the bis of uthoity,d ocil prestie is ccorded oly to the chievemets of theupper strtum, this clss hs little cuse to cl ito questio

its ow socil existece d the vlue of its chievemet.Apt fom cosiderble socil scet, it is ot util we hve eel democrtiztio tht the rise of the lower strt llowstheir thiki to cquire public iice2 This pocess ofdemocrtiztio rst mkes it possible for the wys of thikiof the lower strt, which fomerly hd o public vlidity, tocquire vlidity d prestie. Whe the ste of emocrtiztiohs bee reched, the techiques o thiki d the ideof the lower strt e for the st time i positio to cofrot

Max Weber Wrtschft un Gsschft ol i chap i ,Ronssozoo tn, ssn n Ron (Tbingen 1925)pp 2729

Thus, for example i our own time, pragmatism a will be seenlater when iewed sociologically constitutes the legitimation of a techniqueof thinking and of an eistemology which has eleated the criteria ofeeryday experience to the leel of academic discussion



8 IDEOLOGY ND UTOPIthe des o the domt strt o the sme level o vldtyd ow, too, for the rst tme these des d modes of thoughtre cpble of mpellg the perso who thks wth ther

rmework to subect the obects of hs world to fudmetlquestog It s wth ths clshg o modes of thought, echof whch hs the sme clms to represettol vldty, thtor the rst tme there s redered possble the emergece of thequeto whch s so fteful, but lso so fudmetl thehstory of thought, mely, how t s possble tht detcl

hum thoughtprocesses coceed wth the sme world produce

dveret coceptos of tht world d rom ths pot

t s oly step urther to sk Is t ot possble tht the thought-processes whch re volved here re ot t ll detcl ?My t ot be foud, whe oe hs emed l the possbltesof hum thought, tht there re umerous ltetve pthswhch c be folowed ?

Ws t ot ths process of socl scet whch the thedemoccy cled forth the rst gret surge of sceptcsm thehstory of Occdetl thought ? Were ot the Sophsts o the

Greek Elghtemet the epresso of tttude o doubtwhch rose essetlly out of the fct tht ther thkgbout every obect, two modes o eplto colded ? Othe oe hd ws the mythology whch ws the wy of thkgo domt obty lredy doomed to dece O theother hd ws the more lytcl hbt of thought of urbrts lower strtum, whch ws the process o movgupwrds Ismuch s these two forms of terpretg the world

coverged the thought of the Sophsts, d sce or everymorl decso here were vlble t lest two stdrds,d or every cosmc d socl hppeg t lest twoepltos, t s o woder tht they hd sceptcl otoof the vlue o hum thought It s therefore potless tocesure them schoolmster sho or vig bee sceptcs ther epstemologcl eorts They smply hd the courgeto epress wht every perso who ws relly chrcterstco the epoch elt, mely, tht the prevous umbguty oforms d terprettos hd bee shttered, d tht stsfctory soluto ws to be oud oly thoroughgogquestog d thkg through of the cotrdctos Thsgeerl ucertty ws by o mes symptom of worlddoomed to geerl decy, but t ws rther the begg o wholesoe process whch mrked crs edg to recovery



PELMNAY APPOACH TO THE POBLEM

Was it nt, furthrmr, th gat virtu f Scrats that h hadth curag t dscnd int th ayss f this scticism ? Was hnt riginay as a Shist wh tk u th tchniu f raising

ustins and thn rasing furthr ustins, and mad it hiswn ? And did h nt vrcm th crisis y ustining vnmr radicay than th Sists and thus arriv at an intctuarstingint which, at ast fr th mntaity f that ch,shwd itsf t a ria fundatin ? t is intrsting tsrv that thry th wrd f nrms and f ing cam tccuy th cntra ac in his inuiry urthrmr, h was atast as ntnsivy cncrnd with th ustin as t hw

individuas ar a t think f and judg th sam facts indirnt ways as h was wth th facts thmsvs Evn at thisstag in th hstry f thgt it cms aarnt that in variusrids th rms f thinking can sd nt sy yrccuatin with th jct ut rathr ny thrug discving why inins cncrning thm ray dir

n additin t ths scia factrs which accunt fr th aryunity and susunt mutiicity in th dminant frms f

thught, anthr imrtant factr shud mntind nvry scity thr ar scia grus whs scia task it is trvid an intrrtatin f th wrd fr that scity W ca.ths th ntigntsia Th mr static a scity is, th mriky is it that this stratum wi acuir a wdnd status rth sitin f a cast in that scity Thus th magicians,th Brahmins, th mdiva crgy ar t rgardd asintctua strata, ach f which in its scity njyd a mnistic cntr vr th muding f that scity's wrdviw,and vr ithr th rcnstructin r th rcnciiatin f thdirncs in th navy frmd wrdviws f th thr strataTh srmn, th cnfssin, th ssn, ar, in this sns, mansy which rcnciiatin f th dirnt cnctins f th wrdtaks ac at ss shisticatd vs f scia dvmnt

This intctua stratum, rganizd as a cast and mnizingth right t rach, tach, and intrrt th wrd is cnditindy th frc f tw scia factrs Th mr it maks tsf thxnnt f a thrughy rganizd cctiity (g th Church),th mr its thinking tnds twards schasticism " t musgiv a dgmaticay inding frc t mds f thught whichfrmry wr vaid ny fr a sct and thry sanctin thntgy and istmgy imicit in this md f thughtTh ncssity f having to rsnt a unid frnt t utsidr





PRELIMINARY APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM

they were in competition, the intellectuals adopted in an evermore pronounced fashion the most various modes of thought andeperience aailable in society and played them o against one

another They did this inasmuch as they had to compete forthe faour of a public which unlke the public of the clergywas no longer accessible to them ithout their own eortsThis competition for the favour of arious public groups wasaccentuated because the distinctive modes of eperiencing andthinking of each attined increasing public epression and alidity

In this process the intellectuals illusion that there is onl oneway of thinking disappears The intellectual is now no longer

as formerly a membr of a caste or rank whose scholastic mannerof thought represents for him thought as such In this relativelysmple process is to be souht the eplanation for the fact thatthe fundamental questioning of thought in modern times doesnot begin until the collapse of the intellectual monopoly of theclergy The almost unanimously accepted worldview which hadbeen articially maintained fell apart the moment the sociallymonopolistic position of its producers was destroyed With th

liberation of the intellectuals from the rigorous organizationof the church, other ways of interpreting the world were increas-ingy recognzed

The disruption of the intellectual monopoly of the churchbrought about a sudden owering of an uneampled intellectualrichness But at the same time we must attribute to the organizational disintegration of the unitary church the fact that the belefin the unity and eternal nature of thought which had persiste

since classical antiquity was again shaken The orgins of theprofound disquietude o the present da reach back to thisperiod, even though in most recent times additional causes of aquite dierent nature have entered into the process Out of thisrst upsurge of the profund disquietude of modern man theremerged those fundamentally new modes of thought and inestigation, the epistemological, the psychological, and the sociologicalwithout which today we could not een formulate our problemFor this reason we will attempt in the net section to showin its main lines at least, how the many forms of questionng andinestigation aailable to us arose from this unitar sociasituation1

On the nature of onopolstc thought cf K Mannhe DeBedeutung der Konkurrenz Gebete des Gestgen" Report delveredat the Sxth Congress of the Geran Socologcal Socety n Zurch chrfr schn Gsschf fr ozoog vol v (Tbngen 1929) )



IDELGY ND UTPIA

3 TH RIGI OF TH ODR PISTMOLOGIL

SYHOLOGIL D OIOLOGIL OITS OF I

Epistemology was the st signicant philosophical poductof the beadown of the unitay woldiew with which themode ea was usheed in In this instance, as in antiquity, itwas the st eection of the unest which emeged fom thefact that those thines who wee penetating to the ey founda-tions of thought wee discoeing not only numeous woldiewsbut also numeous ontological odes Epistemology sought to

eliminate this uncetainty by taing its point of depatue

not fom a dogmatically t�ught theoy of existence, no foma woldode which was alidated by a highe type of nowledge,

� but fom an analysis of the nowing subjectAll epistemologica speculation is oiented within the polaity

of object and subject Eithe it stats with the wold of obj ects,which in one way o anothe it dogmatically pesupposes asfamilia to all, and with this as a basis explains the position ofthe subject in this woldode, deiing theefom his cogitie

powes o else it stats with the subject as the immediateand unquestioned datum and sees to deie fom him thepossibility of alid nowledge In peiods in which the objectiewoldiew emains moe o less unshaen, and in epochs whichsucceed in pesenting one unambiguously peceiable wold-ode, thee exists the tendency to base the existence of the now. f fng huma

Tnh

suj echt a

Mn

ddh

lis

A

int ll ct

al

capacitlies

bol ob

djectie

actos us t e e ges, wIch not on y e ee an

unambiguous woldode but which also thought that it newthe existential alue " to be attibuted to eey object in thehieachy of things, thee peailed an explanation of the alueof human capacities and thought which was based on the woldof objects But afte the beadown which we descibed, theconception of ode in the wold of objects which had beenguaanteed by the dominance of the chuch became poblemticaand thee emained no alteatie but to tun bout and to taethe opposite oad, and, with the subject as the point of depatue,to detemine the natue and the alue of the human cognitieact, attemptng theeby to nd an anchoage fo objectieexistence in the nowing subject

Although pecusos fo this tendency ae aleady to be foun f K Mannheim D trktrnys r Erkntnisthoi rgn

ungsband der KantStudien No 57 (Berln 1922)



RELIMINARY APPROACH TO THE ROBLEM 13

in mdiva thought, it fuy mgd fo th st tim in thationaistic cunt of Fnch and Gman phiosophy fomDscats though Libnitz to Kant on th on hand, and in

th mo psychoogicay ointd pistmoogy of Hobbs, Lock,Bky, and Hum on th oth This was abov a s thmaning of Dscats' intctua xpimnt, of th xmpaystugg in which h attmptd to qustion a taditiona thoisin od, ay, to aiv at th no ong qustionab coioro u This was th ony point fom which h coud againundtak anw to ay th foundations fo a wodviw

ths attmpts psuppos th mo o ss xpicit con-

sidation that th subjct is mo immdiaty accssib to usthan th objct which has bcom too ambiguous as a sutof th many divgnt intptations to which it has bnsubjctd Fo his ason w must, whv possib, mpii-cay constuct th gnsis of thought in th subjct whichis mo accssib to ou conto In th m pfnc fo thmpiica obsvations and gntic citia which gaduaybcam supm, th wi to th dstuction of th authoitaian

pincip was vad in opation It psnts a cntifugatndncy in opposition to · th chuch as th ocia intptof th univs. Ony that has vadity which I can conto inmy own pcption, which is cooboatd in my own xpimntaactivit, o which I mysf can poduc o at ast concptuayconstuct as poducib

Consqunty, in pac of th taditiona, ccsiasticayguaantd stoy of cation, th mgd a concption of thfomation of th wod, th vaious pats of which a subjctto intlctua conto This concptua mod of th poducibiityof th wodviw fom th cognitiv act d to th soution of thpistmoogica pobm It was hopd that though insight intoth oigins of cognitiv psntation on coud aiv at somnotion of th o and signicanc of th subjct fo th act ofknowing and of th tuthvau of human knowdg in gna

I t was indd appciatd that this cicuitous appoach thoughth subjct was a substitut and a makshift in th absnc ofanything btt A compt soution of th pobm woud bpossib ony if an xtahuman and infaib mind w to nda judgmnt about th vau of ou thinking But pcis thismthod had faid in th past bcaus th fath on pogssdin th citicism of ai thois, th mo ca did it bcomthat thos phiosophis which mad th most absout caims





PRELIMINARY APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM 5

The type of psyhology whh onneted the Mddle Ages wtmodern tmes nd whh drew ts ontents from the selfobervton of the relgous mn does ndeed stll oerte wth ertn

onepts rh wth ontent whh evdene the ontnungnuene of relgous ontology of the soul. We re thnkngn ths onneton of psyhology s t hs grown out of thenner struggle over the hoe between good nd evl whh wsnow oneed of s ourrng n the subjet. uh psyhologyws deeloped n the onts of onsene nd n the septsmo men lke Psl nd Montgne down to Kerkegrd. Herewe stll nd pregnnt wth

enng ertn orenttonl onepts

of n ontologl sort suh s despr sn slvton nd lonelness whh derve ertn rhness from eperene beuseeery eperene whh from ts very begnnng s dretedtowrds relgous gol hs ts onrete ontent. Nonethelessthese eperenes too wth the pssge of tme beme more breof ontent thnner nd more forml s n the outer world therorgl frme o referene ther elgous ontology beme enfeebled A soet n whh derse groups n no longer greeon the menng of God Lfe nd Mn wll be eqully unble todede unnmously wht s to be understood by sn desprslton or lonelness Reourse to the subjet long these lnesprovded no rel ssstne Only he who mmerses hmself nhs own self n suh mnner tht he does not destroy of theelements of personl menng nd of lue s n postonto nd nswers to questons tht nvole menng. In the mentme howeer s result of ths rdl formlzton sentpsyh nwrd obserton took on new forms Fundmentllyths psyh nwrd observton nolved the sme proess whhrterzed the eperenng nd thnkng through of theobjets of the eternl world uh mennggvng nterprettons wth qulttely rh ontents (s for nstne sndespr lonelness Chrstn love) were repled by formlzedenttes suh s the feelng of nety the perepton of nner

ont the eperenng of solton nd the lbdo . Theseltter sought to pply nterprete shemes derved frommehns to the nner eperene of mn. The m here ws notso muh to omprehend s presely s possble the nner on-tentul rnes of eperenes s they oest n the nddund together operte towrds the hevement of menngfugol the ttempt ws rther to elude l dstntve elementsn eperene from the ontent n order tht wherever possble



16 IDELGY AND UTPIA

the onepton of psyh events should approxmate the smplesheme of ehans (poston, moton, ause, eet) Theproblem beomes not how a person understands hmself n terms

of hs own deals and norms and how, agast the bakground ofsuh norms, hs deeds ad renunatons are gven ther meanng,but rather how an external stuaton a, wth an asertaable

i degree of probablty, mehanally al forth an nner reaton The ategory of exteal ausalty was nreasngly used, opera-

tng wth the dea of a regular suesson of two formally smpledevents, as s lustrated n the shema : t c Fear arses when some-thng unusual ours, n whh t was purposely overlooked

that every type of fear hages ompletely wth ts ontent(fear n fae of unertanty ad fear n fae of an anmal), andthat the unusual, too, vares entrely n aord wth the ontextn whh thngs are usual But t was presely the formal abstra-ton of the ommon haratersts of these qualtatvely eren-tated phenomena that was sought after

r else the ategory of funton was employed n the sense thtsngle phenoena were nterpreted from the pont of vew of ther

role n the formal funtonng of the whole psyh mehasm,as, for nstane, that when mental ots are nterpreted, as,basally, the result of two unntegrated ontradtory tendenesn the psyh sphere, they are the expressons of the subjetsmaladjustment Ther funton s to ompel the subjet toreorgaze hs proess of adaptato and to arrve at a newequlbrum

It would be reatonary, wth referene to the frutful develop-

ment of sene, to deny the ogntve value of smplfyngproedures suh as these whh are easly ontrollable ad whhare applable, wth a hgh degree of probablty, to a great massof phenomena The frutfulness of these formalzng senes,workng n terms of auses and funtons, s st far from exhaustedand t would be harmful to mpede ther development It s

l one thg to test a frutful lne of nvestgaton and another to regard t as the oly path to the set treatent of an objetIn so far as the latter s the pont at ssue, t s already lear todaythat the foral approah alone does not exhaust what an bekow of the world and partularly of the psyh lfe of humanbengs

The nteronneons of meanng whh were n ths proedureheurst ally exluded (n the nterests of sent smpla-to) so that formal and easly denable enttes ould be arrved



PRELIMINAR APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM 17

at, are not recaptured by a mere further perection of formalization through the discovery of correlations and functions It mayindeed be necessary, for the sake of the precise observability of

the formal sequence of experiences, to discard the concretecontents of experiences and values It would, however, constitutea type of scientic fetishism to believe that such a methodicalpuricatio actuay replaces the original richness of experienceIt is even more erroneous to think that a scientic extrapolation and abstract accentuation of one aspect of a phenomenon,for the sole reason that it has been thought through in this form,is able to enrich the original lifeexperience

Although we may know a great deal about the conditions underwhich conicts arise, we may stil know nothing about the innersituation of living human beings and how, when their values areshattered, they lose their bearings and strive again to ndthemselves Just as the most exact theory of cause and function does not answer the question as to who I actualy am, what Iactually am, or what it means to be a human being, so there canever arise out of it that interpretation of ones self and the worlddemanded by even the simplest action based on some evaluativedecision

The mechanistic and functionalistic theory is highly valuableas a current in psychological research It fails, however, whenit is placed in the total context of lifeexperience because it saysnothing concerning the meaningful goal of conduct, and is there -fore unable to interpret the elements of conduct with reference toit The mechanistic mode of thought is of assistance only as longas the goal or the value is given from another source and the means " alone are to be treated The most important role ofthought in life consists, however, in providing guidance forconduct when decisions must be made Every real decisionsuch as one's evaluation of other persons or how society shouldbe organized) implies a judgment conceing good and evilconcerning the meaning of life and mind

At this point we encounter the paradox that this extrapolatonof the formalized elements by means of general mechanics andthe theory of function originally arose to help men in their activities to attain their goals more easily The world of things and othe ind was mechanistically and unctionally examined in ordethrough comparative analysis, to arrive at its ultimate con-stituent elements, and then to regroup them in accord with thegoal of activity When the analytical procedure was rst used



18 IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIA

he end or goa prescribed by he actiity was stil in existence(often composed of fragmens f an earier reigiousy understoodword) en sroe o now he word so ha hey coud moud

o conform o his utimate goa society was anaysed soas to arrie a a form of socia ife more just or ohese morepeasing o God ; men were concerned with the sou in ordero contro he pth o saaton Bu he farther men adacedin anaysis he more he goa disappeared from their ed ofision so tha oday a research worker mgh say with Nietzsche I hae forgoen why I eer began " Ich hab in Grndrssn If today one nquires concerning the ends sered

by anaysis the question is no o be answered with reference toeither naure o he sou or society or ese we formay posia purey technica psychica or socia optimum condition asfor exampe he mos frictioness functioning "1 This goaappears as he ony one when for instance disegarding al hscompicated obseraions and hypotheses one asks a psychoanayso what end he cures his patients In mos cases he has no otheranswer han he notion of optimum of adaptation As o whahis ptimum is howeer he can say nothing on the basis of hisscience aone since eery utimae meaningfu end has beeneiminated from i from the ery rs

Thereby another aspec of he probem is reeaed Withouj eauatie conceptions without he minimum of a meanngfugoa we can do nothing in either the sphere of the socia or hesphere of he psychic By this w mean tha een when oneakes a purey causa and functiona point of iew one discoersony afterwards wha sense here was originaly conceaed inhe ontoogy on which one proceeded It guarded agains heaomzation of the experience into isoated obserations ieatomizaion from he sandpoin of the actiity Expressed inerms of mdern Gestat heory the meanings which our ontoogygies us sered o inegrate he units of conduct and o enabe

Thi ma account for the deeper truth of the regulation that head

of minitrie in parliamentar tate mut not be choen from the rankof the adminitratie ta but rather from among the political leaderThe adminitratie bureaucrat like eer pecialit and expert inclineto loe ight of he context of i action and the end goal It i aumedhere that he who embodie the freel fomed integration of the collectiewill in public life the political leader can integrate the aailable meanwhich are necear for te action in quetion in a more organic fahionthan the adminitratie expert who in quetion of polic ha beendeliberatel neutralized f ection on the ociolog of bureaucratictnkng pp 105



PRELIMINARY APPROACH TO THE PROLEM 1

us to see n a onguave onex the ndvdual obsevatonalelements whh ohewse would end to eman dsee .

Een f all he meanng onveyed by he magalegous

vew of the old had been t false " t stll svedwhen vewedfom a puel funonal sanpono make oheent thefagmens of the ealty of nne psyh as well as objetve exenal expeene and to plae hem wh efeene to a etanomplex of ondu. We see eve moe lealy ha fom whaevesoue we get ou meanngs whehe they be tue o falsethey have a ean psyhologalsoologal funon nalyto x he aenon of those men who wsh to do somehng n

ommon upon a ean t denon of the suaon ". A suaton s onsued as suh when s dened n the same wayfo he membes of the goup. I may be tue o false when onegoup als anohe hees and as suh suggles agansthem but s only though ths denon hat the suggle s asoal suaon. It may be tue o false ha a goup sugglesonly to ealze a fass o a ommuns soey bu s only bymeans of hs meannggvng evaluang denon ha eves podue a suaon whee avy andouneavy ae dsgushable and the toaly of events ae aulaed nto a poess.The juxtaposton x pos faco of elements voded of meanngfulonent does not bng home he ny of ondut . As a sultof the exensve exluson of meanngful elemens fom psyhologal heoy t beomes moe and moe evden tha npsyhology too psyh suatons to say nohng of nne lfe

hsoes annot be peeved whout meanngful ontext.uhemoe fom a puely funonals pot of vew hedevaon of ou meanngs whehe they be tue o falseplays an ndspensable ole namely t soalzes evens o agoup. We belong o a goup not only beause we ae bon no not meely beause we pofess to belong to t no nallybeause we gve ou loyaly and allegane bu pmalybeause we see the wold and ean thngs n he wold he way

does (.e n tems of the meanngs of the goup n quesonIn evey onep n evey onee meanng thee s onane /a ysallzaon of the expeenes of a ean goup. Whensomeone says l kngdom " he s usng the em n he sensen whh t has meanng fo a ean goup Anohe fo whomthe kngdom s only an oganzaon as fo nsane an admnsave oganzaon suh as s nvolved n a posal sysem s notpapang n hose olletve aons of he goup n whh the



0 IELGY AN UTPIA

fom manng s takn fo gantd In vy concpt howvth s not only a xaton of ndvuals wth fnc to adnt goup of a ctan knd and ts acton but vy souc

fom whch w dv manng and ntptaton acts also asI a stablzng facto on th possblts of xpncng and

knowng objcts wth fnc to th cntal goal of actonwhch dcts us

Th wold of xtnal objcts and of psychc xpnc appasto b n a contnuous ux Vbs a mo adquat symbolsfo ths stuaton than nouns h fact that w gv nams tothngs whc a n ux mpls nvtably a ctan stablzaton

ontd along th lns of collctv actvty Th dvatonof ou manngs mphaszs and stablzs that aspct of thngswhch s lvant to actvty and covs up n th ntst ofcollctv acton th pptually ud pocss undlyng allthngs It xcluds oth conguatonal oganzatons of thdata whch tnd n dnt dctons Evy concpt psntsa sot of taboo aganst oth possbl soucs of manngsmplfyng and unfyng th manfoldnss of lf fo th sak

of actonIt s not mpobabl that th fomalzng and functonalzng

vw of thgs bcam possbl n ou tm only bcaus thpvously domnant taboos whch mad man mpvous tomanngs dvd fom oth soucs w alady losng thfoc aft th bakdown of th ntllctual monopoly of thchuch Th oppotunty gadually aos und ths ccum-stancs fo vy oppostonal goup opnly to val to th woldthos contadctoy manngs whch cospondd to th own pculaly concvd undstandng of th wold What was a

kng fo on was a tyant fo anoth It has alady bnpontd out howv that too many conctng soucs fom whchmanngs wth gad to a gvn objct a dvd n th samsocty lads n th nd to th dssoluton of vy systm ofmanng n such a socty ntnally dvdd wth gad toany conct systm of manng consnsus can b stablshdonly wth fnc to th fomalzd lmnts of th objcts(g th dnton of monach whch assts : Th moachs h who n th ys of a majoty of psons n a county lgalyposssss th ght of xcsng absolut pow ) In ths andsmla dtons vythng substantal vy valuatonfo whch a onsnsus can no long b found s ntptdn functonal ms



PRELIMINARY APPRACH T THE PRLE 21

Retuing then to our discussion of the origins of modernpsychology with the subject as the point of departure it is nowclear that the original diculty which was to have been solved

through recourse t and concentration on the subject was notthereby obviated It is true that much that is new was discoveredby the new empirical methods They enabled us to gain insightinto the psychic genesis of many cultural phenomena but theanswers which were brought forward deected our attentionfrom the fundamental question concerning the existence of mindin the order of reality Especially was the unity of the mindas well as that of the person lost through the functionalization

and mechanization of psychic phenomena A psychology with-out a psyche cannot take the pace of an ontology Such apsychology was itself the outcome of the fact that men wereatempting to think in the framework of categories which stroveto negate every evaluation every trace of common meaningor of total conguration What may be valuable for a specializeddisciplie as a research hypothesis may however be fatal forthe conduct of human beings The uncertainty which arises from

elyng upon scientic psychology in practical life becomesrecurrently obvious as soon as the pedagogue or the politicalleader tus to it for guidance The impression which he getspon such an occasion is that psychology exists in another worldand records its observations for citizens living in some societyother than our own This form of mode mans experiencewhich because of a highly dierentiated division of labortends towards directionlessness nds its counterpart in therootlessness of a psychology with whose categories not even thesimplest lfeprocess can be thought through That thispsychology actually constitutes a trained incapacity to dealwith problems of the mind accounts for the fact that it oers nofoothold to living human beings in ther daily life

Thus two fundamentally dierent tendencies characterizemodern psychology oth became possible because he medievalworld which gave a single set of meanings to men in the Westeworld was in the process of dissolution The rst of these isthe tendency to look behind every meaning and to understandit in terms of is genesis in the subject (the genetic point of view) The second tendency consists in the attempt to construct a sortof mechanical science of the elements of psychic experiencewhich have been formalized and emptied of meaning (psychicmechanics) It becomes evident here that the mechanistic



22 DEOLOGY AND UTOPA

oughmoel s no as was ognally suppose, conne ohe wol o mechancal objecs The mechanisic houghmoeepesens pimaily a kin of s appoxmaion o objecs

n geneal. Hee he aim is no he exac compehension oqualve peculiaies an unique consellaons, bu ahe heeeminaio of he mos obvous egulaiies an pincipesof oe obainig beween fomale smplie elemens. Whave ace ou hs lasmenone meho n eal an seenhow he mechanisic meho, in spie of he concee achevemens fo whic we ae inebe o i, has, fom he oin ofvw o lifeoenaion an conuc, conbue vey much

o he gnal insecuiy of moen man. The acing man musknow who he is, an he onlogy of psychic life fulls a ceainuncion n acion. To he exen ha mechansc psycholoyan is paallel n acual lfe, he social mpulsion owasallembacing mechanaion, negae hese onological valueshey esoye an mpoan elemen n he selfoenaion ohuman bengs n he eveyay lfe.

We shoul like o un now o he genec appoach He

we shoul s poin ou ha he geneic poin of vew, whchs boun up wh he psychological appoach, has conibuen many ways o a eepe unesaning of life n he sensabove niae. The ogmac exponens of classcal logcan phlosophy ae accusome o manan ha he genesiso an ea has nohng o say concenng s valy o meaning.Tey always voke he hackneye example o he eec haou knolege of he life o Pyhagoas an of his nne concs,

ec., s o lile value n unesaning he Pyhagoean popos-on. o no belve, howve, ha his pon hols fo alnelecual accomplishmens believe ha fom he san-pon o sc nepeaon, we ae nnely eniche when weaemp nesan he biblcal senence, The las shall bs," as he psychic epesson o he evol o oppesse saa.I leve ha we shal unesan bee f as Neschean ohes have incae n vaous ways, we conse anecome awae of he signcance of esnmen n he fomaon

of moa jgmens. n his case, o example, one coul sayn he case of Chisany, was esenmen which gave he

�

lowe saa couage o emancipae hemselves, a leaspsychically, fom he omnaon of an unjus sysem of valuesan o se p hei own n opposion o . We o no neno aise he queson hee whehe wh he ai o hs



PRLIMINARY APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM 3

psychologicalgenetic analysis which deals with the value-generatin function of resentment we can decide whether teCristians or the Roman ruling classes were in the right. In

any case through this analysis we are led more deeply into thecomprehension of the meaning of the senence It is not irrelevantfor an understanding of it to know that the phrase as notuttered by anybody in general and was not addressed to men ingeneral but rather that it has a real appeal only for those wholike the Christians are in soe manner oppressed and who atthe same time under the impulse o resentment wish to freethemselves from prevailing inustices. The interconnection

between psychic genesis the motivation which leads to meaningand the meaning itself is in the cas ust cited dierent fromthat which eists in the Pythagorean propositions. The spciallyconcocted eamples which logicians adduce may uner certaincircumstances make one unreceptive to the deepest dierecesbetween one meaning and another and may lead to generalizationswhich obscure relevant relationships

The psychogenetc approach may then contribute in a great

many cases to a deeper understanding of meaning where weare concerned not with the most abstract and formal interrelation-ships but rather with meanings the motivation of which canbe sympathetically eperienced or with a comple of meaningfulconduct which can be understood in terms of its motivationalstructure and eperiential contet. o for eample when Iknow what a man was as a child what severe conicts heeperienced and in which situations they occurred and how he

soved hem I will know more about him than if I merely hada few bare details of his eternal lifehistory I will know thecontet 1 from which novelty is produced in him and in thelight of which every detail of his eperience will have to beinterpreted. It is the great achievement of the psychogeneticmethod that it destroyed the earlier mechanical conceptionwhich treated norms and cultural alues as materal thingsWhen confronted with a sacred tet the genetic metho has

replaced the formally acquiescent obedience to a norm withthe living appreciation of the proces in which norms and culturalvalues rst arise and with which they must be kept in continualcontact in order that they may be ever newly interpreted and

It should be noted how the genetic point of view emphasizes interdependence in contast with the mechanistic approac- whi� on

ef wit th_

atomzatioof the eements of experienc.




maseed I has shown heeby ha he lfe of a psychic pheno-menon s he phenomenon self The meanng of hsoy andlfe s conaned n he becomng and in hei ux These

nsghs wee s sumbled upon by he Romanics and by Hegelbu snce hen have had o be edscoveed again and aganThee was howeve fom he vey begnning a wofold

lm o hs concep of psychic genesis as i gadually developedand peneaed no he culual scences (such as he hisoyof elgons leay hsoy a hsoy ec ; and his limiheaened in me o become a dene escon on he valueo hs appoach

The mos essenial lmiaion of he psychogeneic appoachs he mpoan obsevaon ha evey meaning is o be unde-sood n he lgh of is genesis and in he ogna conex oflfeexpeence which foms is backgound Bu hs obseva-on conans whn i he injuous conscon ha is appoachwll be found only in an ndvdualsc applcaon n moscases he geness of a meanng has been sough in he ndividualconex of expeence ahe han in is collecive conex

Thus fo example if one had befoe one some dea (le us akehe abovemenoned case o he ansfomaion of a hieachyof moal values as is expessed in he senence t The lasshall be s and wshed o explan i geneicaly onewould fasen upon he individual biogaphy of he auho andaemp o undesand he idea exclusively on he basis ohe specia evens and moivaions of he auho's pesonalhsoy ow i is clea ha vey much can be done wh his

mehod o jus as he expeences ha uly movae me havehe oginal souce and locus n my own lifehisoy jus sohe auho's lfehisoy is he locus of hs expeiences Bui is also clea ha whle i may be sucen o he genecexplanaon of a que special indvidua mode of behaviou ogo back o he ealy peod o an indvidual's hisoy (as wouldfo nsance be done by psychoanalysis o explan he sympomsof lae developmens in chaace om he expeiences o ealy

childhood o a mode o behaviou o social sgncance suchas he ansvaluaon o values which ansfoms he wholesysem of lfe of a socey in all is amcaions peoccupaionwh he puely indivdual lfehisoy and s analysis is nosucen The ansvaluaion as ndcaed n he senenceabove has s oos bascally in a goup suaion in wichundeds and housands o pesons each in his own way



PRELIMINARY APPROAH O HE PROBLEM 25

prticipte in the overthrow of the eisting society Ech ofthese persons prepres nd eecutes this trnsvlution in thesense tht he cts in new wy in whole comple of life

situtions which impinge upon him he genetic method ofeplntion if it goes deep enough cnnot in the long run limititself to the individul lifehistory but must piece together somuch tht nlly it touches on the interdependence of thendividul lifehistory nd the more inclusive group situtionFor the individul lifehistory is only component in seriesof mutully intertwined lifehistories which hve their commontheme in this uphevl the prticulr new motivtion of

single individul is prt of motivtionl comple in whichmny persons prticipte in vrious wys It ws the meritof the sociologicl point of view tht it set longside the individulgenesis of mening the genesis from the contet of group life

he two methods of studying culturl phenomen deltwith bove the epistemologicl nd the psychologicl hd incommon n ttempt to eplin mening from its genesis inthe subject Wht is importnt in this cse is not so muc

whether they were thinking of the concrete individul or of generlized mind s such but tht in both cses the individulmind ws conceived s seprte from the group hereby thenwittingly brought flse ssumptions into the undmentlproblems of epistemology nd psychology which the sociologicpproch hs hd to correct Wht is most importnt boutthe ltter is tht it puts n end to the ction of the detchmentof the individul from the group within the mtri of whichthe individul thinks nd eperiences

he ction of the isolted nd selfsucient individul underlies in vrious forms the individulistic epistemology nd geneticpsychology Epistemology operted with this isolted nd selfsucient individul s if from the very rst he possessed inessence ll the cpcities chrcteristic of humn beings includingtht of pure knowledge nd s if he produced his knowledgeof the world from within himself lone through mere jut-position with the etel world Similrly in the individlisticdevelopmentl psychology the individul psses of necessitythrough cetin stges of development in the course of whichthe etel physicl nd socil environment hve no otherfunction thn to relese these preformed cpcities of theindividul Both of these theories grew out of the soil of neggerted heoreticl individulism (such s ws to be fond




in th prio of th Rnaissanc an of inividualistc libralism)which could hav bn produc only in a social situation inwich th original connction btwn individual an group

ha bn lost sight of Fruntly in such social situations thobsrvr loss sght of th rol of socity in th moulding of hindiviual to th tnt that h drivs most of th traits, whichar vidntly only possibl as th rsult of a common lf andth intraction btwn inividuals, from th originl natur ofth iniviual or from th grm plasm (W attack this ctionnot from som ultmat philosophical point of viw but bcausit simply draws incorrct data into th pictur of th gnsis

of knowldg an princ)In actuality it is far from corrct to assum that an indiviualof mor or lss d absolut capacitis confronts th worldan in striving for th truth constructs a worldviw out of thata of his princ Nor can w bliv that h thn comparshis worldviw with that of othr individuals who hav gainthirs in a similarly inpndnt fashion, and in a sort of discussionth tu worlviw is brought to light and accptd by th othrs

In contrast to this, it is much mor corrct to sa that knowldg is from th vry bginning a cooprativ procss of grouplif, in which vryon unolds his knowldg within th framwork of a common fat, a common activity, an th ovrcoming

of common dicultis (in whch, howvr, ach has a irnt shar) Accoringly th products of th cognitiv procss aralray, at last in part, dirntiat bcaus not vry possblaspct of th worl coms within th purviw of th mmbrs

of a group, but only thos out of which icultis and problmsfor th grou aris An vn this common worl (not shardy any outsid groups in th sam way) appars dirntly toth suborinat groups within th largr group It apparsirntly bcaus th suborint groups and strata afunctionally irntiat socity hav a irnt printiaapproach to th common contnts of th objcts of thir worlIn th intlctual mastry of lif prolms, ach is allott

irnt sgmnts with which ach als uit irntlyaccording to his dirnt lifintrsts Th gr in whichth indiviualistic concption of th problm of knowlggivs a fals pictur of collctiv knowing corrsponds to whatwoul occur if th tchniu, mo of work, an prouctivityof an intrnally highly spcializd factory of 2000 workrs wrthought of as if ach of th '2000 workrs workd in a sparat



PRELIMINARY APPROACH TO THE PROLEM 27

ubicle performed the sme opertions for himself t the smetime nd turned out ech indiidul product from beginningto end by himself Actully of course the workers do not do

he sme thing in prllel fshion but rther through diisionf functions they collectiely bring the totl product inteistence

Let us sk ourseles for mment wht is lcking n the oldertheory in the instnce of this indiidulistic reinterprettionof process of collectie work nd chieement In the rstplce the frmework which in rel diision of lbour determineste chrcter of the work of eery indiidul from the chirmn

f the bord of directors down t the ery lst pprentice ndwhich integrtes in n intelligent mnner the nture of echprtil product turned ut by the indiidul worker is simplyoerlooked he flure to obsere the socil chrcter fknowing nd eperiencing ws not primrily due s mnybeliee to disregrd for the role of the ms nd oer-emphsis of tht of the gret mn Its eplntion is rther tbe sought in the fct tht the originl socil neus in which

eery prticulr indiidul eperience nd perception in thegroup is nourished nd deeloped ws neer nlysed ndpprecited1 This originl interdependence o the elements ofhe lifeprocess which is nlogous to but not identicl witthe diision of lbour is dierent in n grrin society frowht it is in the rbn world Furthermore within the ltterhe dierent groups prticipting in city life t ny one timehe dierent cognitie problems nd rrie t their eperiences

through dierent enues een with reference to the ery smeobjects Only when the point of iew is introduced into thegenetic pproch from the ery beginning ccording t which group of 2000 persons do not perceie the sme thing 2000imes but in which ccord with the inner rticultin group life nd wth rious functions nd interests subgroupsrise which ct nd think collectiely with nd ginst ech

Th is othig mo futil th to suppos tht th cotst btwth idividulistic d th sociologicl poits of viw is th sm s thtbtw th " gt psoality d th " mss Th is othigi th sociologicl ppoch tht would xclud its coc with thdsciptio of th sigicc of th gt psolity i th socil pocssTh l distictio is tht th idiidulistic poit of viw is i mostcss ubl to s th sigicc of vous foms of socil lf fo thdvlopmt of idividul cpcitis, whil th sociologicl viwpoitsks fom th vy bgiig to itpt idividul ctivity i ll sphwithi th cotxt of goup xpc




otheonly when things ae seen om this angle can we achieean ndestanding o how in the same inclsie society diesemeanings can aise de to the diegent social oigins o the

dieent membes o the whoe societyAn additional nconscios distotion committed y classicalepistemology in its caacteization o the genesis o the cognitiepocess is that it poceeds as i knowledge aose ot o an act opely theoetical contemplation Hee it seems to be eleatinga maginal case to the leel o a cental pinciple As a lehman thoght is not motiated by a contemplatie implsesince it eqies a olitional and emotionalnconscios nde

cent to asse the continos oientation o knowledge ingop lie Pecisely becase knowing is ndamentaly collectieknowing (the thoght o the lone indiidal is only a specialinstance and a ecent deelopment) it pespposes a commnityo knowing which gows pimaily ot o a commnity oepeiencing pepaed o in the sbconscios Howee oncethe act has been peceied that the lagest pat o thoght iseected pon a basis o collectie actions one is impelled to

ecognize the oce o the collectie nconscios he llemegence o the sociological point o iew egading knowledgeieitably caes with it he gadal ncoeing o the iationalondation o ational knowledge

That the epistemological and psychological analysis o thegenesis o ideas came only belatedy pon the social acto inknowledge has its explanation in the act that both these

disciplines ad thei ise in the peiod o the indiidalistic

om o society They acqied the amewok o thei poblemin peiods o qite adical indiidalism and sbjectiism inhe epoch o the disintegating medieal social ode and inthe libeal beginnings o the bogeoiscapitalistic ea In thesepeiods those who concened themseles with these poblemsthe intellectals and the welltodo edcated pesons in bogeoissociety ond themseles in cicmstances in which the oiginalinteconnectedness o the social ode mst o necessity hae

been lagely inisible to them They cold theeoe in allgood aith pesent knowledge and expeience as typicallyindiidaistic phenomena Especially since they had in mindonly that segment o eality which conceed the dominantminoities and which was chaacteized by the competition oindiidals social happenings cold appea as thogh atono

j mos indiidals spplied om within themseles the initiatie



PRELMNARY APPROAH TO THE PROBLEM 29

o acting and knowing een om thi egment ociety appeaeda i it wee only an incaculably compex multiplicity opontaneou individual act o doing and knowing Thi extemely

individualitic chaacte doe not even hod o the ocalledlibeal ocial tuctue a a whole inamuch a hee too theelatively ee initiative o leading individual both in actingand knowin i diected and guided by the cicumtance oocial lie and by the tak which they peent (hu heetoo we nd a hidden ocial inteconnection undelying individualinitiative ) On the othe hand thi much i undoubtedly tuethat thee ae ocial tuctue in which thee i the poibility

o cetain tata (becaue o the lage aea ove which eecompetition obtain) to have a geate dege o individualizationn thei thught and conduct t i howeve incoect to denethe natue o thought in geneal on the bai o thi pecialhitoical ituation in which a elatively individualized way othinking wa allowed to dvelop unde exceptional condition t would do violence to the hitoical act to egad thi exceptional condition a i it wee the axiomatic chaacteitic o the

pychology o thought and o epitemology We will not uccedin attaining an adequate pychology and theoy o knowledgea a whole a long a ou epitemology ail om the veybeginning to ecognize the ocial chaacte o knowing andal to egad individualzed thinking only a an exceptionalintance

n thi cae too it i obviouly no accident that the ociologicaltandpoint wa added to the othe only at a elatively advanceddate No i it by chance that the outlook which bing togethethe ocial and the cognitive phee emege n a time in whichthe geatet exetion o mankid once moe conit in thettempt to counteact the tendency o an individualitic undiectedociety which i veging towad anachy with a moe oganictype o ocial ode n uch a ituation thee mut aie ageneal ene o intedependenceo the intedependence whichbind the ingle expeience to the team o expeience o ingleindividual and thee in tun to the abic o the wide communityo expeience and activity hu the newly aiing theoy oknowledge too i an attempt to take account o the ootedneo knowledge in the ocial textue n it a new ot o lieoientation i at wok eeking to tay the alienation anddioganization which aoe out o the exaggeation o thendividualitic and mechanitic attitude he epitemological



30 DEOLOY AND UTOPA

th psychological and th sociological ways of stating probmsar th thre most important forms of aising qustions aboutand investigating the nature of the cognitiv process We

hav soght to prsent thm so that they would appa as partsof a unitay situation mrging on aftr the othr in a ncssarysequence and eciprocally pntrating one anoth n thiform thy provide th basis of th ctions cordd in thisvolum

4 CONTROL OF TH COLLTIV NONSIOUS S ROLM

OF OUR G

Th mergnc of th poblm of the multiplicity of thought-styles which hav appeared in th course of scientic devlop-ment and th perceptibility of collectivunconsious motivshitherto hidden, is only one aspect of th prvalnc of thintllectual rstivness which characterizes our age. n spitof th democratic diusion of knowledg th philosophicalpsychological and sociological problms which w presented

above hav bn conned to a rlativly small intllctualminority This intllectual unrest cam gradually to be regardedby them as thi own profssional pivileg and might hav benconsidered as th privat proccupation of ths groups hadnot all strata with th growth of dmocracy bn dawn intothe political and philosophical discussion.

The preceding eposition has alrady shown howver thatthe roots of the discussion carried on by th intllectuals reached

deeply into the sitation of socity as a whole n many spectstheir problems were nothing ls than th subimat intensica-tion and ational rnmnt of a social and intllectual crisiswhich at bottom mbraced the entir socity Th breakdownof th ob ectiv viw of the world of which th guarante inthe Middl Ags was th Church was rctd vn in thsimplest minds. What th philosophrs fought out among

[themselvs in a ational trminology was princd by thmasses in th form of ligious conict

When many churchs took th plac of on doctinal systmgaranteed by rvelation with th aid of whih verything ssntialin an agrarianstatic wold could b plaindwhen manysmall sects aros where ther had formrly bn a world eligionthe minds of simpl men wr seized by tensions similar to thosewhich th intllectuals epeinced on th philosophical lvl




n terms of the oestene of numerous theores of realty andof knowledge

At the begnnng of modern times the Protestant movement set

up in the plae of revealed salvaton guaranteed by the objetvensttuton of the Churh the noton of the subjetve ertantyof salvaton It was assumed n the lght of ths dotrine thateah person shoud dede aording to hs own subjetve onsene whether his ondut was pleasng to God and onduveto salvaton Thus Protestantsm rendered subjetv a rteronwhh had hitherto been objetive thereby parallelng whatmodern epstemology was dong when t retreated from an

objetively guaranteed order of estene to the ndivdualsubjet It was not a long step from the dotrine o the subjetveertaty of salvation to a psyhologal standpont n whihgradually the observaton of the psyhi proess whh developednto a vertable uriosity beame more mportant than theharkening to the rtera of salvation whh men had formerlytred to detet n ther own souls

Nor was t onduve to the publ belief n an objetve world

order when most polital states n the period of enlightenedabsolutism attempted to weaken the Churh by means whhthy had taken over from the Churh tself namely throughattempting to replae an objetve nterpretaton of the worldguaranteed by the Churh by one guaranteed by the StateIn dong this t advaned the ause of the Enlghtenment whhat the same tme was one of the weapons of the rising bourgeoisieBoth the modern state and the bourgeosie aheved suss

the measure that the rationalisti natualist vew of the worldnreasingly dsplaed the religious one This took plae how

ever without the permeation nto the broadest strata of that v

fullness of knowledge requred for ratonal thinking Further-more ths dusion of the ratonalisti worldvew was realizedwithout the strata nvolved n t beng brought nto a soilposition whih would have allowed an ndvdualization f theforms of lving and thnkng

Without however a soal lfestuaton ompelling and tendngtoward ndvidualizaton a mode of life whih s devoid of olle-tive myths s sarely bearale The merhant the entrepreneurthe nteletual eah n hs own way oupies a poston whihrequres rational deisions onerning the tasks set by everydaylife In arriving at these deisons t is always neessary for thendividual to free hs judgments from those of others and to





PLMNARY APPROACH TO TH PROBLM 33

undantally signcant only whn t inusd its as witha kind of political philosophy with a political concption o thworld W can wll dispns with sktchng in dtail th pictur of

how wth ncrasing docratzaton not only th stat but alsopoltical partis strov to provid thir conicts with phlosophica foundation and systatization First libralis thn haltinglyollowng its xapl consrvatis and nally socialis ad ofts poltical ais a phlosophical crdo a worldvw with wlstablishd thods of thought and prscrbd conclusionsThus to th split in th rligious worldviw as addd thractionalization of political otooks But whras th churchs

and scts conductd thir battls with divrs irrational articlsof faith and dvlopd th rational lnt n th last analysisonly or th brs of th clrgy and th narrow stratuof lay intllctuals th rgnt political partis incorporatdrational and if possbl scintic argunts nto thir systsof thought to a uch ratr dgr and attributd uch oriportanc to th This was du in part to thir latr apparancin history in a priod in which scinc as such was accordd a

gratr social st and n part to th thod by which thyrcruitd thir functionris sinc in th bginning at lastths wr chosn largly fro th ranks of th abovntiondancpatd ntllctuals t was n accord with th nds of andustral socity and o ths intllctual strata or th to basthir collctiv actons not on a rank nuncaton o thr crdbut rathr on a rationally justiabl syst of das

Th rsult of this aalgaation of politics and scintihought was that gradually vry typ o potics at last inth fors in which it ord itsl for accptanc was gvn ascintic ting and vry typ of scintc attitud in ts turnca to bar a political colouration

This aalgaation had its ngativ as wll as ts positivcts t so faclitatd th diusion of scintic idas that vrbroadr strata in t whol of thir political xistnc had to skthortical justications for thr positions Thy lad thrbyvn though rquntly in a vry propagandstic annrto think about socity and politics with th catgoris of scinticanalysis t was also hlpful to politcal and social scnc inthat it gaind a concrt grip on rality and in so doing gavtslf a th for stating its probls which urnishd a continuous lnk btwn it and that ld of raity within which it hado oprat naly socty. Th criss and th xigncis of social




lfe oered te emral subjetmatter, te oltal and soalnterretatns, and te yteses troug w events beameanalysable Te teores of Adam Smt as well as tose of

Marxto menton only tese twowere elaborated and extendedwt ter attemts to nterret and analyse olletvelyexerened events.

Te rnal labty, owever, n ts dret onnetonbetween teory and olts les n te fat tat wle knowledgealways as to retan ts exermental arater f t wsest do juste t new sets of fats, tnkng w s domnated

by a oltal atttude an not allow tself to be ontnuously

readated to new exerenes. Poltal artes, beause of tevery fat of ter beng organzed, an neter mantan anelastty n ter metods of tougt nor be ready to aetany answer tat mgt ome out of ter nqures Struturallytey are ubl orratons and gtng organzatons Tsn tself already fores tem nto a domat dretn. Temore ntelletuals beame arty funtonares, te more teylost te vrtue of reetvty and elastty w tey ad

brougt wt tem from ter revus lable stuatonTe oter danger w arses rom ts allane betweensene and olts s tat te rses aetng oltal tnkngalso beome te rses of sent tougt. Ot of ts omlexwe wll onentrate on only one fat w, owever beame

sgnant for te ontemorary stuaton. Polts s ont andtends nreasngly to beome a lfeanddeat struggle. Te morevolent ts struggle beame, te more tgtly dd t gr te

emotonal nderurrents w frmerly oerated unonsouslybut all te more ntensvely and fored tem nto te oendoman of te onsos.

Poltal dsusson ossesses a arater fundamentallyderent from aadem dsusson. It seeks not only t be n tergt but also to demols te bass of ts oonents soal andntelletual exstene. Poltal dsusson, terefre, enetratesmore rofoundy nto te estental foundaton of tnkngtan te knd of dsusson w tnks only n terms of a fewseleted onts of vew and onsders only te teoretalrelevane of an argument Poltal ont, sne t s fromte very begnnng a ratonalzed form of te struggle for soalredomnane, attaks te soal status of te oonent, subl restge, and s selfondene. It s dult to deden ts ase weter te sublmaton or substtuton of dsusson




o he olde weapons o conic, he diec use o oce andoppession, eally consiued a undamenal impovemen inhuman lie Physical epession is, i is ue, hade o bea

eenaly, bu he will o psychic annihilaion, which ook islace in many insances, is pehaps even moe unbeaable Iis heeoe no wonde ha paiculaly in his sphee eveyheoeical euaion was gadually ansomed ino a muchmoe undamenal aack on he whole liesiuaion o heopponen and wih he desucion o his heoies one hoped also o undemine his social posiion uhe, i is no &upisingha in his conic, in which om he vey sa one paid aen-

ion no only o wha a peson said bu also he goup o whichhe was he spokesman and wih wha acion in view he se ohhis agumens, one viewed hough in connecion wih he mode oeisence o which i was bound I is ue ha hough hasalways been he epession o goup lie and goup acion (ecepo highly academic hinking which o a ime was able o insulaeisel om acive lie Bu he dieence was eihe ha ineligious conics, heoeical issues wee no o pmay signicance o ha in analysing hei advesaies, men did no ge oan analysis o hei advesaies goups because, as we have seenhe social elemens in inellecual phenomena had no becomevisible o he hinkes o an indivdualisic epoch

In poliical discussion in mode democacies whee ideasee moe clealy epesenaive o ceain goups, he socialand eisenial deeminaion o hough became moe easilyvisible In pinciple i was poliics which s discoveed hesociological mehod in he sudy o inellecual phenomena.Basically i was in poliical suggles ha o he s ime menbecame awae o he unconscious collecive moivaions whichhad always guided he diecion o hough Poliical discussionis, om he vey s, moe han heoeical agumenaion i is he eaing o o disguiseshe unmasking o hose unconscious moives which bind he goup eisence o is culual

aspiaions and is heoeical agumens. To he een, howeve,ha mode poliics ough is bales ih heoeical weapons,he pocess o unmasking peneaed o he social oos o heoy

The discovey o he socialsiuaional oos o hough as, heeoe, ook he om o unmasking In addiion o hgadual dissoluion o he uniay obeciv woldview, whicho he simple man in he see ook he om o a lualiy odivgen concepions o he wold, and o he inellecual



6 IDEOLO ND TOPIpesened isel a he ieconcilable plualiy o houghsyleshee eneed ino he public mind he endency o unmaskhe unconscious siuaional moivaions in goup hinking This

nal inensicaion o he inellecual cisis can be chaaceizedby wo sloganlike conceps e ideology and uopia " whichbecause o hei symbolic signicance have been chosen as heile o his book

The concep ideology " eecs he one discovey hichemeged om poliical conic namely ha uling goups canin hei hinking become so inensively ineesbound o a;

ituati n

ha hey ae simply no longe able o see ceainfacts which would undemine hei sense o dominaion Theeis implici in he wod < ideology " he insigh ha in ceainsiuaions he collecive unconscious o ceain goups obscueshe eal condiion o sociey boh o isel and o ohes andheeby sabilizes i

The concep o uopian hinking eecs he opposie dis-covey o he poliical suggle namely ha ceain oppessedgoups ae inelecually so songly ineesed in he desucion

and ansomaion o a given condiion o sociey ha hey�nwiingly see only hose elemens in he siuaion which endo negae i Thei hinking is incapable o coecly diagnosingan exising condiion o sociey They ae no a all concenedwih wha eally exiss ahe in hei hinking hey aleadyseek o change he siuaion ha exiss Thei hough is nevea diagnosis o he siuaion i can be used only as a dieciono acion In he uopian menaliy he collecive unconsciousguided by wishul epesenaion and he ill o acion hidesceain aspecs o ealiy I us is back on eveyhing whichwould shake is belie o paalyse is desie o change hings

The collecive unconscious and he aciviy impelled by iseve o disguise ceain aspecs o social ealiy om wodiecions I is possible uhemoe as we have seen aboveo designae specicaly he souce and diecion o he disoionI is he ask o his volume o ace ou in he wo diecionsinicaed he mos signican phases in he emegence o hisdiscovey o he ole o he unconscious as i appeas in he hisoyo ideology and uopia A his poin we ae concened only wihdelineain ha sae o mind which ollowed upon heseinsighs since i is chaaceisic o he siuaion om which hisbook came oh

s hose paies which possessed he new inellecua



RIMINARY AROACH TO TH ROBM

weaons , the nmasking o the nconscios, had a terriadvantage over their adversaries It was stefying for the lattewhen it was demonstrated that their ideas were merely distorted

reections o their sitation in lie, anticiations o their non-scios interests. The mere act that it cold be convincinglydemonstrated to the adversary that motives which had hithertobeen hidden rom him were at work mst have lled him withterror and awakened in the erson sing the weaon a feeling ofmarvellos seriority. It was at the same time the dawning of alevel o consciosness which mankind had hitherto alwayshidden rom itsel with the greatest tenacity. Nor was it by

chance that this invasion of the nconscios was dared only bythe attacker while the attacked was dobly overwhelmedrst, throgh the laying bare of the nconscios itsel and thenin addition to this throgh the act tha the nconscios was laidbare and shed into rominence in a sirit of enmity. For it isclear that it makes a considerable dierence whether the nconscios is dealt with or roses o aiding and cring or or therose o nmasking .

Today, however, we have reached a stage in which this weaono the recirocal nmasking and laying bare o the nconsciossorces o intellectal eistence has become the roerty notof one gro among many bt o all o them. Bt in the measrethat the varios gros soght to destroy their adversaries condence in their thinking by this most modern intellectal weaono radical nmasking, they also destroyed, as all ositionsgradally came to be sbjected to analysis, mans condence inhman thoght in general. The rocess of eosing the roblema-tic elements in thoght which had been latent since the ollaseo the Middle Ages clminated at last in the collase of condencein thoght in general. There is nothing accidetal bt rather mreo the inevitable in the act that more and more eole tookight into sceticism or irrationalism

Two owerl crrents ow together here and reinorce one

another with an overwhelming ressre : one, the disaearanceo a nitary intellectal world with ed vales and norms and, two, the sdden srge of the hitherto hidden nconsciosinto the bright daylight of consciosness . Mans thoght hadrom time immemorial aeared to him as a segment o hissirital eistence and not simly as a discrete objective actReorientation had in the ast reqently meant a change in manhimsel. In these earlier eriods it was mostly a case o slo



38 IDEOLOGY AND UOPIA

shfts n alues and norms, of a gradual transformaton of theframe of reference from whch mens actons dered therultmate orentaton But n modern tmes t s a much more

profoundly dsorganzng aar he resort to the unconscoustended to dg up the sol out of whch the aryng ponts of ewsemerged he roots from whch human thought had hthertodered ts nourshment were eposed Gradually t becomes clearto all of us that we cannot go on lng n the same way once we know about our unconscous motes as we dd when we weregnorant of them What we now eperence s more than a newdea, and the questons we rase consttute more than a new

problem What we are concerned wth here s the elementalperplety of our tme, whch can be eptomzed n thesymptomatc queston How s t possble for man to contnueto thnk and le a tme when the problems of deology andutopa are beng radcally rased and thought through n allther mplcatons ?

It s possble, of course, to escape from ths stuaton n whchthe pluralty of thoughtstyles has become sble and the

estence of collecteunconscous motatons recognzedsmply by hdng these processes from ourseles One can takeght nto a supratemporal logc and assert that truth as suchs unsulled and has nether a pluralty of forms nor any connec-ton wth unconscous motatons But n a world n whchthe problem s not just an nterestng subject for dscusson butrather an nner perplety, someone wll soon come forth whowll nsst aganst these ews that our problem s not truth

as such t s our thnkng as we nd t n ts rootedness n actonn the socal stuaton, n unconscous motatons Show ushow we can adance from our concete perceptons to youabsolute denons Do not speak of truth as such but show usthe way n whch our statements, stemmng from our socal

estence, can be translated nto a sphere n whch the partsan-shp, the fragmentarness of human son, can be transcended,n whch the socal orgn and the domnance of the unconscousn thnkng ll lead to controlled obseratons rather than tochaos " he absoluteness of thought s not attaned bywarrantng, through a general prncple, that one has t or byproceedng to label some partcular lmted ewpont (usuallyones own) as suprapartsan and authortate

N or are we aded when we are drected to a few propostonsn whch the content s so formal and abstract (eg n




matematics gemetry and pure ecnmics) that in act teyseem t e cmpletely detaced rm te tinking scialindividual e attle is nt aut tese prpsitins ut aut

that greater wealth actual determinatins in wic mancncretely diagnses is indiviual and scial situatin in whiccncrete interdependences in lie are perceived and in whicappenings external t us are rst crrectly understd. eattle rages cncerning thse prpsiins in whic everycncept is meaningully riented rm te rst in wic weuse wrds like cnict reakdwn alienatin nsurrectinresentmentwrds wic d nt reduce cmplex situatins r

the sake an externalizing rmal descriptin withut evreing ale t uild them up again and wic wuld lse tercntent i teir rientatin teir evaluative elements weredrpped ut.

We ave already swn elsewhere tat te develpment mde science led t te grwt a tecniue tugt ymeans whic all that was nly meaningully intelligile wasexcluded. Behaviurism as pused t te regrund tis

tendency twards cncentratin n entirely exteally perceivalereactins and has sugt t cnstrct a wrld acts inwic there will exist nly measurale data nly crrelatinsetween series actrs in whc te degree praility /mdes ehaviur in certain situatins will e predictale.I t is pssile and even prale tat scilgy must pass thrughthis stage in whic its cntents will underg a mecanisticdeumanizatin and rmalizatin just as psyclgy dids tat ut devtin t an ideal narrw exactitude ntingwill reman except statistical data tests surveys etc. and in teend every signicant rmulatin a prlem we excluded.All tat can e said here is that tis reductin everytint a measurale r inventrylike descriailty is signicantas a serius attempt t determine what is unamiguuslyascertainale and urter t tink tru wat ecmes urpsycic and scial wrld when it is restricted t purely externally

vmeasurale relatinsips. Tere can n lner e any duttat n real penetratin int scial reality is pssile thrugh thisapprac. Let us take r example te relatively simplephenmenn dented y the term situatin . What is let it r is it even at all intelligile wen it is reduced t aexternal cnstellatin varius reciprcally related ut nlyexteally visile patterns eaviur ? It is clear n te ter



40 IDELGY ND UTPI

nd, tt umn sitution is ccteizble only wen one( s lso tken into ccount tose conceptions wic te ptici- pnts ve of it, ow tey expeience tei tensions in tis

sitution nd ow tey ect to te tensions so conceived. let us tke some mlieu fo instnce, te milieu in wic cetin fmily exists. e not te noms wic pevil in tsfmily, nd wic e intelligible only toug meningfulintepettion, t lest s muc pt of te milieu s te lnd-scpe o te funitue of te ouseold ? Still fute, must nottis sme fmily, ote tings being equl, be consideed s completely dieent mlieu (e.g. fom te point o te tining

of te cilden) if its noms ve cnged ? If we wis to c<-peend suc concete penomenon s sitution o te nom-tive content of milieu, te puely mecnistic sceefppoc will neve suce nd tee must be intoduced inddition concepts dequte fo te undetnding of meningfulnd nonmensuive eements.

But t would be fle to ssume tt te eltions betweentese elements e less cle nd less pecisely peceivble tn

tose tt obtin between puely mesuble penomen. Quiteon te conty, te ecipocl intedepndence of te elementsmking up n event is muc moe intimtely compeensibletn tt of stictly extenl fomlized elements. Hee ttppoc wic, following Diltey, I sould like to designte ste undestnding of te imy intedependence of expeencedas vrshd Erfassn ds ursprnichn Lbnszusammn-hans

comes into its own In tis ppoc, by use of te

tecnique of undstnding, te ecipocl functionl inte-penettion of psycic expeences nd socil situtions becomesimmeditely intelligible. We e confonted ee wit elmof existence in wic te emegence of psycic ections fomwtin becomes evident of necessity nd is not compeensiblemeely s is n extel cuslty, ccoding to te degee ofpobbility of its fequency.

Let us tke cetin of te obsevtions wic sociology swoked up by te use of te metod of undestnding nd con-side te ntue of i scientic evidence. Wen one s sttedconceing te etics of te eliest Cistin communities,tt it ws pmily inteligible in tems of te esentment ofoppessed stt, nd wen otes ve dded tt tis eticl

Here use Dihey's expressio, evg useed he queso o how hs use o he erm sdere rom h bove



PRELMNARY APPRACH T THE PRBLEM 41

outlook was entirel unpolitical because it corresponded to thementalit of that stratum which ad as et no real aspirations toule ( Render unto Caesr the things that are Caesars ") , and when

it has been said futhe that this ethic is not a tribal ethic but awold ethic, since it arose from the soil of the alread disintegratedtribal structure of the Roman Empire, it is clear that theseinterconnections between socia situations on the one handand pschicethical modes of behaviour on the other ae not,it is tue, measurale but can none the less be much more intensivel penetated in thei essential character than if coecientsof corelation were established between the various factos The interconnections ae evident because we have used anunderstanding approach to those prima interdependences oexerence from which these norms arose

t has become clear that the principal propositions of the socialsciences are neither mechanisicall extenal nor fomal, nor dothe epresent purel quantitative correlations but athesituational diagnoses in which we use, b and large, the sameconcrete concepts ad thoughtmodels which were created

for activistic purposes in eal life t is clea, futhermore,that eve social science diagnosis is closel connected with theevaluations and unconscious orientations of the observer and that th citica selfclarication of the socia sciences is intimatelbound up with the citical selfclarcation of our orientation inthe eveda world An obsever who is not fundamentallinterested in the social roots of the changing ethics of the periodin which he himself lives, who does not thnk though the pob-lems of social life in tems of the tensions between social strata,and who has not also discovered the fruitful aspect of resentmenin his own experience, will never be in a position to see thatphase of Christian ethics described above, to sa nothing ofbeing able to understand it t is precisel in the degree in whichhe participates evaluation all (smpatheticall o antagonisti-call) in the struggle fo ascendanc of the lower strata, in the

degree that he evaluates esentment positivel o negativel,that he becomes aware of the dnamic signicance of socialtension and resentment Lower class," social ascendanc, resentment " instead of being formal concepts are meaning-full oriented concepts f the were to be formalized, and theevaluations the contain dstilled out of them, the thought-model chaacterstic of the situation, in which it is preciselesentment which produced the good and novel fuitful nom,






whch throws us back upon ouselves. In the course of thscollson wth other possble forms of estence the peculartyof our own mode of lfe becomes apparent to us Even n ou

personal le we become masters of ourselves only when theunconscous motvatons whch formerly ested behnd ou backs suddenly come nto ou eld of vson and thereby becomeaccessble to conscous control. Man attans objectvty andacqures a self wth eference to hs concepton of hs world notby vn up hs wll to acton and holdn hs evaluatons nabeyance but n confrontn and eamnn hmself. Thecrteron of such selfllumnaton s that not only the object

but we ourselves fall squarely wthn ou eld of vson. ebecome vsble to ourselves not just vauely as a known subjectas such but n a certan ole htherto hdden from us n a stuatonhtherto mpenetrable to us and wth motatons of whch wehave not htherto been aware. In such moments the neconnecton between our ole ou motvatons and ou typeand manner of eperencn the word suddenly dawns upon us.Hence the parado underlyn these epeences namely the

oppotunty for relatve emancpaton from socal determnatonncreases proportonately wth nsht nto ths determnaton . hose persons who talk most about human freedom ae thosewho ae actually most blndly subjet to socal determnaton �nasmuch as they do not n most cases suspect the profoundderee to whch ther conduct s determned by ther nteests.In constrast wth ths t should be noted that t s precselythose who nsst on the unconscous nuence of the socal

determnants n conduct who strve to overcome these determn-ants as much as possble They uncover unconscous motvatonsn orde to make those forces whch formerly uled them more andmore nto objects of conscous ratonal decs

hs llustaton of how the etenson of ou knowlede ofthe world s closely elated to nceasn personal selfknowlede and selfcontrol of the known pesonalty s nethe accdentalor perpheal. The process of the selfetenson of the ndvdualepresents a typcal eample of the unfoldn of every knd ofstuaton ally determned knowlede .e. of every knd ofknowlede whch s not merely the smple objectve accumula-ton of nformaton about facts and ther causal connectonsbut whch s nteested n the understandn of an nne nter-dependence n the lfe process. Inne ntedependence can beasped oly by the undestandn method of ntepretato




and he sages of hs undesandng of he wold ae bound aevey sep o he pocess of ndvdual selfclacaon Thssuue n accodance wh whch selfclacaon maes

possble he exenson of ou nowledge of he wold abou usobans no only fo ndvdual selfnowledge bu s also heeon of goup selfclaaon Alhough hee oo shouldagan e emphaszed ha only ndvduals ae capable of self-clacaon hee s no such hng as a fol mnd andgoups as wholes ae as ncapable of selfclacaon as hey aeof hnng) maes a poweful deence whehe an ndvdualbecomes conscous of hose que specal unconscous movaons

whch have chaacezed paculaly hs pevous hnngand acng o whehe he s made awae of hose elemens n hsmovaons and ouloo whch e hm o he membes of apacula goup

I s a poblem n self as o whehe he sequence whch hesages of selfclacaon follow s enely a mae of chanceWe ae nclned o beleve ha ndvdual selfclacaonoccupes a poson n a seam of selfclacaon he socal

souce of whch s a suaon common o he deen ndvdualsBu whehe we ae hee concened wh he selfclacaonof ndvduals o of goups one hng s common o oh namelyhe sucue The cenally mpoan feaue of hs sucues ha n so fa as he wold does become a poblem does nodo so as an obec deached fom he subec bu ahe as mpnges upon he fabc of he subec s expeences Realys dscoveed n he way n whch appeas o he subec n

he couse of hs selfexenson n he couse f exendng hsapacy fo expeence and hs hozon)

Wha we have hheo hdden fom ouselves and no negaedno ou epsemology s ha nowledge n he polcal andsocal scences s fom a cean pon on deen fom fomalmechans nowledge s deen fom ha pon whee anscends e mee enumeaon of facs and coelaonsand appoxmaes he model of suaonally eemned now-ledge o whch we shall efe many mes n he pesen wo

Once he neelaonshp beween socal scence andsuaonallbound hnng as s fo nsance found npolcal oenaon becomes evden we have eason onvesgae he posve poenales as well as he lms anddanges of hs ype of hnng I s fuhemoe mpoanha we ae ou pon of depaue n ha sae of ss and



RELIMINARY AROACH TO THE ROBLEM 45

uncertanty n whch were dsclosed the dangers of ths soof thnkng as well as those new possbltes of selfcrtcsthrough whch t was hoped that a soluton could be found

If the proble s attacked fro ths pont of vew theuncertanty whch had becoe an ever ore unbearable gren publc lfe becoes the sol fro whch odern socal scencegans entrely new nsghts These fall nto three an tendences :rst the tendency towards the selfcrtcs of colectveunconscous otvatons n so far as they deterne odesocal thnkng ; second the tendency towards the establshentof a new type of ntellectual hstory whch s able to nterpret

changes n deas n relaton to socalhstorcal changes ; andthrd the tendency towards the revson of our epsteoogywhch up to now has not taken the socal nature of thoughtsucently nto account The socology of knowledge s n thssense the systatizatn of the dout whch s to be found nsocal lfe as a vague nsecurty and uncertanty The a ofths book s on the one hand the clearer theoretcal formulatonof one and the sae proble fro derent anles and on theother the elaboraton of a ethod whch wll enable us on thebass of ncreasngly precse crtera to dstngush and solatedverse styles of thnkng and to relate the to the groups frowhch they sprng

Nothng s spler than to antan that a certan type othnkng s feudal bourgeos or proletaran lberal socalstcor conservatve as long as there s no analytcal ethod fordeonstratng t and no crtera have been adduced whch wllprovde a control over the deonstaton Hence the chf taskn the present stage of research s to elaborate and concetzethe hypotheses nvolved n such a way that they can be adethe bass of nductve studes At the sae te the segentsof realty wth whch we deal ust be analysed nto factors na uch ore eact anner than we have been accustoed todo n the past Our a then s rs to rene the analyss of

eann n the sphere of thought so thoroughly that gosslyunderentated ters and concepts wll be supplated yncreasngly eact and detaled charactrztons of the varousthoughtstyles ; and second to perfect te technque of reconstructng socal hsory to such an etent that nstead of scatteredsolated facts one wll be able to perceve the socal structureas a whole e the web of nteractng socal forces fro whchhave arsen the varous odes of observng and thnkng through





PRELIMINRY PPOCH TO THE PROBLEM 4

t the preent tage f develpment we are tll far frm havnunambiguuly frmulated the prblem cnnected wth ththery f the clgy f knwledge nr have we yet wrke

ut the clgcal analy f meaning t t ultmate renementThi feelng f tandng at the beginnng f a mvement inteaf the end cnditin the manner n whch the bk preentedThere are prblem abut whch nether textbk nr perfectlycnitent ytem can be wrtten They are the quetnwhch an age ha a yet neither fully perceved nr fully thughtthrugh Fr uch prblem earlier centure whch were hakenby the repercuin f the revlutin n thught and experenc

frm the ixteenth t the eghteenth centure nvented thefrm f the centc eay The technque f the thnker fthat perd cnted n leapng int any immedate prblewhch wa cnvenently at hand and bervng t fr lng anfrm many angle that nally m margnal prblem fthught and extence wa dcled and illumnated by meanf the accdental ndvdual cae Th fr f preentatnwhich ince ha frequently prved t wrth erved a a

prttype t the authr when n the preent vlume wth thexceptin f the lat part he che t emply the eay frm annt the ytematc tyle f treatment

Thee tude are attempt t apply a new way f lkng atthng and a new methd f nterpretatn t varu prblemand bdie f fact They were wrtten at derent tme anndependently f ne anther and althugh they centre abuta untary prblem each f thee eay ha t wn ntellectuabjectve

Th eayiticexpermental atttude n thught al explainwhy here and there repettn have nt been elminated ancntradictin relved The rean fr nt elnating reettnwa that the ame dea preented itelf n a new ntext anwa therefre dcled n a new light Cntradctn have ntbeen crrected becaue t i the authr' cnvctn that a gven

theetical ketch may ften have latent n t vared pbltewhch mut be permitted t cme t expren n rder thatth cpe f the expitin may be truly apprecated1 It i h

In this connection it shoud be noted how n the second a f thbook the socaed eativistic ossibiities of the same ideas, how in thefouth the activisticutopian eements, and in the ast the tendency towad hamonioussynthetic soution of the same fundamenta issues comes t thefoe To the extent that the exeimenta method of thinking devotes itse the exoation of the vaious ossibiities contained in gemina ide



48 IDEOLOGY AND UTOIA

ute coniction tat fequently in ou tie aious notionseied fo contadictoy styles of tougt ae at wok e sae tinke We do not note te oweve only because

te systeatic tinke caefully ides is contadictions foiself and is eades Weeas contadictions ae a soucef discotue to te systeatize te expeiental tinkeoften pecees in te points of depatue fo wic te fundaentally discodant caacte of ou pesent situation becoesfo te st tie eally capable of diagnosis and inestigation

A bief suay of te contents of te pats tat follow souldpoide a backgound fo te analyses undetaken in te

at II exaines te ost ipotant canges in te conceptionof Ideology pointing out on te one and ow tese canges eaning ae bound up wit social and istoica cangesand attepting on te ote and to deonstate wit conceteexaples ow te sae concept in dieent pases of its istoycan ean at one tie an ealuatie and at anote tie a nonevaluative attitude and ow te vey ontology of te conceptis involved in its istoical canges wic pass alost unnoticed

at III deals wit te poble of scientic poitics ow isa science of politics possible in face of te ineently ideologicalcaacte of all tougt ? In tis connection an attept willbe ade to wok out epiicaly an ipotant exape of ananalysis of te eaning of a concept along te lines of te sociologyof knowledge It will be sown fo exaple ow te conceptsof eoy and actice die in te ocabulaies of dieentgoups and ow tese dieences in te uses of wods aise outof te positions of te dieent goups and can be undestoodby a consideation of tei dieent situations

at IV deals wit te Uopian Mentality and tus toan analysis of te utopian eleent in ou tougt and expeienceAn attept is ade to indicate wit efeence to only a fewcucial cases ow extensively te canges in te utopian eleentin ou tougt inuence te fae of efeence we use fo teodeing and evaluation of ou experiences and ow suc cangescan be taced back to social oveents

at V oes a systeatic suay and pospectus o tenew disciline of te Sociology of Knowledge

the pont lustrated above becomes apparentthat the same acts ,under the nuence o the wll and the changng pont o vew can otenlead to dvergent conceptons o the total stuaton As long however,as a connecton between deas s stll i the process o rowth and becomngone should not hde the possbltes whch are stll latent n t but should

subt t n al ts varatons to the judment o the reader



IDEOLOGY ND UTOPI

1 FIITIO OF COPTS

In de t undestand the pesent situatin thught it isnecessay t stat with the pblems t idelgy " . F mst

peple the tem t idelgy " is clsely bund up with Maismand thei eactins t the tem ae lagely detemined by theassciatin It is theee st necessay t state that althughMaism cntibuted a geat deal t the iginal statement the pblem bth the wd and its meaning g athe bacn histy than Maism and eve since its time new meanings the wd have emeged which have taen shape ndependently t

Thee is n bette intductin t the pblem than the analysis the meaning the tem ( idelgy stly we have tdisentangle all the dieent shades meaning which ae blendedhee int a pseudunity and a me pecise statement thevaiatins in the meanings the cncept as it is used tdaywll pepae the way its scilgical and histical analysisuch an analysis will shw that in geneal thee ae tw distinctnd sepaable meanings the tem I idelgy the paticula

and the ttalThe paticula cnceptin idelgy is implied when thetem dentes that we ae sceptical the ideas and epesetatinsadvanced by u ppnent They ae egaded as me lesscnscius disguises the eal natue a situatin the tueecgnitin which wuld nt be in accd with his nteestsThese disttins ange all the way m cnscius lies t halcnscius and unwitting disguises m calculated attempts t

upe thes t seldeceptin This cnceptin idelgywhich has nly gadually becme dieentiated m the cmmnsense ntin the lie is paticula in seveal senses Itspaticulaity becmes evidnt when it s cntasted with theme inclusive ttal cnceptin idelgy Hee we ee tthe idelgy an age a cncete histicscial gupeg a class when we ae cnceed with the chaacteistics

9



50 DELG AND UTPA

and composition o th total strctr o th mind o this pochr o this grop

Th common as wll as th distinctiv lmnts o th two

concpts ar radily vidnt Th common lmnt in thstwo concptions sms to consist in th act that nithr rlissolly on what is actally said by th opponnt n ordr to racha ndrstanding o his ral maning and intntion1 B othall back on th sbjct whthr individal or grop procdingto an ndrstandng o what is said by th indirct mthod oanalysing th social conditions o th individal or his gropTh ias xprssd by th sbjct ar ths rgardd as nctions

o his xistnc This mans that opinions statmnts proposi-tions and systms o idas ar not takn at thir ac valbt ar intrprtd in th light o th lisitation o th onwho xprsss thm t signis rthr that th spcic charactrand lisitation o th sbjct innc his opinions prcptions and intrprtations

Both ths concptions o idology accordingly mak thssocalld idas a ncion o him who holds thm and o

his position in his socia mili Althogh thy hav somthingin common thr ar also signicant dirncs btwn thm th lattr w mntion mrly th most important

(a Whras th particlar concption o idology dsignatsonly a part o th opponnts ssrtions as idologisand thisonly with rrnc to thir contnt th total concption callsinto qstion th opponnts total Wltanshauung incldinghis concptal apparats and attmpts to ndrstand thsconcpts as an otgrowth o th collctiv li o which hpartaks

b Th particlar concption o idology maks its anlysiso idas on a prly psychological lvl it is claimd orinstanc that an advrsary is lying or that h is concaling ordistorting a givn actal sitation it is still nvrtlss assmdthat both partis shar common critria o validityit is stillassmd that it is possibl to rt lis and radicat socso rror by rrring to accptd critria o objctiv validity

I the interpretation reies soey pon that whih is atay saidwe sha spea o an " immanent interpretation it transends thesedata, impying thereby an anaysis o the sbjets iesitation we shaspea o a " transendenta interpretation A typoogy o these variosorms o interpretation is to be ond in the athors " Ideoogishe \ndsozioogishe Interpretation der geistigen Gebide , J hrbch r oolovo! (Karsrhe 926 p 424



IDELGY AND UTPIA 1

common to both paties The suspicion that ones opponent isthe victim of an ideoogy does not go so fa as to excude himfom discussion on the basis of a common theoetica fame of

efeence The case is dieent ith the total conception ofideoogy When e attibute to one histoical epoch one inteectua od and to ouselves anothe one, o if a cetain histoicaydetemine socia statum thinks in categoies othe than ouon, e efe not to the isoated cases of thoughtcontent, butto fundamentay divegent thoughtsysems and to ideydieing modes of expeience and intepetation. We touchupon the theoetical o nooogical evel heneve e conside

not meey the content but aso the fom, and even the conceptuafameok of a mode of thought as a function of the if situationo a thinke The economic categois ae ony the theoeticaexpessions, the abstactions, of the socia elations of poduction The same men ho estabish social elations confomabyith thei mateia poductivity, poduce aso the pincpes,the ideas, the categoies, confomably ith thei socia eations (Kal Max, h Pty f Philsphy, being a tansation ofMis la Philsphi, ith a peface by Fedeick Engels,tansated by H Quech, Chicago, 1910, p 119 These ae theto ays of anaysing statements as functions of thei sociabackgound the st opeates ony on the psychoogical, thesecond on the nooogical evel

() Coesponding to this dieence, the paticua conceptionof ideoogy opeates pimaiy ith a psychoogy of inteests,hie the tota conception uses a moe foma functiona anaysis,ithout any efeence to motivations, conning itsef to anobjective desciption of the stuctua dieences in mindsopeating in dieent social settings The fome assumes thatthis o that inteest is the cause of a given ie o deceptionThe atte pesupposes simpy that thee is a coespondencebeteen a given socia situation and a given pespective, pointof vie, o appeception mass In this case, hie an anaysis

of consteations of inteests may often be necessay it is notto estabish causa connections but to chaacteize the totalsituation Thus inteest psychoogy tends to be dispaced byan anaysis of the coespondence beteen the situation to beknon and the foms of knoedge

Since the paticula conception neve actuay depats fomthe psychoogica evel, the point of efeence in such anaysesis aays the individual This is the case even hen e ae



52 IDELGY AND UTPIA

deang wth goups snce a psychc phenomena must naybe duced to the mnds of ndvduas The tem goupdeoogy " occus fequenty to be sue n popua speech

Goup exstenc n ths sense can ony mean that a goup ofpesons ethe n the mmedate eactons to the same stuatono as a esut of dect psychc nteacton eact smayAccodngy condtoned by the same soca stuaton theyae subect to the same usons If we conne ou obsevatonsto the menta pocesses whch take pace n the ndvdua andegad hm as the ony possbe beae of deooges we shaneve gasp n ts totaty the stuctue of the nteectua wod

beongng to a soca goup n a gven hstoca stuatonAthough ths menta wod as a whoe coud neve come ntoexstence wthout the expeences and poductve esponsesof the deent ndviduas ts nne stuctue s not to befound n a mee ntegaton of these ndvdua expeencesThe ndvdua membes o the wokngcass fo nstance donot expeence all the eements of an outook whch coud becaed the poetaan ltanshauun Evey ndvdua

patcpates ony n cetan fagments of ths thoughtsystemthe totaty of whch s not n the east a mee sum of thesefagmentay ndvdua expeences As a totaty the thoughtsystem s ntegated systematcay and s no mee casuaumbe of fagmentay expeences of dscete membes of thegoup. Thus t foows that the ndvdua can ony be consdeedas the beae of an deoogy as ong as we dea wth that concepton of deoogy whch by denton s dected moe to detachedcontents than to the whoe stuctue of thought uncovengfase ways of thought and exposng es As soon as the totaconcepton of deoogy s used we attempt to econstuct thewhoe outook of a soca goup and nethe the concetendvduas no the abstact sum of them can egtmatey beconsdeed as beaes of ths deoogca thoughtsystem as awhoe The am of the anayss on ths eve s the econstuctonof the systematc theoetca bass undeying the snge udgmentsof the indvdua Anayses of deooges n the patcua sensemakng the content of ndvidua thought agey dependent onthe inteests of the subect can neve acheve ths basc econstucton of the whoe outook of a soca goup They can atbest evea the coectve psychoogca aspects of deoogy oead to some deveopment of mass psychoogy deaing ethewth the deent behavou of the ndvdua n the cowd o



IDELGY AND UTPIA 53

th the ests of the mass ntegaton o the psychc expeencesof many ndvdas And athogh the coectve-sychoogcaaspect may vey often appoach the pobems of the tota

deoogca anayss t does not anse ts qestons exactyIt s one thng to kno ho fa my atttdes and dgments aenenced and ateed by the co-exstence of othe hman bengsbt t s anothe thng to kno ha ae the theoetcampcatons of my mode of thoght hch ae dentca thhose of my feo membes of the gop o soca statm

We content oseves hee meey th statng the ssethot attemptng a thoogh-gong anayss of the dct

methodoogca pobems hch t ases

2 TH CPT DLGY ISTRIL RSPTV

Jst as the patca and tota conceptons of deoogy can bedstngshed fom one anothe on the bass of the deencesn meanng so the hstoca ogns of these to concepts mayaso be deentated even thogh n eaty they ae aaysntetned We do not as yet possess an adeqate hstocateatment of the deveopment of the concept of deoogy tosay nothng of a socoogca hstoy of the many vaatons 1

As prtl bblogrphy of the problem the uthor ndctes thefollowng of hs own works :

Mnnhem K Ds Problem ener Soologe des Wssens" Arhfr ozssnshft un ozpotk, 1925 vol 54

Mnnhem K Ideologsche und soologsche Interpretton dergestgen Geblde" hrbuhfr ozoo edted by Gottfred Slomon (Krlsruhe 1926) pp 424 Other relevnt mterls re to be found n :Krug W T Amns Hnrtrbuh r phosophshn Wssnshftn nbst hrr Ltrtur un Gshht 2nd edt Lepg 1833

Eslers Phosophshs WrtrbuhLlnde Vobur phosoph (Prs 1926)Slomon G C Hstorscher Mterlsmus und Ideologenlehre

hrbuh fr ozoo pp 386 Zegler H Ideologenlehre" A rh fr ozssnshft n

ozpotk vol 57 pp 657 The mjorty of the studes of deology never rech the level of ttemptng

systemtc nlyss connng themselves usully to hstorcl references

or to the most generl consdertons As exmples we cte the wellknowworks of Mx Weber Georg Lukcs rl Schmtt nd more recentlyKelsen Hns C De phlosophschen Grundlgen der Nturrechtslehre

und der Rechtspostvsmus" No 31 of the Vortr r nt Gsshft1928he stndrd works of W Sombrt Mx Scheler nd Frn Oppenhemer

re too wdely known to requre detled referenceIn wder connecton the followng studes re of especl nterest :

Reler K. Idee und Interesse n der poltschen Gescchte" DDoskurn vol (Munch 1924) Contnu on p 54





IDELGY AND UTPIA 55

Accoding to this intepetation Bacon's theoy of the ilamay be egaded to a cetain extent as a foeunne of themode conception of ideoogy The idos " ee phantoms "

o peconceptions " and thee ee as e kno the idosof the tibe of the cave of the maket and of the theateA of these ae souces of eo deived sometimes fom humannatue itsef sometimes fom paticua individuas Theymay aso be attibuted to society o to tadition In any casethey ae obstaces in the path to tue knoedge Thee iscetainy some connection beteen the moden tem ideoogy "and the tem as used by Bacon signifying a souce of eo

Futhemoe the eaization that society and tadition maybecome souces of eo is a diect anticipation f the socioogicapoint of vie Nevetheess it cannot be caimed that thee isan actua eationship diecty taceabe though the histoyof thought beteen this and the mode conception of ideoogy

It is extemey pobabe that eveyday expeience itpoitica aais st made man aae of and citica toadthe ideoogica eement in his thinking Duing the Renaissance

among the feo citizens of Machiavei thee aose a ne

A chrcteristic pssge from Bcons Novm Ornm § 38. Theidols nd flse notions which hve lredy preoccpied the hmn nderstnding nd re deeply rooted in it not only so beset men's minds thtthey become diclt of ccess bt even when ccess is obtined willgin meet nd troble s in the instrtion of the sciences nlessmnkind when forewrned grd themselves with ll possible cre ginstthem" Th Physc n Mtphysc Works of Lor Bcon (incldingthe A vncmnt o Lrnn nd Novm Ornm Edited b ]oseph

Devey p 389 G. Bell nd Sons (London 189 1 ) 2 There re lso idols formed by the reciprocl intercorse nd societyof mn with mn which we cll idols of the mrket from the commercend ssocition of men with ech other ; for men converse by mensof lngge bt words re formed t the will of the generlity nd thererises from bd nd npt formtion of words wonderfl obstrctionto the mind." Bcon op. cit. p 39 § 43 . f lso § 59

On the idol of trdition " Bcon sys : The hmn nderstnding when ny proposition hs once been lid

down (either from generl dmission nd belief or from the plesre itords) forces everything else to dd fresh spport nd conrmtion :

nd lthogh most cogent nd bndnt instnces exist to the conrryyet either does ot observe or despises them or gets rid of nd rejectsthem by some distinction with violent nd injrios prejdice rtherth scrice the thority of its rst conclsion" Op cit. § 46 p 392

Tht we re confronted here with sorce of error is evinced by thefollowing pssge :

The hmn nderstnding resembles not dry light bt dmits tinctre of the will nd pssions which generte their own systemccrdingly for mn lwys believes more redily tht which he prefers."Op cit. § 49 pp. 393-4. f lso § 52



56 IDELGY AND UTPIA

adage cang attenton to a common obsevaton of the tmenamey that the thought of the paace s one thng, and thatof the pubc squae s anothe Ths was an expesson of the

nceasng degee to whch the pubc was ganng access to thesecets of potcs Hee we may obseve the begnnng of thepocess n the couse of whch what had fomely been meeyan occasona outbust of suspcon and sceptcsm towadpubc utteances deveoped nto a methodc seach fo thdeoogca eement n al of them The dvesty of the waysof thought among men s even at ths stage attbuted to afacto whch mght, wthout unduy stetchng the tem, be

denomnated as socoogca Machavel, wth hs eentessatonaty, made t hs speca task to eate the vaatons nthe opnons of men to the coespondng vaatons n thenteests Accodngy when he pescbes a mcina ftfo evey bas of the nteested pates n a contovesy heseems to be makng expct and settng up as a geneal ue ofthought what was mpct n the commonsense adage of hstme

Thee seems to be a staght n eadng fom ths pont nthe nteectua oentaton of the este od to the atonaand cacuatng mode of thought chaactstc of the peod ofthe Enghtenment The psychoogy of nteests seems to owfom the same souce ne of the chef chaactestcs of themethod of atona aayss of human behavou, exempedby Humes Histy f Englan was the pesupposton thatmen wee gven to « fegnng 3 and to decevng the feows

The same chaactestc s found n contempoay hstoanswho opeate wth the patcua concepton of deoogy Thsmode of thought w aways stv n accodance wth thepsychoogy of nteests to cast doubt uon the ntegty of headvesay and to depecate hs motves Ths pocedue, nevetheess has postve vaue as ong as n a gven case we aenteested n dscoveng the genune meanng of a statement thates conceaed behnd a camouage of wods Ths « debunkng tendency n the thought of ou tme has become vey maked

Mche Dscors o. p 47 ted by Menecke D I rttsrson Munch nd Bern 1925) p 4

f Menecke bd Meuse Fr. Emn Brk n rnzssch Rvoton (Bern

913) p 12 note 34 r Schtt nysed ths chrcterstc contemporry mnner of

thought ery we when he sd tht we re n contnu fer of beng



DELGY AND UTPA 57

And vn though in id cicls this tait is considd undignidand disrspctful (and indd in so fa as cc dbunking " is annd in itslf th citicism is ustid) this intllctual position

is focd upon us in an a of tansition lik ou on hichnds it ncssay to bak ith many antiquatd taditions andoms

3. ROM T RTIULR TO T OTL COTIO OFDOLOGY

t must b mmb that th unmasking hich taksplac on th psychological lvl is not to b confusd ith th

o adical scpticism and th mo thooughgoing anddvastating citical analysis hich pocds on th ontologicaland noological lvls But th to cannot b compltly spaatdTh sam histoical focs that bing about continuous tansomations in on a also opativ in th oth n th fompsychological illusions a constantly bing undmind in thlatt ontological and logical omulations aising out o givnoldvis and mods o thought a dissolvd in a conictbtn th intstd patis nly in a old in uphavalin hich fundamntal n vlus a bing catd and old onsdstoyd can intllctual conict go so fa that antagonistsil sk to annihilat not mly th spcic blifs and attitudso on anoth but also th intllctual foundations upon hichths blifs and attituds st

As long as th conicting patis livd in and tid to psnt

th sam old vn though thy at opposit pols inthat old o as long as on udal liqu ought against itsual such a thooughgoing mutual dstuction as inconivabl This pofound disintgation o intllctual unity ispossibl only hn th basic valus of th contnding goups aolds apat At st in th cous o this vdpningdisintgation nav distust bcoms tansfomd into ystmatic paticula notion o idology hich hov

mains on th pschological plan But as th pocss continusit xtnds to th nooogicalpistmological sph Th isingbougoisi hch bought ith it a st o valus as notcontnt ith mly bing assgnd a cicumscibd plac ithin

msled. onsequently we re perpetully on gurd gnst dsgusessubmtons nd refrctons. He ponts out tht the word smcrawhch ppered i the poltc terture of the seventeenth centurym be regrded s forerunner of the presen tttude PoschRomnk 2nd edit. (Munch nd Lepzg 1925) p. 19) .





IDELGY ND UTPI 59

to the knoing mind, and the mental activity of the subectdetermin the form in ich the orld appears This constitutesin fact te embrnic ttal coneption of ideology, though it is,

as yet, devoid of its historical and sociological implicationst this stage, the orld is conceived as a structural unity,and no longer as a plurality of disparate events as it seemed tobe in the intermediate period hen the breakdon of theobective orer seemed to bring chaos It is related in its entiretyto a subect, but in this case the subect is not a concreteindividual It is rather a ctitious consciousness in itself " In this vie, hich is particularly pronounced in Kant, th

noological level is sharply dierentiated from the psychologicalone This is the rst stage in the dissolution of an ontologicaldogmatism hich regarded the orld as eXs

<ing independentlyof us, in a xed and denitive form

The second stage in the development of the total conceptionof ideology is attained hen the total but supertemporal notionof ideology is seen in historical perspective. This is mainly theaccomplishment of Hegel and the Historical school The latter,

and Hegel to an even greater degree, start from the assumptionthat the orld is a unity and is conceivable only ith referenceto a knoing subect nd no at this point, hat is for us adecisive ne element is added to the conceptionnamely, thatthis unity is in a process of continual historicl transformationand tends to a constant restoration of its eqlibrium on stillhigher levels During the Enlightenment the subect , as carrieof the unity of consciousness, as vieed as a holly abstract,

supertemporal, and supersocial entity : consciousness initself " During this period the Volksgis folk spirit, comesto represent the historically dieentiated elements ocsciousness, hich are integrated by Hegel into the orld spirit " I t i s evident that the increasing concreteness of this type ofPhiloophy results from the more immediate concern ith theideas arising from social interaction and the incorporation ofhistoricalpolitical currents of thought into the domain ofphilosophy henceforth, hoever, the experiences of everydaylife are no longer accepted at face value, but are thought throughin all their implications and are traced back to their presuppositions It should be noted, hoever, that the historically changingnature of mind as discovered not so much by philosophy asby the penetration of political insight into the everyday life ofthe time





IDELGY AN UTPIA 61

The esult of this dual tendency is that instead of a ctionalunity of a tieless unchanging consciousness as such

(hich as neve actually deonstable) e get a conception

hich vaies in accodance ith histoic peiods nations andsocial classes In the couse of this tansition e continue tocling to the unity of consciousness but this unity is no dynaicand in constant pocess of becoing This accounts fo the factthat despite the suende of the static conception of consciousness the going body of ateial discoveed by histoicaleseach does not eain an incoheent and discontinuou assof discete events This latest conception of consciousness

povides a oe adequate pespective fo the copehensionof histoical ealityTo consequences o fo this conception of consciousness

st e clealy peceive that huan aais cannot be undestood by an isolation of thei eleents Evey fact and eventin an histoical peiod is only explicable in tes of eaningand eaning in its tu alays efes to anothe eaningThus the conception of the unity and intedependence of eaning

in a peiod alays undelies the intepetation of that peiodSecondly this intedependent syste of eanings vaies bothin all its pats and in its totality fo one histoical peiod toanothe Thus the eintepetation of that continuous andcoheent change in eaning becoes the ain concen of oumoden histoical sciences Although Hegel has pobably donemoe than anyone else in ephasizing the need fo integatingthe vaious eleents of meaning in a give histoical expeiencehe poceeded in a speculative anne hile e have aivedat a stage of development hee e ae able to tanslate thisconstuctive notion given us by the philosophes into epicaleseach

What is signicant fo us is that although e sepaated then ou analysis the to cuents hich led to the paticula andtotal conceptions of ideology espectively and hich haveappoxiately the sae histoical oigin no begin to appoachone anothe oe closely The paticula conception of ideologyeges ith the total This becoes appaent to the obsevein the folloing anne peviously one's advesay as theepesentative of a cetain politicalsocia position as accusedof conscious o unconsciou falsication No hoeve thecitique is moe thooughgoing in that having discedited thetotal stuctue of his consciousness e conside hi no longe





IDELGY AND UTPIA 63

hee too as esee e must maintain in opposition to thoseho attempt to deive eveything fom the past that the modefom taken by the idea is much mo ipotant than its oigin

Wheeas fomey the suspicion that tee might be such a tingas fase consciousness " as ony a statement of obsevedfact today oking ith ceay dened anaytica metodse ave been abe to make a moe fundamenta attack on thepobems of consciousness What as fomey a mee taditionaanathema has in ou time been tansfomed into a metodicapocedue esting upon scientic demonstation

f even geate impotance is the cange hich e ae aboutto discuss Since the pobem has been ton out of its pueyeigious context not ony have the methods of poof ofdemonstating the fasity o tuth of an insight changed buteven th scae of vaues by ich e measue tut and fasityeaity and uneaiy have been pofoundy tansfomed Whenthe popet doubted the genuineness of his vision it as becausehe fet himsef deseted by God and is disquietude as basedupon a tanscendenta souce of efeence Wen on the contaye of today become citica of ou on ideas it is ecause efea that tey do not measue up to some moe secua citeion

To detemine the exact natue of the ne citeion of eaityhich supeseded the tanscendenta one e must subject themeaning of the od ideoogy aso in tis espect to a moepecise histoica anaysis If in the couse of such an anaysise ae ed to dea ith the anguage of eveyday ife tis simpy

indicates that the istoy of tought is not conned to booksaone but gets its chief meaning fom the expeiences of eveyday ife and even te main changes in the evauations of dieensphees of eaity as they appea in phiosophy evenuay goback to the shifting vaues of the eveyday od

The od ideoogy " itsef had to begin it no inheentontoogica signicance it did not incude any decision as tothe vaue of dieent sphees of eaity since it oiginay denoted

meey the theoy of ideas The ideoogists! ee as e kno f Pic et s oos ss sr 'hstor s s t s thors

scntqs hosophqs, rss n Frnc ps 19 (PrisAlcn 191.

Desttt d e Trc the fnder f the bementined schl denesthe science f ides s fllws : The science m be clled idelgif ne cnsiders nl the sbectmtter ; generl grmmr ne cnsiders

l the methds nd lgic if ne cnsiders nl the prpse Whteerthe nme it necessril cntins these three sbdiisins since ne cnntbe treted deqtel witht ls treting the tw thers Idelg





DELGY ND UT 65

question as to hat constitutes eaity is by no means ane one ; but that the question shoud aise in the aena ofpubic discussion (and not ust in isoated academic cices)

seems to indicate an impotant change The ne connotationhich the od ideoogy acquied because it as edened bythe poitician in tems of his expeiences seems to sho adecisive tun in the fomuation of the pobem of the natueof eaity f theefoe e ae to ise to the demands put uponus by the need fo anaysing moden thought e must see to itthat a socioogica histoy of ideas concens itsef ith theactua thought of society and not meey ith sefpepetuating

and supposedy sefcontained systems of ideas eaboated ithina igid academic tadition f eoneous knoede as fomeychecked by appea to divine sanction hich unfaiingy eveaedthe tue and the ea o by pue cotempation in hich tueideas ee supposedy discoveed at pesent the citeion ofeaity is found pimaiy in an ontoogy deived fom poiticaexpeience The histoy of he concept of ideoogy fom Napoeono Maxi despite changes in content has etained the same

poitica citeion of eaity This histoica exampe shosat the same time that the pagmatic point of vie as aeadyimpicit in the accusation hich Napoeon hued at hisadvesaies ndeed e may say that fo mode man pagmatismhas so to speak become in some espects the ievitabe andappopiate outook and tat phiosophy in this case has simpyappopiated this outook and fom it poceeded to its ogicaconcusion

We have caed attention to the nuance of meaning hichNapoeon gave to the od ideoogy in ode to sho ceaythat common speech often contains moe phiosophy and is ofgeate signicance fo the futhe statement of pobems thanacademic disputes hich tend to become steie because theyfai to take cognizance of the od outside the academic as

We ae caied a step fathe in ou anaysis and ae abe tobing out anote aspect of this pobem by efeing to theexampe ust cited in anothe connection n he stugge hichNapoeon caied on against his citics he as abe as e have

onceing the structure nd peculirities of scholstic thought ndfor tht mtter every type of thought enjoying monopostic positioncf the uthors pper delivered in Zrich t the Sixth ongress of theDeutsche Geselschft fr Soiologie Die Bedeutung der Konkurren Gebiete des Geistigen Vrhnnn s schstn tschn ozoonts n Zrch (J . B Mohr Tbingen 1929)



66 IDELGY ND UTPI

seen b eason of his dominant position to discedit them bpointing out the ideoogica natue of thei thinking In latestages of its deveopment the od ideoog is used as a eapon

b the poetaiat against the dominant goup In shot sucha eveaing insight into the basis of thought as that oed bthe notion of ideoog cannot in the ong un emain theexcusive piviege of one cass But it is pecise this expansionand diusion of the ideoogica appoach hich eads na toa junctue at hich it is no onge possibe fo one point of vieand inteetation to assail a othes as ideoogica ithoutitsef being paced in the position of having to meet that chaenge

In this manne e aive inadvetent at a ne methodoogicastage in the anasis of thought in genea

Thee ee indeed times hen it semed as if it ee thepeogative of the miitant poetaiat to use the ideoogicalanasis to unmask the hidden motives of its advesaies. Thepubic as quick to foget the histoical oigin of the tem hiche have just indicated and not atogethe unjstiab foathough ecognized befoe this citica appoach to thoughtas st emphasized and methodica deveoped b MaxismIt as Maxist theo hich st achieved a fusion of thepaticua and tota conceptions of ideoog It as this theohich st gave due emphasis to the oe of class position andcass inteests in thought Due lage to the act that itiginated in Hegeianism Maxism as abe to go beond themee pschoogica eve of anasis and to posit the pobem

n a moe compehensive phiosophica setting.The notion of

fase consciousness " 1 heeb acquied a ne meaningMaxist thought attached such decisive signicance to potica

pactice conjoint ith the economic intepetation of eventstha thee to became the utimate citeia fo disentanginghat is mee ideoog fom those eements in thought hiche moe immediate eevant to eait Consequent it isno onde that the conception of ideolog is usua egaded

as intega to and even identied ith the Maxist poetaianmovementBut in the couse of moe ecent inteectua and social

deveopments hoeve this stage has alead been passedI is no longe the excusive piviege of sociaist thinkes

1 The expresson se conscousness fschs Busstsn s tseMrxst n orgn. . Mehrng, Frn Gschcht r utschn oiokrt, 386 c. so Somon, op. ct. p. 147



IDELGY AND UPIA

to tace bogeois thoght to ideoogica fondations andheeby to discedit it Noadays gops of evey standpoint sethis eapon against a the est As a est e ae enteipon a ne epoch in socia and inteecta deveopment

In Gemany, the st beginnings in this diection ee madeby Max Webe, Sombat, and Toetschto mention ony themoe otstanding epesentatives of this deveopment Thetth of Max Webe's ods becomes moe cea as time goeson : The mateiaistic conception of histoy is not to be compaed to a cab that one can ente o aight fom at i fo oncethey ente it, even the evotionaies themseves ae not feeto eave it" 1 The anaysis of thoght and ideas in tems ofideoogies is mch too ide in its appication and mch tooimpotant a eapon to become the pemanent monopoy ofany one paty Nothing as to pevent te opponents of Maxismfom avaiin themseves of the eapon and appying it toMaxism itsef

5. TH RNSITIN FRM TH HRY F DLGY T THILGY F KNLDG

The pevios chapte taced a pocess of hich nmeosexampes can be fond in socia and inteecta histoy Inthe deveopment of a ne point of vie one paty pays thepioneeing oe hie othe paties in ode to cope ith theadvantage of thei advesay in the competitive stgge, mst

of necessity themseves make se of ths point of vie Thisis the case ith the notion of ideoogy Maxism meey discoveed a ce to ndestanding and a mode of thogt,in the gada onding ot of hich the hoe nineteenthcenty paticipated The compete fomation of this deais not the soe achievement of any singe gop and is not inkedexcsivey ith any singe inteecta and socia positionThe oe that Maxism payed in this pocess as one that

deseves a high ank in inteecta histoy and shod not beminimzed The pocess, hoeve, b hich the ideoogicaappoach is coming into genea se, is going on befoe o veyeyes, and hence is sbject to empiica obsevation

I is inteesting to obseve that, as a est of the expansionof the ideoogica concept, a n mode of ndestanding has

f. Weber Mx Poltk ls Beruf n Gsammlt Poltsch SchYt(Mnch 192 p 446





IDELGY AND UTPIA 69

total conception of ideology is being used by the analyst whenhe has the couage to subject not just the advesays point ofview but all points of view including his own to the ideologica

analysisAt the pesent stage of ou undestnding it is hadly possibleto avoid this geneal fomulation of the total conception ofideology accoding to which the thought of all paties in allepochs is of an ideological chaacte Thee is scacely a singleintellectual position and Maxism funishes no exception tothis ule, which has not changed though histoy and whicheven in the pesent does not appea in many foms Maxism

too has taken on many divese appeaances It should notbe too dicult fo a Maxist to econize thei social basis

With the emegence of the geneal fomulation of the totalconception of ideology the simple theoy of ideology developsinto the sociology of knowledge What was once the intellectualamament 1 of a paty is tansfomed into a method of eseachin social and intellectual histoy geneally To begin with a givensocial goup discoves the situational detemination (nsg

bunnhit of its opponents ideas Subsequently the ecognitionof this fact is elaboated into an all-inclusive pinciple accodingto which the thought of evey goup is seen as aising out of itslife conditions 2 Thus it becomes the task of the sociologicalhistoy of thought to analyse without egad fo paty biasesall the factos in the actually existin social situation whichmay inuence thought This sociologically oiented histoyof ideas is destined to povide moden men with a evised viewof the whole histoical pocess

It is clea then that in this connection the conception ofideology takes on a new meaning ut of this meaning twoaltenative appoaches to ideological investigation aise Thest is to conne oneself to showing eveywhee the inteelationships between the intellectual point of view held and the socialposition occupied This involves the enunciation of evey

merely the psychologicl mnifesttions of concepts or whether it evenpenetrtes to the noologicl menings in the distinction of specil versusgenerl, the decisive question is whether the thought of ll groups (includingour own or only tht of our dversries is recognied s socillydetermined

1 f the Mrxist expression To forge the intellectul wepons of theprletrit "

B y the term situtionl determintion o knowledge " I m seekingto dierentite the propgndistic from the scientic sociologicl contentof the ideologicl concept.



70 IDELGY AND UTPIA

intention to expose o nmask those vies ith hich one iin disageement

In atempting to expose the vies of anothe, one is focedto make one's on vie appea infaibe and absoute, hichis a pocedue aogethe to be avoided if one is making aspecicay onevauaie inesigation The second possibeappoach is neetheess to combine such a nonevauativeanaysis ith a denie epistemoogy Vieed fom the angeof this second appoach thee ae to sepaate and distinctsoutions to the pobem of hat constitutes eiabe knoedgethe one sotion may be temed rlatinism and the othe

rlatiismReaivism is a poduct of the moden histoicasocioogicalpocedue hich is based on he ecogniion hat a histoicathinking is bound up ith the concete position in ife of thethinke (tanrtsgbnnhit s Dnkrs But eativismcombines this histoicasocioogica insigh ith an ode theoyof knoedge hich as as yet unaae of the intepay eteenconditions of exisence and modes of thought and hich

modeed its knoedge afe static pototypes such as mightbe exempied by the poposition 2 X 2 = 4 This ode typeof thought hich egaded such eampes as the mode of although as necessaiy ed to the ejection of a those fomsof knoedge hich ee dependent pon the subjecive standpoint and the socia situation of the knoe, and hich eehence meey eative " Reaivism then, oes its existencto the discepancy beteen this neyon insight into the

actua pocesses of thought and a theoy of knoedg hichhad not yet taken account of this ne insightIf e ish to emancipate oseves fom this eativism e

must seek to undestand ith the aid of the socioogy of knoedge that it is not epistemoogy in any absoue sense but athea cetain histoicay tansitoy type of epistemoogy hich isin conict ih the type of thought oented to the socia sitationActay, epistemoogy i as intimatey enmeshed in he social

pocess as is the totaity of ou hiking and it i make pogessto the extent that it can maste the compications aising otof the changing stucte of thought

A moden theoy of knoedge hich takes account of theeational as distinct fom the meey eative chaacte of alhstoical knoledge mst stat ith the assmption that theeae sphees of thought in hich it is impossibe to conceive of



IDELGY AND UPIA 71

absoute tuth existing independently of the values and positionof the subect and unelated to the social context Even a godcould not fomulate a poposition on histoical subects like2 X 2 = 4 fo hat is intelligible in histoy can be fomulatedonly ith efeence to poblems and conceptual constuctionshich themselves aise in the ux of histoical expeience

nce e ecognize that all histoical knoledge is elationalknoledge, and can only be fomulated ith efeence to theposition of the obseve, e ae faced, once moe, ith the taskof disciinating beteen hat is tue and hat is false in suchknoledge The question then aises : hich social standpoint of histoy oes the best chance fo eaching an optimumof tth In any case at this stae the vain hope of discoveigtuth in a fom hich is independent of an histoically andsocially detemined set of meanings ill have to be given upThe poblem is by no means solved hen e have aived atthis conclusion, but e ae, at least, in a bette position tostate the actual poblems hich aise in a moe unestictedmanne In the folloing e have to distinguish to types

of appoach to ideological inquiy aising upon the level of thegenealtotal concetion of ideology : st, the appoachchaacteized by feedom fom valueudgments and, second,the epistemological and metaphysically oiented nomativeappoach Fo the time being e shall not aise the questionof hethe in the latte appoach e ae deaing ith elativismo elationism

The nonevaluative geneal total conception of ideology is

to be found pimaily in those histoical investigations, heepovisionally and fo the sake of the simplication of the poblem,no dgments ae ponounced as to the coectness of the ideato be teated his appoach connes itself to discoveing theelations beteen cetain mental stuctues and the lifesituationsin hich they exist We must constantly ask ouselves ho itcomes about that a given type of social situation gives ise toa given intepetation hus the ideological element in human

thought, vieed at this level, is alays bound up ith theexisting lifesituation of the thinke Accoding to this viehuman thought aises, and opeates, not in a social vacuum butin a denite social milieu

We need not egad it as a souce of eo that all thoughtis so ooted Just as the individual ho paticiptes in compleof vital social elations ith othe men theeby enoys chnce





IDELGY AND UPIA 73

of conduct ws mde nd ecognzed s n mpotnt concessonto the historicsocioogc pproch whch mkes t ncesngydcut to set up contempor vues s bsoutes

Hvng rrved t ths ecognton t becomes necessy soto emembe tht the fct tht we spek bout soc nd cuturife n terms of vues s tsef n ttitude pecu to ou timeThe notion of vue ose nd ws diused from economicswhere the conscous choce between vues ws the strtingpont of theoy Ths de of vue ws te tnsfered to theethic sthetc nd eigous spheres whch bought bout distoton n the descpton of the e behvou of the humn

beng n these sphees Nothng coud be moe wrong thn todescibe the e tttude of the ndividu when enoyng wok of t quite uneecvey o when ctng ccodng toethc pttens ncucted n hm snce chdhood in temsof conscous choce between vues

The view which hods tht cutur ife s n orenttontowrd obectve vues s ust one moe ustrto of typcymoden rtonistic dsegd fo the bsc ton mechnisms

whch govern mns eton to hs wod F fom beingpermnenty vid the intepetton of cutue n tes oobective vues is rey pecu chctestc of the thoughtof our own tme But even gntng fo the moment tht thsconcepton hd some merit the exstence o cetn fomrems of vues nd the specc structue woud be integbeony wth efeence to the concete stutons to whch they hvereevnce nd n whch they e vid hee s then no normwhich cn y cim to form vidty nd whch cn be bstrcteds constnt unves fom eement fom ts hstorcychngng content

Tody we hve ied t the point whee we cn see ceytht there re dierences n modes of thought not ony n derenthstoric peiods but so n dieent cutues Sowy t dwnupon us tht not ony does the content o thought chnge but

so ts ctegoric stucture ny vey ecenty hs t becomepossibe to nvestgte the hypothess tht n the pst s we n the pesent the domnnt modes of thought e suppntedby new ctegoes when the soc bss of the goup o whch

Cf. Lsk E De Logk de Plosope und de Kategoenlee(Tbingen 1911 ) uses the term ngelten in order to expln tht tegoic fors re not id in themsees but ony with reference to therwys chnging content which ineity rects upon their nture



IDELGY AND UTPIA

these thought-foms ae chaacteistic disintegates o is tansfomed unde the impact of socia change

Reseach in the socioogy of knoedge pomises to each a

stage of exactness if ony because nohee ese in the eam ofcutue is the intedependence in the shifts of meaning andemphasis so ceay evident and pecisey deteminabe as inthought itsef Fo thought is a paticuay sensitive indexof socia and cutua change The vaiation in the meaning ofods and the mutipe connotations of evey concept eectpoaities of mutuay antagonistic schemes of ife impicit inthese nuances of meaning.

Nohee in the eam of socia ife hoeve do e encuntesuch a ceay taceabe intedependence and sensitivity to changeand vayig emphasis as in the meaning of ods The od andthe meaning that attaches to it is tuy a coecive eaity Thsightest nuance in the tota system of thought evebeates inthe individua od and the shades of meaning it caies Theod binds us to the hoe of past histoy and at the same timemios the totaity of the pesent. When in communicating

ith othes e seek a common eve of undestanding the odcan be used to ion out individua dieences of meaning Buthen necessay the od may become an instument in emphasizing the dieences in meaning and the unique expeiences ofeach individua It may then seve as a means fo detectingthe oigina and nove incements that aise in the couse ofthe histoy of cutue theeby adding peviousy impeceptibevaues to the scae of human expeience. In a of these investiga

tions use i be made of the tota and genea conception ofideoogy in its non-evauative sense

6 THE ON-VLUTIVE CONEPTION OF DEOLOGY

The investiato ho undetakes the histoica studies suggestedabove need not be concened ith the pobem of hat is utimatetuth Inteeationships have no become evident both in the

pesent and in histoy hich fomey coud neve have beenanaysed so thooughy The ecognition of this fact in a its

1 Fr this reasn the scigica anaysis f meanings pay signicant re in the fwing studies We may suggest here that suchn anaysis might be deeped int symptmatgy bsed upn theprincipe that in the scia ream, we can ea t bsere carefuywe can see that each eement f the situatin which we ae naysingntains and trws gt upn the whe



IDELGY AND UTPIA 75

amications gives to the moden investigato a temendousadvantage He i no onge be incined to aise the question asto hich of the contending paties has the tuth on its side but

athe he i diect is attention to discoveing the apoximatetuth as it emeges in the couse of histoca deeopment outof the compex socia pocess The moden investigato cananse if he is accused of evading the pobem of hat is tuththat the indiect appoach to tut tough socia histoy iin the end be moe fuitfu than a diect ogica attack Eventhough he does not discove tuth itsef he i discove thecutua setting and many itheto unknon cicumstances "

hich ae eevant to the discovey of tuth As a matte of factif e beieve tat e aeady hae the tuth e i ose inteestin obtaining tose vey isigts ich might ead us to anappoximate undestanding of the situation It is peciseyou uncetainty ich bings us a good dea cose to eaity thanas possibe in fome peiods hich had faith in the absoute

It is no quite cea tat ony in a apidy and pofoundychanging inteectua od coud ideas and vaues fomey

egaded as xed have been subected to a thooughgoingciticism In no othe situation coud men have been aetenough to discove the ideoogica eement in a tinking It istue of couse that men ave fogt te ideas of tei advesaiesbut in the past fo te most pat tey ve done so ony inode to cing to tei on absoutes te moe stubbony Todaythee ae too many points of vie of equa vaue and pestige,each shoing the eativity of the othe to pemit us to take any

one position and to egad it as impegnabe and absoute nythis sociay disoganized inteectua situation makes possibethe insight hidden unti no by a geneay stabe socia stuctueand the pacticabiity of cetain taditiona noms that eveypoint of vie is paticua to a socia situation! It may indeed betue that in ode to act e need a cetain amount of sefcondence an inteecua sefassuance It may aso be tuethat the vey fom of expession in hich e cothe ou thoughtstends to impose upon tem an absoute tone. In ou epochhoeve it is pecisey the function of histoica investigation(and as e sha see of those socia goups fom hich the schoas

By scia stabiity we d nt mean uneentfuness r the persnasecurity f indiiduas but rather the reatie xity f the existing ttascia structure which guaratees the stabiity f the dminant vaueand ideas



76 IDELGY AND UTPIA

ae to be ecited , to analyse the elements that make p oselfassuance, so ndispensable fo action in immediate, concetesituations and to counteact the bias hich might aise fom

hat e, as individuas, take fo ganted. This is possible onlythough incessant cae and the detemination to edce to aminimum the tendency to sefapotheosis. Though this eotthe onesidedness of ou on point of vie is conteacted, andconicting intelectual positions may actuay come to spplementone anothe.

It is impeative in the pesent tansitional peiod to make useof the intelectual tilight hich ominates o epoch and in

hich all values and points of vie appea in thei genineelativity We must ealize once and fo all that the meaningshich make p o old ae simply an histoicaly deteminedand continuosly deveoping stctue in hich man developsand ae in no sense absolte

t this point in histoy hen al things hich concen man andthe stucte and eements of histoy itself ae sddenly eveaedto s in a ne ight, it behooves s in o scientic thinking to

become mastes of the sitation, fo it is not inconceivable thatsoone than e suspect, as has often been the case befoe inhistoy, this vision may disappea, the oppotunity may be lost,and the old ill once again pesent a static, nifom, andinexibe countenance

This st nonevauative insight into histoy does not inevitablylead to elativism, bt athe to elationism Knoledge, asseen in the light of the total conception of ideology, is by nomeans an ilusoy expeience, fo ideology in its elationalconcept is not at all identical ith illsion Knoedge aisingot of o expeience in actal life sitations, thogh notabsolute , is knoedge none the less The noms aising ot ofsch actal life sitations do not exist in a social vacuum, btae eective as eal sanctions fo condct. Reationism signiesmeely that all of the eements of meaning in a given sitationhave efeence to one anothe and deive thei signicance fomthis ecipocal inteelationship in a given fame of thoghtSch a system of meanings is possible and valid only in a giventype of histoical existence, to hich, fo a time, it fishesappopiate expession. When the social sitation changesthe system of noms to hich it had peviosly given bith ceasesto be in hamony ith it . The same estangement goes on ithefeence to knoledge and to the histoica pespectve All



IDELGY AND UTPIA 7

knoledge s oented toad some obect and s nuenced nts appoach by the natue of the obect th hch t s peoccuped But the mode of appoach to the obect to be

knon s dependent upon the natue of the knoe Ths stue st of all th egad to the qualtatve depth of ouknoledge (patcuay hen e ae attemptng to ave atan undestandng of somethng hee the degee of nsghtto be obtaned pesupposes the mental o ntellectual knshpof the undestande and of the undestood) It s tue nthe second place th egad to the possblty of ntellectuallyfomulatng ou knoledge especay snce n ode to be

tansmuted nto knoledge, evey pecepton s and must beodeed and oganzed nto categoes The extent hoeve,to hch e can oganze and expess ou expeence in suchconceptual foms s n tun dependent upon the fames ofefeence hch happen to be avalabe at a gven hstocalmoment The concepts hch e have and the unvese of dscouse n hch e move togethe th the dectons n hchthey tend to elaboate themselves ae dependent lagely uponthe hstocalsocal stuaton of the ntellectually actve andesponsble membes of the goup We have then as the themeof ths nonevaluatve study of deology the elatonshp ofall patal knoledge and ts component elements to the lagebody of meanng and ultmately to the stuctue of hstocalealty If nstead of fully eckonng th ths nsght and tsmplcatons e ee to dsegad t e ould be suendengan advanced poston of ntellectual achevement hch hasbeen panfully on

Hence t has become extemely questonabe hethe n theux of lfe t s a genunely othhle ntelectual poblemto seek to dscove xed and mmutabe deas o absoutesI t s a moe othy ntellectual task pehaps to lean to thnkdynamcally and elatonally athe than statcaly In ouontempoay soca and ntelectual plght t s nothng less

than shockng to dscove that those pesons ho cam to havedscoveed an absolute ae usually the same people ho alsopetend to be supeo to the est To nd people n ou dayattemptng to pass o to te old and ecomendng to othessome nostum of the absoute hch they clam to have dscoveed s meey a sgn of the loss of and the need fo ntellectualand moal cetanty fet by boad sectons of the populatonho ae unable to look lfe n the face It may possbly be tue



78 IDELGY AND UTPIA

that to continue to live on and to act in a old like ous it isvitally necessay to seek a ay out of this uncetainty of multiplealteatives ad accodigly people may be led to embace some

immediate goal as if it ee absolute by hich they hope to makethei poblems appea cocete and eal But it is ot pmailythe man of action ho seeks the absolute and immutable butathe it is he ho ishes to iduce othes to hold o to thestatus qu because he feels comfotable ad smug ude conditionsas they ae Those ho ae satised ith the existing ode ofthings ae oly too likely to set up the chace stuation of themoment as absolute and eteal i ode to have somethingstable to hold on to and to miimize the hazadousness of lifeThs canot be doe hoeve ithout esotng to all sots ofomatic notios ad myths Thus e ae faced ith the cuiouslyappallig ted of moden thought in hich the absolute hichas oce a meas of eteing ito communion ith the divinehas o become a istument used by those ho pot fo itto dstot pevet and conceal the meanig of the pesent

. HE RANSITION FROM THE ON-EVALUATIVE TO THE VALUA

TIVE CONETION OF EOLOGY

Thus it appeas that begiig ith the nonevaluative coneption of ideology, hich e used pimaily to gasp the uxof cotinuously chagig ealities e have been unittinglyled to an evaluativeepisteological and naly an otologicalmetaphyscal appoach I ou agumet thus fa the nonevaluaive dyamic point of vie iadvetetly became aeapon agaist a cetain itellectual position What asoigially smply a methodological technique dsclosed itselfultimately as a Wltashauug ad an instument fomthe use of hich the onevaluative vie of the old emegedHee as in so many othe cases oly at the end of ou activitydo e at last become aae of those motives hich at

the beginning dove us to set evey established value n motiononsideig it as a pat of a geneal histoical movemntWe see then that e have employed metaphysicalontological

valuejudgements of hich e have ot been aae But only

1 f curse, he ype f auejudgmens and he ngy f whicwe made use, pary uncnscius and pary deiberaey, represensa judgmen upn an enirey dieren ee, and is a quie dieren ngyfrm ha f which we spke when we were criicizing he rend wardabsuism which aemps recnsrc in he spiri f he German







IDEOLOGY AND UOPIA 81

sqc mrg, li th ltimt d prmt trths whichtrscd history d to which historicl dtil is irrlvt.Accordigly thr is thoght to b ititiv d ispirdsorc o history which ctl history itsl oly imprtlyrcts hos who r vrsd i itllctl history willrcogiz tht this stdpoit is drivd dirctly rom mysticism.h mystics hd lrdy mitid tht thr r trths dvls byod tim d spc, d tht tim d spc d lltht occrs withi thm r mrly illsory pprcs, whcomprd with th rlity o th mystics csttic xpricBt i thir tim th mystics wr ot bl to dmostrt thtrth o thir sttmts h dily ordr o vts ws ccptds stbl d cocrt mttr o ct d th sl icdtws thoght o s th rbitrry will o God rditiolism wssprm i world which lthogh liv with vts dmittdoly o wy, d tht stbl wy, o itrprtig thm.rditiolism morovr did ot ccpt th rvltios omysticism i thir pr orm ; rthr it itrprtd thm i

h light o thir rltio with th sptrl, sic this cstticxpric ws rgrdd s commio with God h grlitrdpdc o ll th lmts o mig d thir historiclrltivity hs i th mtim bcom so clrly rcogizd thtit hs lmost bcom commo ss trth grlly tkor grtd. Wht ws oc th sotric kowldg o wiitits c tody b mthodiclly dmostrtd to vrybody So poplar hs this pproch bcom tht th sociologicl

itrprttio, ot lik th historicl trprttio, will drcrti circmstcs b sd to dy th rlity o vrydyxpric d o history by thos who s rlity s lgotsd o history, i th rlm o csttic d mysticlxprc

O th othr hd, thr is ltrtiv mod o pprocwhich my lso ld o sociologicl d historicl rsrch. Iriss ot o th viw tht th chgs i rltioships b

tw

vts d ids r ot th rslt o will d rbitrry dbt tht ths rltioships both thir simltosss d thir historicl sqc, mst b rgrdd s ollowig rti cssry rglrity, which, ltogh ot sprcillyvidt, dos vrthlss xist d c b drstood.

Oc w drstd th ir mig o history d rliztht o stg o history is prmt d bsolt, bt rthrtht th tr o th historicl procss prsts solvd




and challengng problem e ll no longer be conen ih hemysc's selfsased dsregard for hsory as mere hsory One may adm ha human lfe s alays somehng more han

as dscovered o be n any one hsorcal perod or underany gven se of socal condons and even ha afer hese havebeen accouned for here sll remans an eernal sprual realmbeyond hsory hch s never que subsumed under hsoryself and hch pus meanng no hsory and no socalexperence We should no conclude from hs ha he funconof hsory s o furnsh a record of ha man s no bu raere should regard as he mar hn hch mans essenal

naure s expressed The ascen o human bengs from merepans of hsory o he saure of men proceeds and becomesnellgble n he course of he varaon n he norms he forsand he orks of manknd n he course o he change n nsuons and collecve ams n he course of s changng assumponsand pons of ve n erms of hch each socalhsorcal subjecbecomes aare of hmself and acqurs an apprecaon of hspas There s of course he dsposon ore and more o regardll of hese phenomena as sympoms and o negrae hem noa sysem hose uny and meanng becomes our ask o undersand nd even f be graned ha myscal experence s heonly adequae eans for revealng mans ulmae naure ohmself sll mus be admed ha he neable eleme ahch he myscs am mus necessarly bear some relaon osocal and hsorcal realy In he nal analyss he facors hmould hsorcal and socal realy someho also deermne manson desny May no be possble ha he ecsac elemenn human experence hch n he naure of he case s everdrecly revealed or expressed and he meanng of hc cannever be fully comuncaed can be dscovered hrough heraces hch leaves on he pah of hsory and hus be dsclosedo us

Ths pon of ve hch s based hou doub on aparcular

aude oards hsorcal and socal realiy reveals boh hepossbles and he lms nheren in for he undersandng ofhsory and socal lfe Because of s conemp for hsory amyscal ve hch regards hsory frm an oherorldlysandpon runs he rsk of overlookng haever mporanlessons hsory has o oer A rue undersandng of hsory sno o be epeced from an oulook hch deprecaes he sgncance of hsorcal realy A mre crcumspec examnaon



IDEOLOY AD UOPIA 3

f the facts wi show that ee though al crystallizatioemerges out of the historical proces somethig of profoudsigicace does traspire i the ream of the historical The ery

fact that eery eet ad eer elemet of meaig i historyis boud to a tempora spatial ad situatioa positio ad thattherefore what happes oce caot happe aways the fact thateets ad meaigs i history are ot reersibe i short thecircumstace that we do ot d absolute situatios i historyidicates that history is mute ad meaigess oly to him whoexpects to ear othig from it ad that i the case of historymore tha i that of ay other disciplie the stadpoit whichregards history as mere history as do the mystics is doometo steriity

The study of iteectua history ca ad must be pursued i amaer which wi see i the sequece ad oexistece ofpheomea more tha mere accideta relatioships ad wiseek to discoer i the totality of the historical compex teroe sigicace ad meaig of each compoet eemet It is

with this type of socioogical approach to hstory that we idetifyurseles If this isight is progresiely worked out i cocretedeta istead of beig aowed to remai o a purey speculatiebasis ad if each adace is made o the basis of aaiabecocrete material we shall ay arrie at a discipie whichwi put at our disposal a socioogical techique for diagosigthe cuture of a epoch e sought to approximate this aim iearier chapters which attempted to show the aue of the co

ceptio of ideoogy for the aalysis of the cotemporary iletua situati I aalysig the dieret types of ideoogy wedid ot ited simpy to list urelated cases of meaigs of theterm but aimed rather to preset i the sequece of its hagigmeaigs a crosssectio of the total iteectual ad socialsituatio of our time Such a method of diagsig a epochthough it may begi oealuatiely wl ot log remai soe shal be forced eetualy to assume a ealuatie positio

The trasitio to a eauatie pot of iew is ecessitated fromthe ery begiig by the fact that history as history is uiteigible uless ertai of its aspects are emphasized i cotrastt others This slectio ad accetuato of certai asects ofhistoricl totay may be regarded as the rst step i the directiowhich utimatey leads to a ealuatie procedure ad to otoogica dgmets




9 HE ROBLEM OF LE OIOUE

Throuh the dalectcal process of hstory there evtably

proceeds the radual trasto from the oevaluatve total,ad eeral cocepto of deoloy to the evaluatve coceptocf p 78 The evaluato to hch e o refer hoevers qute deret from that prevously ko ad descrbede are o loer accept the values of a ve perod asabsolute ad the realzato that orms ad values are hstorcallyad socally determed ca heceforth ever escape us Theotolocal emphass s o trasferred to aother set of problems

Its purpose l be to dstush the true from the utrue,the eue from the spurous amo the orms modes of thuhtad patters of behavour that exst alosde of oe aother a e hstorcal perod The daer of false coscousess oadays s ot that t caot rasp a absolute ucharealty but rather that t obstructs compreheso of a realtyhch s the outcome of costat reorazato of the metal processes hchmake up ourorlds Hece t becomes tellble hycompelled b the dalectcal processes of thouht t s ecessaryto cocetrat our atteto th reater testy upo the taskof determ hch of all the deas curret are really vald ave stuato I the lht of the problems e face the presetcrss of thouht, the questo of false coscousess secoutered a e sett. The oto of false coscousess already appeared oe of ts most moder forms he,hav ve up ts cocer th trascedetalrelous factors,t trasferred ts search for the crtero of realty to the realmof practce ad partcularly poltcal practce a maerremscet of pramatsm. But cotrasted th ts modernformulato t stll lacked a sese of the hstorcal Thouht adexstece ere stll rearded as xed ad separate poles beara statc relatoshp to oe aother a ucha uverse.I s oly no that the e hstorcal sese s be to

peetrate ad a dyamc cocept of deoloy ad realty cabe coceed ofAccordly from our pot of ve, a ethcal atttud s

vald f t s oreted th referece to orms th hch acto a ve hstorcal sett eve th the best of tetos,caot comply. It s vald the he the uethcal acto of theddual ca o loer be coceved as due to hs o persoaltrasresson, but must be attrbuted rather to the compulson



IDEOOGY AD UTOPIA 85

of an erroneousy founded set of mora axiom The moranterpretation of ones on acton is invad hen through theforce of traditiona modes of thought and conceptions of ife

it does not ao for the accommodation of action and thought toa ne and changed situaton and in the end actuay obscuresand prevents ths adjustment and transormaton of manA theory then is rong f in a given practica situaton it uses concepts and categories hich if taken seriousy oud preventman fm adjusing hmsef at that historica stage Antquatedand inappicab norms modes of thought an theoeare ikeyto degenerate into ideoogies hose function it is to concea theactua meanng of conduct rather than to revea it In the fooingparagraphs e cte a fe characteristc exampes of the mostimportant types of the ideoogica thinkng that has just beendescribed

The hstory of the taboo aganst takng nterest on oans 1may serve as an exampe of the deveopment of an antquatedethica norm into an ideoogy The rue that ending be carredon thout nterest coud be put into practce ony in a societyhch economcay and sociay as based upon intimate andneghboury reatons In such a soca ord endng ithoutnterest s a usage that commands observance thout dicutybecause t is a form of behaviour correspondng fundamentayto the soca structure Arsing n a ord of ntimate and neighboury reatons ths precept as assmated and formazed bythe Church n its ethca ystem The more the rea structure of

socety changed the more ths ethica precept took on an deoogica character and became virtuay incapabe of practicaaccetance Its arbtrarness and its unordiness became evenmore evdent n the perod of rsng captasm hen havngchanged ts functon t coud be used as a eapon the handsof the Church agant the eergent economc force of capitasmIn the course of the compete emergence of capitasm theideoogica nature of th norm hch expressed itsef in the act

that it coud be ony circumvented but not obeyed became sopatent that even the Church discarded itAs exampe of fase consciousnes taking the form of an

incorrect interpretation of ones on sef and one roe e aycite those cases in hch persons ty to cover up their " rea reations to themseve and to the ord and faify to themseves

1 f Max Weber Wirtschft und eellschft : Gurndriss der Siaknmik, Part p. 1 , fr histrica dumentatin f his case



86 IDEOLOGY ND UTOPI

h lmntay acts o human xistnc by iying omantcizingo idaizing hm, in sho by soing o h dvic o scapom thmslvs and h old and hby conjuing up als

intptaions o xpinc. W hav a cas o idologicaldistoion ho hn y o solv conicts andanitis by having cous o absolus accoding to hichi is no long possibl to liv This is h cas hn ca myths oship gatnss in itsl avo allgianc o idals , hil in ou actual conduc a olloing ohinsts hich y o mask by simulating an unconsciousighousnss, hich is only oo asily tanspan.

Finally an xampl o th hid y o idological doionmay b sn hn his idology as a om o knoldg is nolong adquat o comphnding h acual ol. This mayb xmplid by a landd popio, hos sat has aladybcom a capitalistc undaking, bu ho stil attmps oxpain his l tions o his labous and his on unction in hundtaking by mans o catgois miniscnt o th patiachalod. k a otal vi o all ths individual cass, s h ida o als consciousnss aking on a n manng. Vid om this standpoint, knoldg is distotd andidological hn it ails o ak accoun o h n alitisapplying o a situation and hn i atmpts o concal thmb hinking o thm in cagois hich a inappopia1

This oncption o idology th concp utopia ill batd in at I)2 may b chacizd a valuativand yamic. I is valuav bcaus i psuposs cainjudgnts concning th ality o idas an suctus consciousnss, and i is dynamic baus ths judgmnts aalays masud b a aliy hich is n consant ux 3

Comlicatd as hs distinctions may appa o b a s

1 A perceptin may be errneus r inaequate t the situatin bybeing in adance f it as we as by being antiquated We wi inestigatethis re precisey in Part IV, where we dea with the utpian mentaityIt is sucient fr u at this time merey t ne that these frms f percep

tin can be in adance f the situatin as we as agging behind We hpe t demnstrate i ur subsequent treatment f the utpianmentaity that the utpian utk whic transcends the present and isriented t the future is nt a mere negatie case f the idegica utkwhich cnceas the present by attempting t cmprehend it in terms fthe past

This cnceptin f idegy is cnciabe ny n the ee f thegenera and tta type f idegy and cnstitutes the secnd eauatietye f idegy which we hae earier distinguished frm the rst rneautie ncept Cf pp 7 n p ne 7 t pp .



IDELGY AND UTIA 87

glance, e believe that they are not in the least articial becausethey are merely a precise ormulation o and an eplicit attemptto pursue logically implications already contained in the every

day language o our modern orldhis conception o ideology and utopia) maintains that byondthe commonly recognized sources o error e must also reckonith the eects o a distorted mental structure I t takescognizance o the act that the reality hich e ail tcomprehend may be a dynamic one ; and that in the same historical epoch and in the same society there may be severaldistorted types o inner mental structure, some because they

have not yet gron up to the present, and others because theyare alread eyond the present In eithe case hoever the realityto be comprehended is distorted and concealed or this conception o ideology and utopia deals ith a reality that disclosesitsel only in actual practice At any rate all the assumptionshich are contained in the dynamic, evaluative conception oideology rest upon eperiences hich at best might conceivablybe understood in a manner dierent rom the one here set orth

but hich can under no conditions be let out o account

10. HE QUEST FOR EALIT THROUGH EOLOGIAL A

TOPIAN NALSIS

he attempt to escape ideological and utopian distortions isin the last analysis a quest or reality hese to conceptionsprovide us ith a basis or a sound scepticism, and they can beput to positive use in avoiding the pitals into hich our thinkingmight lead us Specically they can be used to comat thetendency in our intellectual lie to separate thought rom theorld o reality, to conceal reality or to eceed its limits Thoughtshould contain neither less nor more than the reality in hosemedium it operates Just as the true beauty o a sound literarystyle consists in epressing precisely that hich is intended

in communicating neither too little nor too muchso the validelement in our knoledge is determined by adhering to ratherthan departing rom the actual situation t be comprehended.

In onsidering the notions o ideology and utopia, the questionf the nature o reality thrusts itsel once again upon the sceneBoth ccepts contain the imperatie that every idea musbe tested by its congruence ith reality Meanhile hoeverr onception o reality itsel has een revsed and called into



88 IDELGY ND TPI

uestio the coictig groups ad casses i society seethis reait i their thoughts ad deeds, ad it is therefore ooder that it appears to be dieret to each of them! If the

probem of the ature of reait ere a mere specuative productof the imagatio, e coud easi igore it But as e proceed,it becomes moe ad more evidet that it is precisey themutipicit of the coceptios of reait hich produces themutipicit of our modes of thought, ad that ever otoogicajudgmet that e make eads ievitab to far-reachig coseueces If e examie the ma tpes of otoogica j udgmets ith hich dieret groups cofrot us, e begi to

Regarding the dierentiation of ontoogies according to socia positionscf my Das konseratie Denken" oc cit part ii Further cf Eppsen,P, Die Fragesteung nach der Wirkichkeit im historischen Materiaismus A chiv Sozilwissenscht nd Sozilpolitik x (18) p 44

The carefu reader wi perhaps note that from this point on the eauatie conception of ideoogy tends once more to take on the form of thenoneauatie but this of course is due to our intention to discoean eauatie soution This instabiity in the denition of the conceptis part of the technique of research which might be said to hae arriedat maturity and which therefore refuses to ensae itsef to any one

particuar standpoint which woud restrict its iew This dynamicreationism oers the ony possibe way out of wordsituation in whichwe are presented with a mutipicity of conicting iewpoints each ofwhich though caiming absoute aidity has been shown to be reatedto particuar position and to be adequate ony to that one Not untihe has assiiated a the crucia motiations and iewpoints whoseinterna contradictions account for our present sociapoitica tensionwi the inestigator be in a position to arrie at a soution adequate toour present ifesituation If the inestigator instead of at once takinga denite position wi incorporate into his ision each contradictoryand conicting current his thought wi be exibe and diaectica rather

than rigid and dogmatic Such a conceptua easticity and the frankecognition that there are many as yet unreconcied contradictions neednot as happens so often in practice becoud the ision of the inestigatorIndeed the discoery of hitherto unsoed contradictions shoud sereas an impetus to the type of thought required by the present situationAs we hae ndicated before it is our aim to bring a that is ambiguousnd questionabe in our contemporay nteectua ife within the scopeof oert consciousness and contro by constanty pointing out theoften conceaed and carefuy disguised eements in our thinking Sucha procedure wi resut in a dynamic eationism which woud ratherdo without a cosed system if it is to be brought about by a systematization

of particuar and discrete eements the imitations of which hae areadybecome apparent Furthermor we might ask whether the possibiityof and the need fo cosed or open system does not ary from epochto epoch and from one socia position to anothe Een these few remarkshoud make t cear to the eade that whateer the types of formuationse use in ou thinking they ae not arbitrary creations but are athemore or ess adequate means of comprehending and masteing the constanty changing forms of exstence and thought that are expressed nthem Fo some comments conceing the socioogica mpiction of systems " of thought cf Das konsetie Denken " cit p



IDEOLOGY AD UTOPIA 9

suspet that eah grup seems t mve in a separate and distincwrd f ideas and that these dierent systems f thught whihare ften in nit with ne anther may in the ast anaysis be

redued t deren mdes f experiening the " same reaity.e ud f urse ignre this risis in ur inteetua ifas is generay dne in everyday pratia fe in the urse fwhih we are ntent t encunter things and reatinships asdisrete events in n mre than their immedate partiuarsetting1 As ng as we see the bjects in ur experiene frm apartiuar standpint ny and as ng as ur cneptuadevies sue fr deaing with a highy restricted sphere f

ife we might never beme aware f the need fr inquiringint the tta interreatinship f phenmena At best undersuh irumstanes we asinay encunter sme bsuritywhih hwever we are usuay abe t verme in pratieThus everyday experene has perated fr a very ng time withmagia systems f expanatin and up t a ertain stage fhstria devepment these were adequate fr deaing empiriay with the primitive ifestuatins enuntered The prbem

fr earier ephs as we as fr urs may be stated as fws under what nditins may we say that the ream f experienef a grup has hanged s fundamentay that a disrepanybemes apparent between the traditina mde f thught andthe nve bjets f experiene (t be understd by that mdef thught ?). It wud be t inteetuaisti an expanatin

Nothing could be more pointless and incorrect than to argue as

ollows Since eery form of historical and political thought is basedto a certain degree upon metatheoretical assumptions it follows that wecannot put our trust in any idea or any form of thought and hence itis a matter of indierence what theoretical arguments are employed ina gien case. Hence each one of us ought to rely upon his instinct uponhis personal and priate intuitions or upon his own priate interestswhicheer of these wil suit him best If we did this each one of us nomatter how partisan his iew could hold it in good conscience and eenfeel quite smug about it To defend our analysis against the attemptto use it for such propagandistic purposes let it be said that there exstsa fundamental dierence between on the one hand a blind partisanship

and the irrationalism which arises out of mere mental indolence whichsees in intelectual actiity no more than arbitrary personal judgmentsand propaganda and on the other the type of inquiry which is seriouslyconcerned with an objectie analysis and which after eliminating allconscious ealuation becomes aware of an irreducibe residue of ealuationinherent in the structure of all thought (For a more detailed statementcf. my concluding statements in the discussion of my paper Die Bedeutung der onkurrenz im ebiete des eistigen nd my remarks onW Smbarts paper on methodology at the same meeting Vehndlngends sestn deuhen Soiologens loc




to assume that te ode epaatios wee abadoed fo ayteoetia easos But i tese eaie peiods it was the atualage soia epeiees whi bougt about te eimiatioof etai attitudes ad shemes of itepetatio whih wee otoguous wit etai fudameta ew epeiees

Te speia utua siees fom te poit of iew of teipatiuaity ae o bette ta eeyday empiia kowedgeTese disipies too iew the objets of kowedge ad fomuate tei pobems abstated ad to fom tei oetesettigs Somtimes it appes tat the oheet fomuatioof the pobems poeeds aodig to te atua ogai oe

tio i wih tey ae eouteed ad ot meey i te sesetat they fal withi te sope of oe disipie But ofte wea etai stage is eaed this ogai ad oheet ode issuddey ost istoia questios ae aways moogaphieite beause of the imited mae i wi te subjet isoeied o beause of te speiaizatio of teatmet Fohistoy tis is ideed eessay, sie the aademi diisio ofabou imposes etai imitatios But we te empiia

iestigato goies i his efusa to go beyod te speiaizedobseatio ditated by te taditios of is disipie be teyee so iusie he is makig a itue out of a defee mehaismwhi isues him agaist questioig his pesuppositios

Ee the sot of iestigatio whih ee taseds te imitsof its speiaizatio a add to ou data ad ei ou epeiee It is peaps ee tue that at oe time this poit ofvew was te appopiate oe But just as te atual siees

too must questio thei hypoheses ad tei assumptios assoo as a dispay appeas amog thei fats ad just asfute empiia esea beomes possbe oy whe te geealcaos of epaatio hae bee eised, so today i the utualsiees we hae aied at a poit at whih ou empiia dataompe us to aise etai questios about ou pesuppositios

Empiia esea whi imits itsef to a patiua spheeis fo a og time in the same positio as ommo sese i e

the pobemati atue ad ioeee of its teoetia basisemai oeaed beause the total situatio ee omes itoiew It as bee justy maitaied tat the huma mid amake the most uid obseatios with the fuzziest of oepts.But a sis is eahed whe a attempt is made to eet upothese obsevatios ad to dee the fudameta oeptso te iipie oee Te oess of t ew is



IDEOOGY AND UTOPIA 91

bore out b the fact that i certai discipies epiica ivestiatio oes o as sooth as ever hie a veritabe ar is aedabout the fudaeta coepts ad probes of the sciece

But eve this vie is a iited oe because it foruates ithe uise of a scietic propostio itedd to have eerasiicace a situatio i sciece hich is characteristic oof a ive period he these ideas bea to be foruated aboutthe beii of the preset cetur the sptos of thecrisis ere visibe o o the peripher of research i discussioscoceri pricipes ad deitios Toda the situatio haschaedthe crisis has peetrated eve ito the heart

of epirica research The utipicit of possibe poits ofdeparture ad of deitios ad the copetitio beteethe various poits of vie coour eve the perceptio ofhat forer appeared to be a sie ad ucopicatedreatioship

No oe deies the possibiit of epirica research or doesa oe aitai that facts do ot exist (Nothi sees oreicorrect to us tha a iusioist theor of koede e too

appea to facts for our proof but the questio of the atureof facts is i itsef a cosiderabe probe The exist for theid aas i a iteectua ad socia cotext That the cabe uderstood ad foruated ipies aread the existece of acoceptua apparatus Ad if this coceptua apparatus is thesae for a the ebers of a roup the presuppositios (iethe possibe socia ad iteectua vaues hich uderie theidividua cocepts ever becoe perceptibe The soabu

istic certait that has existed ith referece to the probeof truth duri stabe periods of histor thus becoes iteiibeHoever oce the uaiit is broke! the xed cateorieshich used to ive experiece its reiabe ad coheret characterudero a ievitabe disiteratio There arise diveret adcoicti odes of thouht hich (uko to the thikisubject orde the sae facts of experiece ito dieret sstesof thouht ad cause the to be perceived throuh dieret

oica cateoriesThis resuts i the pecuiar perspective hch our coceptsipose upo us ad hich causes the sae object to appeadieret accordig to the set of cocepts ith hich e vie

For further detas as to the socologcal cause of ths dsntegratonf. the author's paper Die deutung der onkurenz Gebieteds Getn lo t




t Cnsequently ur knwledge f < reality as t assimilatesmre and mre f these divergent perspectives will becme mrecmprehensive What frmerly appeared merely t be an

unntelligible margin which culd nt be subsumed under a givencncept has tday given rse t a supplementary and smetmesppsite cncept thrugh which a mre inclusive knwledge fthe bject can be gained

Even in empirical research we recgnize ever mre clearly hwimprtant a prblem is the identity r lack f dentity in urfundamental pints f view Fr thse wh have thught seriuslyabut t the prblem presented by the multiplicity f pints

f view is clearly indicated by the particular lmitatin f everydenitin This limtatin was recgnized by Max Weber frnstance but he ustied a partcularistic pint f view n thegrunds that the particular interest mtvating the nvestigatin determines the specc dentin t be used

Our denitin f cncepts depends upn ur pstin and pintf view which n turn is nuenced by a gd many uncnsciussteps in ur thinking The rst reactin f the thinker n being

cnrnted with the limited nature and ambiguity f his ntnsis t blck the way fr as lng as pssible t a systematic and ttalfrmulatin f the prblem Psitivism fr example tk greatpains t cnceal frm itself the abyss which lies behind allpartcularist thught This was necessary n the ne hand tprmte the safe cntinuatin f ts search fr facts but n thether hand this refusal t deal with the prblem ften led tbscurity and ambiguity with reference t questins abut

the < whle Tw typical dgmas were particularly prne t prevent theraising f fundamental issues The rst f these was the therywhich simply regarded metaphysical phlsphical and thebrderline questns as irrelevant Accrdng t this thery nlythe specialzed frms f empirical knwledge had any claim tvalidity Even phlsphy was regarded as a specal discplinewhse primary legtmate preccupatin was lgic The secnd

f these dgmas which blcked the way t a perspective fhe whle attempted t cmprmse by divding the eld int wmutualy exclusive areas t be ccupied by empirical science andphilsphy respectvelyt particular and immediate questinthe frmer prvided unchallengeable and certai answers whlen general questins and prblems f the < whle lftier phlsphcl speculatns wre esred t This invlve f



IDEOOGY AND UTOPIA 9

philsphy the surrender f the claim that its cnclusins werebased upn generally valid evidence.

Such a slutin is strangely like the dictum f the therists

f cnstitutinal mnarchy which states " The king reignsbut des nt gvern Philsphy is thus granted all the hnurs.Speculatin and intuitin are under certain circumstancesregarded a higher instruments f knwledge but nly n thecnditin that they d nt meddle with psitive demcraticallyand universally vali empirical investigatin. Thereby theprblem f the whle is nce mre avided. Empirical sciencehas brushed this prblem aside and phsphy cannt be held

t accunt since it is respnsible nly t Gd Its evidence isvalid nly in the realm f speculatin and is cnrmed nly bypure intuitin. The cnsequence f such a dichtmy s thatphilsphy which shuld have the vital task f prviding claricatin f the bserver's wn mind in the ttal situatin, is nt in apsitin t d this since it has lst cntact with the whlecnning itself nly t a l higher realm. At the same timethe specialist with his traditinal particularistic) pint f view

nds it impssible t arrive at this mre cmprehensive visinwhi<h is made s necessary by the present cnditin f empiricalinvestigatin. Fr mastery f each histrical situatin a certainstructure f thught is required which will rise t te demands fthe actual real prblems encuntered and is capable f integrating what is relevant in the varius cnicting pints f view.In this case t it is ncessary t nd a mre fundamentalaximatic pint f departure a psitin frm which it wl bepssible t synthesize the ttal situatin. A fearful and uncertaincncealment f cntradictins and gaps will n mre lead us utf the crisis than the methds f the extreme right and eft whexplit it in prpaganda fr the glricatin f the past r futurefrgetting fr the mment that their wn psitin is subject tthe same criticism. N r will it be f much help t interpret thenesidedness and limited character f the adversary's perspectiveas merely anther prf f the crisis in his camp. This is practicablenly if ne's methd is nt challenged by any ne else and as lngcnsequently as ne is nt cnscius f the liitatins f ne'swn pint f view.

Only when we are thrughly aware f the limited scpe fvery pint f view are we n the rad t the sught-fr cmpreensin f the whle. The crisis in thught is nt a crisis aectingmerely a single intellectual psitin but a crisis f a whle



9 IDEOLOGY AND UOPI

orld hich has rachd a crtai stag i its itllctual dlopmt To s mor clarly th cousio ito hich our socialad itllctual li has all rprsts a richmt rathr

tha a loss That raso ca ptra mor prooudly ito itso structur is ot a sig o itllctual bakruptcy Nor is it tob rgardd as itllctual icomptc o our art h atraordiary broadig o prspcti cssitats a thoroughgoig risio o our udamtal cocptios Thought is aprocss dtrmid by actual social orcs cotiually qustioigits digs ad corrctig its procdur It ould b atal othat accout to rus to rcogiz bcaus o shr timidity

hat has alrady bcom clar Th most promisig aspcto th prst situatio hor is that ca r b satisdith arro prspctis but ill costatly sk to udrstadad itrprt particular isights rom a r mor iclusiott

E Rak i his Pl#h Gh put th olloig ordsito th mouth o rdrick You ill r b abl to arriat truth by mrly listig to trm statmts Truth

alays lis outsid th ralm hr rror is to b oud Erom all th orms o rror tak togthr it ould b impossiblto tract truth Truth ill ha to b sought ad oud orits o sak i its o ralm All th hrsis i th orld illo tach you hat Christiaity isit ca b lard oly romth Gospl 1 Such simpl ad usophisticatd idas as ths inthir purity ad navt6 ar rmiisct o som itllctualEd that kos othig o th uphaal o koldg atr thall Oly too ot is it oud that th sythsis hich isprstd ith th assurac that it mbracs th hol turout i th d to b th prssio o th arrost proicialism,ad that a uqustioig spousal o ay poit o i that isat had is o o th most crtai ays o prtig th attaimt o th r broadig ad mor comprhsi udstadig hich is possibl today

Totality i th ss i hich coci it is o aimmdiat ad trally alid isio o rality attributabl olyto a dii y It is ot a slcotaid ad stabl i Oth cotrary a total i implis both th assimilatio ad trascdac o th limitatios o particular poits o i Itrprsts th cotiuous procss o th pasio o koldgad has as its goal ot achimt o a suprtmporally ali

Ranke Ds olitische Gesrch ed by Rothcker (Hae 1925 13 .

I

1 <



IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIA 95

cclus bu he brades pssble ees ur hr s

T dra a sple llusra r eerda eperece he

srg ards a al e e a ake he case addual a ge ps le h ccupes hsel hhe ccree ddual prbles ha he aces ad he suddelaakes dscer he udaeal cds hch deerehs scal ad ellecual esece I such a case a persh cuall ad eclusel ccupes hsel h hs dalasks uld ake a quesg aude ards hselad hs ps ad e such a pers uld despe hs sel

assurace be esaed b a parcularsc ad paral p e ul he reched he crss hch brug dslluseN ul he e he he r he rs e cceed hsel as beg a par a larger ccree sua uld hepse aake h see hs aces he ce he hle I s rue ha hs perspece a sl be asled as hs arr rage eperece alls ; perhaps heee hch he aalsed hs sua uld rasced

he scpe he sall r he led scal crcle hchhe es Neerheless rea ees ad hua begs aspars suas slar hse suas hch he dshsel s sehg que dere r erel reacgedael a sulus r a drec press Oce heddual has grasped he ehd re hsl he

rld he s ea dre bed he arrr hs ad ars udersad hsel as par aaal ad laer a ld sua I he e aehe ll be able udersad he ps hs geerahs edae sua h he epch hch he lesad ur hs perd as par he al hsral prcess

I s srucural ules hs sr re essua repress aure he phee ha espeak as he ev r-wid ning dre ards a al cce

Alhugh he sae aeral s led hs rereaas he ddual bseras hch csue eprcal esga he ed here s que dere The suaalaass s he aual de hkg eer r eperece hch rses abe he cplace leel Thepssbles hs aprach are ul uled b he specaldscples because rdrl hr bjecs sud are deledb hghl specaled ps e The sclg kledge



96 IDEOLOGY ND UTOPI

hwever, ams t see even the rss n ur thught as a stuatnwhh we then strve t vew as part a larger whle

If n as mplated a stuatn as ur wn, preeded by as

derentated an ntelletual develpment as urs has beennew prblems f thught arse, men must lea t thnk anewbeause man s a knd f reature wh must ntnually readapthmsef t s hangng stry ntl the present, ur atttudestwards ur ntelletual presses despte all lgal pretensnswere nt muh derent frm thse f any nave persn. Thats, men were austmed t at n stuatns withut learlyunderstandng them But just as there was a mment n pltal

hstry at whh the dultes f atn beame s great thatthey uld nt be dretly verme wthut reetng n thestuatn tself, and just as man was fred t learn mre andmre t at, rst n the bass f external impressns f thestuatn and afterwards by struturally analysng t, just swe may regard t as the natural develpment f a tendenythat man s atually grappling wth the rtal stuatn thathas arsen n hs thnkng and s strvng t envsage mre learly

the nature f ths rss.Crses are nt verme by a few hasty and nervus attemptsat suppressng the newly arsng and trublesme prblems,nr by ght n the seurty f a dead past The way ut st be fund nly thrugh the gradual extensn and deepenng fnewlywn nsghts and thrugh areful advanes n the dretnf ntrl.



THE PROSPECTS OF SCENTFC POLTS THE RELATONSHP BETWEEN SOCAL THEOY

AND POLTCAL PRACTCE

1 W IS HR I F LITIS ?

Te emergece d dispperce f prblems ur iellec

ul ri re gveed by priciple f ic e re yefully re Eve e rise d dispperce f le sysemsf kledge my ulimely be reduced ceri fcrs dus becme explicble Tere ve lredy bee emps ie isry f r discver y d i perids sucplsic rs s sculpure reliefmdellig r er r rised becme e dmi rfrm f perid e smemer e scilgy f kledge suld seek ivesige

e cdiis uder ic prblems d disciples cme ibeig d pss y Te scilgis i e lg ru mus beble d beer ribue e emergece d sluif prblems e mere exisece f ceri leed idiviulsTe exisece f d e cmplex ierreisip beee eprblems f gve ime d plce mus be vieed d udersd gis e bckgrud f e srucure f e sciey ic ey ccur lug is my lys give us

udersdig f every deil Te isled iker my vee impressi is crucil des ccurred im persllyidepede f is scil seig is esy fr e livig in prvicil d circumscribed scil rld ik eeves ic uc im re isled fcs fr ic fe les respsible Scilgy ever c be ce iudersdig immedie prblems d eves emergig frmis mypic perspecive ic bscures every sigic

relisip Tese seemigly isled d discree fcs musbe cmpreeded i e ever-prese bu csly cggcguris f experiece in ic ey cully re liveOnly i suc cex d ey cquire meig f e sclgyf kledge suld ve y mesure f sccess i is ypef lysis, my prblems ic ier s regrds eirrigis les, ve bee uslved, uld be clered up Suc

97







100 IDEOLOGY ND TOPI

ere the al products o past history Political coducthoever is coceed ith the state ad society i so ar asthey are still i the pocess o beog Political coduc is

coroted ith a process i hich evey oet creates auique situatio ad seeks to disetagle out o this eveoig strea o orces soethig o edurig character. Thequestio the is Is thee a sciece o this becoig a siece creative activity ?

The st stage i the delieatio o the poble is thus ataiedWha (i he eal o the social is the sigicace o iscorast beee hat has aleady becoe ad ha is i h

process o becoig ?The ustria sociologist ad statesa lbert Schepoited out that at ay oe o sociopolitical lie to aspectsae disceriblerst a series o social evets hich haveacquired a set patter ad ecur regulaly ad secod thoseevets hich ae still i the process o becoig i hich iidividual cases decisios have o to be ade that give riseto e a uique situatios. The rst he called the outie

aais o state laufns Staatslbn ; he secod politics The eaig o his istictio ill be claiedby a e illustratios. Whe i the accustoed lie o a ocialcure busiess is disposed o i accordace ith existig rulesad egulaios e ae accodig o Sche i he real o adiistatio athe ha o politics . diistatiois he doai hee e ca see exeplied hat Sche easby ouie aairs o state . Whereve each e case ay be

ake cae o i a prescribed ae e a ace o withpolitics bu ith he setled ad ecurre side o social lie.Sche uses a illuiatig expressio ro the eld o adiistratio itsel to ive poit to his disticio. For such cases asa be settled by erely cosultig a established ule i.e.accordig o precedet the Gera od Simml,2 hichis derived ro the Lati imil is used sigiyig ha hecase i had is to be dispose o i a ae smlar o precedetsthat alreay exist We are i the eal politics he evoysto oreign coutries coclude teaties hich ere ever adebeore ; he paliaetay represetatives carry hrough eeasures o taxatio ; he a electio capaign is aged ;

f Sche A ber den wissenschaftlichen Begri der Polit"Ztschrift fr di gsmt Sttswissnschftn vol 53 (1897

he erman word Schmml means mould " ranslator's note



ROSCTS O SCITIIC OITICS en certain ppsitin grups prepare a relt r rganiestrikesr en these are suppressed

It must be admitted that the bundary beteen tese t

casses is in reality rather exibe r instance the cumulatieeect a gradual shit administratie prcedure in a lngseies cncrete cases may actually gie rise t a ne principleOr t take a reerse instance smething as unique as a nescial mement may be deeply permeated ith steretyped and rutinizing elements Neertheess the cntrast beteente rutine aairs state and plitics ers a certainplarity hic may sere as a ruitul pint departure I

te dichtmy is cnceied mre theretically e may say ery scial prcess may be diided int a ratinalized sperecnsisting settled and rutinized prcedures in dealing itsituatins that recur in an rderly asin and the irratinal by hich it is surrunded1 We are therere distinguishingbeteen te ratinalized structue sciety and the irratinal matrix A urther bseratin presents itselat this pint The cie characteristic mder culture is the

tendency t include as much as pssible in the realm theratinal and t bring it under administrtie cntrland nte ther hand t reduce te irratinal element t teanishing pint

A simple illustratin ill clariy the meaning this assertinTe traeller 150 years ag as expsed t a thusand

For the sake of precision the following remark should be added

The expression settled routinized elements is to be regarded guratielyen the most formalized and ossied features of society are not to beregarded as things held in store in an attic to be taken out when neededfor use. Laws reglations and established customs only hae an existencein that liing experiences constantly call them into being This settlednesssignies merely that social life while constantly reewing itself conformsto rules and formal processes already inherent in it and this constantlygenerates itself anew in a recurrent manner Similarly the use of theexpression rationalized sphere must be taken in the broader senseIt may mean either a theoretical rational approach as in the case ofa technique wch is rationally calculated and determined or it may

be used in the sense of rationalization in which a sequence of eentsfollows a regular expected probable course as is the case with conentionusage or custom where the sequence of eents is not fully understoodbut in its structure eems to hae a certain settled character Max Weber'suse of the term stereotype as the broader class might be used here andtwo subclasses of the stereotyping tendency then distinguished( traditionalism b ratonalism. Inasmuch as this distinction is notreleant for our present purpose we will use the concept rationalizedstructure in the more comprehensie sense in which Ma Weber useshe geel ti of stereotypig



10 IDEOLOG ND UOPI

accidens oday everyhing proceeds according o scheduleFare s exacly calculaed and a whole series of adminisraivemeasures have made ravel ino a raionally conrolled enerprise he percepion of he disincion beween he raionalizedscheme and he iraional seing in which i operaes provideshe possibiliy for a deniion of he concep < conduc

he acion o f a pey ocial who disposes of a le o f documensin he pescribed manner, o of a judge who nds ha a casefalls unde he povision of a cerain paragraph in he law anddisposes of i accodingly, or nay of a facoy woke whoproduces a scew by following he pescibed echnique, would

no fall under our deniion of conduc Nor for ha maerwould he acion of a echnician who, in achieving a given end,combined ceain geneal laws of naue ll hese modes ofbehavou would be consideed as merely eproducive because hey are execued in a raional framework, accordingo a denie prescipion enaiing no pesonal decision whasever Conduc, in he sense in which we use i, does no beginunil we reach he aea where raionalizaion has no ye

peneraed, and where we are forced o make decisions insiuaions which have as ye no been subjeced o regulaionI is in such siuaions ha he whole poblem of he relaionsbeween heoy and pracice aises Concerning his problem,on he basis of he analyses hus far made, we may even a hissage venure a few fuhe remarks

hee is no quesion ha we do have some knowldge concerning ha par of social life in which everyhing and life iself has

already been aionalized and odee Hee he conic beweenheory and pracice does no become an issue because, as amaer of fac, he mere reamen of an individual case bysubjecing o a geneally exising law can hardly be designaedas poliical pracice Raionalized as our life may seem o havebecome, all he aionalizaions ha have aken place so farae meely paial since he mos imporan realms of our sociallife ae even now anchored in he irraional Our economic

life, alhough exensively raionalized on he echnical side,and in some limied connecions calculable, does no, as a wholeconsiue a planned economy In spie of al endencies owadsusicaion an organizaion, fee compeiion sill plays adecisive role Ou social sucue is buil along class lines, whichmeans ha no obecve ess bu iraional forces of social comeion and ruggle decide he place and funcion of he indvdual



POSPETS O SIETII POIIS 03

sciey Dminance in nainal and nernainal ie sachieved hrugh sruggle, n iself rrainal, in which chancepays an mprtant par These irrainal frces in sciey fha sphere f scial life which is unrganized and unrainalizedand in which cnduc and plitcs becme necessary The wman surces f irratinalism in he scial srucure (uncnrlledcmptitin and dminain by frce cnsitute he ream fscial life which is still unrganized and where piics bcmesncessary Arund these w cenres here accumuae hsether mre prfund irrainal elments, which we usuallycal emtins Viewed frm the scilgical standpin here is

a cnnectin beween he exten f he unrganized ream fsciy where uncntrld cmpetitin and dminain byfrce prevai, and he scial inegratin f eminal racins

The prblem hen mus be stated Wha knwledge d whave r is pssibe cncerning this ream f scial life and fhe ype f cnduc which ccurs n i 1 Bu nw ur riginalprblem has been saed in he ms highly develped frmn which i seems lend iself clarican Havng deer

mined where he ream f the pliical ruly begins and wherecnduct in a true sense is pssible we can ndicae he diculesexising in he relainshp beween thery and pracice

The grea dicultis whch cnfrn scenc knwledge nhis ralm arise frm the fac ha we are n dealing here whrigid, bjecive eniies bu wih endences and srivngs in acnstan sae f ux A furher dicuy s ha he cnsellain f he neracing frces changes cnnuusly Wherever

he same frces, each unchanging in characer, inerac, andheir interacin, , fllws a regular curse, s pssible tofrmulae general aws Ths s n quie s easy where newfrces are incessanly enerng he sysem and frming unfreseencmbinains Sill anher diculty s ha he bserver himself des n stand uside the realm f he rrainal, bu s paricipan in he cnic f frces This paricipain nevablybinds him a parisan view hrugh his evaluains and interess

urthrmre, and mst impran, is the fac ha n nly is he1 It is necessary here to repeat that the concept of the political

as used in conjunction with the correlative concepts rationalized structureand irational eld represents only one of many possible concepts of the political " While particularly suited for the comprehension of certainrelationships it must not be regarded as absolutely the only one Foran opposite notion of the political " cf Schmitt Der Begri desPolitischen" chv Soalssescha ud Soalol vol 58 1928



0 IDEOLOGY AND UOP

plitical terist a participant in the cnict because his vales,and interests, but the particular manner in wich the prblempresents itsel t im, is mst general mde thught inluding

even his categries, are bund up with general plitical andscial undercurrents S true is this that, in the realm pliticaland scial thinking, we must, in my judgment, recgnize actualdierences in styles thughtdierences that extend evenint the realm lgic itsel

In this dubtless, lies the greatest bstacle t a sciece plitics Fr accrding t rdinary expectatins a science cnduct wuld be pssible nly when the undamental structure

thught is independent the dierent rms cnductbeing studied Even thugh the bserver be a participant inthe struggle, te basis his thinking, ie his bservatinalapparatus and his methd settling intellectual dierences,must be abve the cnit. A prblem cannt be slved bybsuring its diculties, but nly by stating them as sharplyand as prnuncedly as pssible Hence it is ur task denitelyt establish the thesis tat in plitics the statement a prblem

and te lgical techniques invlved ary with the pliticalpsitin the bserver

2 THE OLTL D OL ETERMT OF KOWLEDGE

We shall nw make an ert t shw by meas a cncreteexample that pliticalhistrical thinking assumes varius rms

in accrdance with dierent plitical currents In rder ntt g t ar aeld, we shall cncentrate primarily n the relatinship between thery and practice We shall see that even thismst geeral and undamental prblem a sciene pliticacnduct is dierently cnceived by the dierent histricalplitical parties

This may be easily seen by a survey the varius pliticaland scial currents te nineteenth and twentieth centuries

As the mst imprtant representative idealtypes, we cite tellwing

. Bureaucratic cnservatism2 Cnservative histricism3 Liberaldemcratic burgeis thught. The scialst-cmmunist nceptin5 Fascis



ROSCS O SCNIC OCS

he moe o thouht o bureaucratic coservatism will becosiere rst he uametal teecy o all bureaucraticthouht is to tur all problems o politics ito problems o

amiistratio s a result the maority o books o politicsi the history o Germa political sciece are ato treatiseso amiistratio I we cosier the role that bureaucrcyas lways playe, especially i the russia state a to whatextet the itellietsia was larely a itellietsia raw romthe bureaucracy this oesieess o the history o politicalsciece i Germay becomes easily itelliible

he attempt to hie all problems o politics uer the cover o

amiistratio may be explaie by the act that the sphere oativity o the ocial exists oly withi the limits o lawsalreay ormulate Hece the eesis or the eveopmet olaw als outsie the scope o his activity s a result o hissocially limite horizo the uctioary ails to see that behievery law that has bee mae there lie the socially ashioeiterests a the ltanhauungn o a specic social roupHe takes it or rate that the specic orer prescribe by

the cocrete law is equivalet to orer i eeral He oes otuersta that every ratioalize orer is oly oe o mayorms i which socially coicti irratioal orces are recocile

he amiistrative, lealistic mi has its own peculiar typeo ratioality Whe ace with the play o hitherto uharesseorces, as or example the eruptio o collective eeries arevolutio it ca coceive o them oly as mometaryisturbaces It is, thereore o woer that i every revolutiothe bureauracy tries to a remey by meas o arbitraryecrees rather tha to meet the political siuatio o its owrous I t rears revolutio as a utowar evet withia otherwise orere system a ot as the livi expressioo uametal socil orces o which the existece the preservtio a the evelopmet o society epes he uristicamiistrative metality costructs oly close static systemso thouht a is always ace with the paraoxical task ohavi to icorporate ito its system ew laws which arise outo the usystematize iteractio o livi orces as i they wereoly a urther elaboratio o the oriial system

typical example o the militarybureaucratic metality isevery type o the stab in the back lee Dolhtolgn which iterprets a revolutioary outbreak as othibut a serious itererence with its own neatly plae stratey



106 DEOLOGY AND UOPA

he excluse concern o he mary bureaucra s mlaryacon and ha proceeds accordng o plan hen all he esof le s n order oo hs menay s remnscen of he oke

abou he specas n he medcal old, ho s repued ohave sad he operaon as a splendd success Unorunaelyhe paen ded

Eery bureaucracy, herefore n accord h he pecularemphass on s on poson ends o generaze s onexperence and o oerlook he ac ha he realm o admnsraon and of smoohly unconng order represens only a paro he oal polca reay Bureaucrac hough does no

deny he possby of a scece o polcs, bu egars asdeal h he scence o admnsraon hus rraonaacors are oerlooked and hen hese neerheess forcehemseles o he fore hey are reaed as roune maerso sae A classc expresson of hs sandpon s conanedn a sayng hch orgnaed n hese crcles A good admnsraon s beer han he bes consuon 1

n addon o bureaucrac conserasm, hch ruled Germany

and especaly Prussa o a very grea exen, here as a secondype of conserasm hch deeloped parallel o and hchmay be called hsorcal conservasm as pecula o hesocal group o he nobly and he bourgeos sraa amonghe nellecuals ho ere he nelecual and acual rulers o hecouny bu beeen hom and he bureaucrac conservaeshere alays exsed a ceran amoun o enson hs modeo hough bore he samp o he German uneses, and

especally o he domnan group of hsorans Even o-dayhs menaly sll nds s suppor largely n hese crcles

Hsorca consevasm s chaacerzed by he ac ha s aare o ha rraonal realm n he lfe of he sae hchcanno be managed by admnsraon ecognzes ha heres an unorganzed and ncalculable realm hch s he propersphere o polcs ndeed ocuses s aenon almos exclusvelyon he mpuse, rraonal acors hch furnsh he real ass

for he urher developmen o sae and socey rgardshese forces as enrely beyond comprehenson and ners haas such, human reason s mpoen o undersand or o conrolhem Here only a radonaly nhered nsnc, senlyorkn sprual orces, he fok spr , lksgist, drang

Obituary of Bhlau by the jurist Beer Zeitschrif de SavigySifug emaist. Abtlg v. v p v



POSPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC POITICS 07

their strength ut the depths the unnsius n be aid in mulding the uture

This ttitude was already stated t the end the eighteenth

entury by Burke wh served as the mdel r mst the Germnnservatives in the llwing impressive wrds " Te siene nstruting a mmnwelth r renvating it r reingit is like every ther eperimental siene nt t be taughta ii Nr is it a shrt epeiene that an instrut us in thatpratial siene 1 The silgial rts this thesis areimmediately evident It epressed the idelgy the dminantnbility in England and in Germany and it served t legitimatize

their laims t ledership in the stte Thej ai qui elementin plitis whih an be aquired nly thrugh lng eperieneand whih reveals itsel as a rule nly t thse wh r mnygeneratins have shared in plitial leadership is intended tjustiy gvement by an aristrati lass This makes lerthe manner in whih the sial interests a given grup makethe members that grup sensitive t ertin aspets siallie t whih thse in anther psitin d nt respnd Wheres

the bureury is blinded t the plitial aspet situatinby reasn its administrtive preneptins rm the verybeginning the nbility is peretly at hme in this sphere ightrm the strt the latter hve their eyes n the rena whereintra and interstate spheres pwer llide with ne antherIn this sphere petty tetbk wisdm deserts us and slutinst prblems annt be mehanially dedued rm premisesHene it is nt individual intelligene whih deides issues

ather is every event the resultant atual plitial resThe histrial nservative thery whih is essentially the

epressin eudl traditin 2 beme selnsius isprimarily nerned with prblems whih tansend the sphere dministratin The sphere is regarded as mpletelyiratinal ne whi annt be abriated by mehanial methdsbut whih grws its wn rd This utlk reltes everything t the deisive dihtmy between " nstrutin ardingt alulted plan and " allwing things t grw 3 Fr theplitial leader it is nt suient t pssess merely the rretknwledge and the mstery certain laws and nrms In

Burke's Reecions on he Revoluion in Fance edited by F Seby(Lodo Macmia ad Co 1890) p 67

2 Cf Das koservative Deke" o i pp 89 105 133 3 bid p 472 n 129





PROSPECTS OF SCENTFC POTCS 0

caalzed rs parlae ad he elecoral syse, ad laerhe eague o Naos), so also creaed a syseac placeor he e dscple o polcs The orgazaoal aoaly

o bourgeos socey appears also s socal heory Thebourgeos aep a a horoughgog raoalzao o heorld s orced everheless o hal he reaches cerapeoea By sacog ree copeo ad he classsruggle, eve creaes a e rraoal sphere Lkese hs ype o hough, he rraoal resdue realy reasudssolved Furherore, us as parlae s a oralogazao, a oral raoalzao o he polcal coc

bu o a soluo o , so bourgeos heory aas erely aappare, oral ellecualzao o he herely rraoalelees

The bourgeos d s, o course, aare o hs e rraoalreal, bu s ellecualsc so ar as aeps solelyhrough hough, dscusso, ad orgazao o aser, as hey ere already raoalzed, he poer ad oher rraoalrelaoshps ha doae here Thus, int alia as beleved

ha polcal aco could hou dculy be scecallydeed The scece queso as assued o al o hreepars

Frshe heory o eds, e he heory o he deal SaeSecodhe heory o he posve SaeThrd poics e he descrpo o he ae

hch he exsg Sae s rasoed o a perec Sae

As a llusrao o hs ype o hough e ay reer o hesrcure o Fches Closed Coerca Sae hch hssese has recely bee very acuely aalysed by HerchRcker 1 ho hsel, hoever, copleely aceps hs posoThere s he a scece o eds ad a scece o eas Teos srkg ac abou s he coplee separao beeeheoy ad pracce, o he ellecual sphere ro he eooa

sphere ode ellecuals s characerzed by s edecyo o olerae eooally deeed ad evalae hinkigWhe, everheless, hs ype o hough s ecouered (adall polcal hough s se esseally a rraoal coexe aep s ade so o cose he pheoea ha he

1 Cf. Rickert Heinrich ber idealistische Politik als WissenschaftEn Beitra zur Problemeschichte der Staatsphlosophie" e AkdemeHeft 4 Erlanen




evaluative elements l appear separable and that there willremain at least a residue f pure thery In this the qestinis nt even raised whether the emtinal element may nt under

certain circumstances be s intertwined with the ratinal as tinvlve even the categcal structure itself and t make therequired islatin f the evaluative elements ato unrealizableBurgeis intellectualism hwever des nt wry ver thesediculties With undaunted ptimism it strives t cquer asphere cmpletely purged f irratinalism

As regards ends ths thery teaches that there is ne rightset f ends f plitical cnduct which in s ar as it has nt

already been und may be arrived at by discussin Thusthe riginal cceptin f parliamentarism was!as ar Schmitthas s clearly shwn that f a debating siety i which truthis sught by theretical methds1 We knw all t we andcan understand scilgically wherein the selfdeceptin in thismde f thught lay Tday we recgnize that behind everythery there are cllective frces expressive f grup-purpsespwer and -interests Parliamentary discussins are thus far

frm eing theretical in the sense hat they may ultimatelyarrive at the bjective truth they are cncerned with veryreal issues t be decided in the lash f interests It was leftfr the scialist mvement which arse subsequently as theppnent f the burgeisie t elabrate specically this aspectf the debate abut real issues

In ur treatment f scialist thery we are nt fr the timebeing dierentiating between scialism and cmmunism frwe are here cncerned nt s much with the plethra f histricalphenmena as with the tendencies which cluster arund theppsite ples that essentialy determine mdern thughtIn the struggle with its burgeis ppnent Marxism discvered anew that in histrical and plitical matters therecan be n " pure thery It sees that behind every therythere lie clective pints f view The phenmenn f cectivethinking which prceeds accrding t interests and scia adexstential situatins Marx spke f as idelgy

n this case as s ften in plitical struggles an imprtantdiscvery was made which nce it became knwn ad t ewed up t its nal cnclusin This was the mre s sinthis discvery cntained the heart the prblem f plitial

f. arl Schmitt D gtgchchtlc ag tg Palaa, 2n eit. (eipzi 1926)





IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIA

signicant element in te cnceptin f idegy, in ur pininis the discvery that plitical thught is negrally bund upwith scial life. This is the essential meaning f the ftquted

sentence " It is nt the cnsciusness f men that determinestheir existence but n the cntrary their scial existence whichdetermines their cnsciusness

ut clsey related t this is anther mprtant feature farxist thght namely a new nceptin f the relatinshipbetween thery and practice. Whereas the burgeis theristdevted a special chapter t setting frth his ends and whereasthis always prceeded frm a nrmative cnceptin f sciety

ne f the mst signicant steps arx tk was t attackthe utpian element in scialism. Frm the beginning he refusedt lay dwn an exhaustive set f bjectives. There is n nrmt be achievd that is detachable frm the prcess itself " Cmmnism fr us is nt a cnditin that is t be establisednr an ideal t which reaity must adjust itself. We ca cm �munism the actual mvement which ablishes present cnditinsThe cndtins nder which this mvement prceeds sul

frm thse nw existing. 2 If tday we ask a cmmunist wth a Leninist training what

the future sciety wil actually be like he wil answer that theqestin is n ndiaectica ne since the future itself wil edecided in the practical dialectic prcess f becmng. utwhat is this practical dialectica prcess ?

t signies that we cannt calculate prior what a thingshuld be like and what it be lke. We can inuence nlythe general trend f the prcess f becming. The ever-presentcncrete prblem fr s can nly be the next step ahead. It isnt the task f plitical thught t set p an abslte schemef what shld be. Thery even including cmmnist theryis fnctin f the prcess f becming. The dialectica relaishp between thery and practice cnsists in he fact that rstf al thery arsing ut f a denitely scial implse clariesthe situatin. And in the prcess f claricatin reality nderges change We thereby enter a new sitatin ut f wich a newthery emerges. The prcess is then as fllws : () Thery isa functin f reality ) hs ther leads t a certain kid

1 Ma Ka rbut ru Pltal Ey, t yN I Stone (Ccao 913) pp 2

2 Cf. arEg rv ed y D Ryazanov (anut a.M.) vo p 22



PROSPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC POLITICS 113

of action (3) Action changes the eality, o n case of falueforces us to a evson of the previous theory. The change nthe actual situaton bought about by the act gives se to a

ew theory.This view of the relationshp between theoy and pactice

bears the imprint of an advanced stage n the discussion of theproblem One notes that t was preceded by the one-sidednessof an exteme intellectualism and a completatonalsand that it ha to circumvent all the danges which wee alreadyevealed in bougeos an consevatve thought and experence.The avantages of ths solution le n the fact that t hasassmilate the prevous fomulaton of the poblem and n tsawareness of the fact that n the eal of poltcs the usuaun of thought s uable to accomplish anythng On the othehad, this outlook is too thoroughly motvated y the desiefo knowlege to fall nto a complete atonalsm lke consevatism. The result of the conict betwee the two cuents ofthoght s a vey exble conceon of theoy. A basic lessonderved fom political expeence which was most mpessvelyformulated by Napoleon in the maxim O s gag ps it 2 hee nds its methodological sancton. Indeed politcathought cannot be carried on by speculatg about t fom theoutsde. Rathe thought ecomes ilumated when a concete

When the poletaiat by means of the lass stule hanes itsposition n soiety and theeby the whole soial stutue in takionizane of the haned soial situation ie of itself it nds itselffae to fae not meely with a new obet of undestandin but alsohanes its position as a knowin subet. The theoy seves to binthe poletaiat to a onsiousness of its soial position ie it enablesit to envisae itselfsimultaneously both as an obet and a subet ithe soial poess" (Lus Geo Gschcht d KlssbsstsBelin 1923)

This onsiousness in tu beomes the motive foe of new ativitysine theoy beomes a mateial foe one it seizes the masses. (Manels Nchss i p . 392 .)

Indeed both Lenin and Luks as epesentatives of the dialetialappoah nd ustiation in this Napoleoni maim.

Revolutionay theoy is the enealization of the epeienes o

the labou movement in all ounties . It natually loses its vey essene it is not onneted with evolutionay patie ust as patie opesin the dak if its path is not illumined by evolutioay theoy. Buttheoy an beome the eatest foe in the labou movement it isndissolubly bound up with evolutionay patie fo it alone an iveto the movement ondene uidane stenth and undestandi ofthe inne elations between events and it alone an help patie to laifythe poess and dietion of lass movements in the pesent and neafute" (Joseph Stali Fodtos of Lsm ev. ed New Yok adondon 1 932 pp 2)



11 DEY AND UTPIA

situation is penetrated, not merey through acting and doingbut aso through the thinking whih must go with them

Socialstcommunist theory is then a synthesis of intuitionism

and a determined desire to comprehend phenomena in extremey rationa way. Intuitionism is present in this theorybecause it denies the possibiity of exact cacuations of eventsin advance of their happening. The rationalist tendency entersbecause it aims to t into a rationa scheme whatever novetycomes to view at any moment. At no time is it permissibeo act without theory, but the theory that arises in the courseof action wi be on a dierent eve from the theory that wen

before It is especiay revoutions that create a more vauabetype of kowedge. Tis constitutes the synthesis which menare ikey to make when they ive in the midst of irrationalityand recognize it a�such, but do not despair of the attempt tointerpret it ratily Marxist thought is akin to conservativethought in that it does not deny the existence of an irrationasphere and does not try to concea it as the bureacratic mentaitydoes, or treat it in a purey intelectua fashion as if t wreratioa, as iberademocratic thinkers do. t is distinguishedfrom · conservative thought, however, in that it conceives ofthis rative irrationaity as potenti'y comprehensibe throughnew methods of rationaization For even in this type of thought,

1 Revolution particularly creates the situation propitious to sinicanknowlede History in eneral the hstory of revolutions in particulahas always been richer more varied and vaiform more vital an cunnin than is conceived of by the best prties by the most consciou

vanuards of the most advance classes This is natural for the bestvanuards epress the consciousness will passions and fancies of butens of thousands whereas the revolution is eecte at the moment ofthe eceptional ealtation and eertion of all the human facultiesonsciousness wll passion phantasy of tens of millions spurred onby the bitterest class war" (N enin Lft Communsm n InfnlDsordr, published by the Toiler n.d pp. also New ork andonon 193.)

It is interestin to observe that from this point of view revolutionappears not as an intenscation of the passions resident in men nor asmere irrationaty This passion is valuable only because it makes possiblethe fusion of the accumulated rationality tested out eperimentally inthe individual eperiences of mllions

2 Thus fate chance evrythin sudden and unepected and thereliius view which arises therefrom are onceived of as functions ofthe deree in which our understanin of history has not yet reachethe stae of rationality

Fear of the blind forces o capitalism blind because they cannot beforeseen by the masses of the people forces which at every step n thelives of the proletariat and the small traders threaten to brin and dobin sudden unepecte acciental disaster an run convein



PROPET OF CENTFC POLTC 115

the sphee of the iational is not entiely iational, abitay,o incompehensible t is te that thee ae no staticallyxed and denite laws to which this ceatie pocess confoms,

no ae thee any exactly ecing seences of eents, bt atthe same time only a limited nmbe of sitations can occeen hee. And this afte all is the decisie consideationEen when new elements in histoical deelopment emegethey do not constitte meely a chain of nexpected eents the political sphee itself is pemeated by tendencies which,een thogh they ae sbject to change, thogh thei eypesence do netheless detemine to a lage extent the aiospossibilities.

Theefoe, the st task of Maxism is the analysis and ationalization of all those tendencies which inence the chaacteof the sitation Maxist theoy has elaboated these stctaltendencies in a theefold diection Fist, it points ot that thepolitical sphee in a gien society is based on and is alwayschaactezed by the state of podctie elations peailing

at the time! The podctie elations ae not egaded staticallyas a continally ecing economic cycle, bt, dynamically,as a stctal inteelationship which is itself constantly changinthogh time

econdly, it sees that changes in this economic facto ae most closely connected with tansfomations in class elations,which inoles at the same time a shift in the kinds of poweand an eeaying distibtion of powe.

Bt, thidly, it ecognizes that it is possible to ndestand theinne stcte of the system of deas dominating men at anypeiod and to detemine theoetically the diection of any changeo modication in this stcte

ill moe impotant is the fact that these thee sctalpattens ae not consideed independently of one anothe

them into bears paupers or prostitutes and condemn them to starvation these are the roots of modern reliion which the materialist if he

desires to remain a materialist must reconze No educational bookswill oblierate reliion from the minds of those condemned to the hardlabour of capitalism until they themselves learn to ht in a unitedoranized systematic conscious manner the roots of reliion the domination of captal in all its forms " (Selectins from LeninThe Bolshevik Prtyin Action 1941914 From the essay The Workers Party andReliion New York pp 2-

The mode of production in material life determines the eneralcharacter of the social political nd spiritual processes of life" MarxContribtion to the Critiqe of Politicl Economy tr. by N. I. Stone (Chicao 913) p



6 IEOLOG AN U1IA

is precisey heir reiproca reaions which are made o onsue snge group of probes he deoogca sruure does nohange ndependeny of he ss srucure and he ass

srucre does no hange ndependeny of he economi srucureAnd s precisey he neronneon and nerwnng of hshreefod formuaion of he probem he economi he soaand he deoogca ha gves o Mrxis ideas heir singarypeneraing qaiy Ony his synheic power enabes i oformuae ever anew he probe of he srucra oaiy ofsociey no ony for he pas bu aso for he fuure he paradoxies n he fac ha Marxism reognes reaive iraionaiy

nd never oses sigh of i Bu unke he hsorica schoo idoes no conen sef wh a mere acepane of he irraionaInsead i ries o eiminae as much of i s possbe by a neweor a raionaion

Here again he soioogis s onfroned wh he queson ofhe genera hisorca-socia form of exsene and he pariursiuaon from which he mode of hough peuar o Mrxsmarose How an we expain s sngr haracer whih onsssin combining an exreme irraionasm wh an exreme raonasmin such manner ha ou of hs fuson here arses a new kndof diaecica raionaiy

Considered socioogcay his s he heory of an sendenss which is no oncerned wh oenay sucesses andwhich herefore wi no resor o a l pusch as eans forseiing power b whih beuse of s nheren revouionaryendencies ms awys be sensive nd aer o unpredicabeonseaions n he siuion Every heory whch arses ouof a cass posiion and s based no on unsabe asses bu onorganied hisorica groups ms of necessiy have ong rangevew. Consequeny requires a horoghy raionaied vewof hisory on he basis of whih i wi be possibe a any omeno ask ourseves where we re now and a wha sage of deveopmen does or movemen nd ise

Groups of pre-capiaisic orgn n whch he omunaeemen prevais may be hed ogeher by radions or bycommon senimens aone n such a group heoreica reecions of enirey secondry mpornce On he oher hnd ingrops which are no weded ogeher prmariy by such organcbonds of ommniy ife bu whih merey ocpy smar

Without revolutionry theory there cn be no revolutionry movemnt enin What s o Be Done? New York nd ondon 1931







PRSPECS F SCENFC PLCS 119

connection with action and action is the clarifyng medium inwhich all theory is tested and develos

he ositive contribution of this theory is that out of its own

concrete social exerience t shows more and more convincinglythat oltcal thought s essentally dierent from other forms oftheorizing hs dialectical mode of thought s further sgncantin that t has ncororated wthn tself the roblems of bothbourgeos rationalsm and the rratonalsm of hstorcism

From irrationalsm t has derved the nsght that the historicalolitcal shere s not comosed of a number of lfeless objectsand that therefore a method which merely seeks laws must fal

Furthermore this method s fully cognzant of the comletelydynamic character of the tendences that dominate the oitcalrealm and since t s conscous of the connection between olitcalthinkng and livng exerence, t will not tolerate an articialsearaton of theory and ractce From ratonalism, on theother hand, t has taken over the nclinaton to vew ratonallyeven situations which have revousl deed ratonal nterretaton

As a fth claimant to a lace among modern currents ofthought we should mention fascsm which rst emerged in ourown eoch Fascism has ts own conceton of the relations otheory and ractce t is, on the whole, actvistic and irrationa t coules itself by reference, wth the rrationalist hilosohiesand olitical theories of the most modern eriod t s eseciallyBergson Sorel and Pareto who after suitable modication ofcourse have been ncororated nto ts lnshuung Atthe very heart of its theory and ts ractice les the aotheosisof direct action the belief in the decisve and in the sgni-

cance attributed t the ntatve of a leading l he essenceof olitics s to recognze and to grale wth the demands ofthe hour Not rogrammes are mortant, but uncondtonalsubordnaton to a leader Hstory s made nether by the masses,nor by deas, nor by silently working forces, but by the litswho from time to time assert theselves2 his s a comlete

ussolini Our proramme is quite simple ; we wish to rule verItaly. People are always askin us about our proramme. There aretoo many already. Italys salvation does not depend on prorammesbut on men and stron wills. (ussolini Reden. ed. by H. eyer (Leipzi1928) p. 10. f. also pp. 13

2 ussolini (loc. cit. p. 13) : ou know that I am no worshipperof the new od the masses. At any rate history proves that social chaneshae always been rst brouht about by minorities by a mere handfulof men.



IEOLOG AN TOPIA

irraionalism bu characerisically enough no he knd ofirraionalism known o he conservaives no he irraionalwhich is he same ime he superraional no he folk spiri

(lkgt no silenly working forces no he mysical beliefin he creaiveness of long sreches of ime bu he irraionalismof he deed which negaes even inerpreaion of hisory Tobe youhful means being able o forge. We Ialians are ofcourse proud of our hisory bu we do no need o make ihe conscious guide of our acionsi lives in us as par of ourbiological makeup 1

A special sudy would be necessary o ascerain he dieren

meanings of he various concepions of hisory. I would beeasy o show ha he diverse inellecual and social curren havedieren concepions of hisory The concepion of hisoy conained in rodreros saemen is no comparable eiher o heconservaive he lberaldemocraic or he socialisic concepionsAll hese heories ohewise so anagonisic share he assumpion ha here is a denie and ascerainable sucure in hisorywihin which so o spea each even has is proper posiion

From a statem€nt by Brodrero at the Fourth International Conressfor Intellectual Cooperation Heidelbur October 1927.

It is rather dicult to oranize fascist ideas ino a coherent doctrine.Apart from the fact that it is still undeeloped fascism itself lays noparticular weiht upon an interally knit theory. Its proramme chanesconstantly dependin on the class to whch it addresses itself. In thiscase more than in most others it is essential to separate mere propaandafrom the real attitude in order to ain an understandin of its essentialcharacter. This seems to lie in its absolute irrationalism and its actiism

which eplain also the acillatin and olatile theoreical character offascist theory. Such institutional ideas as the corporatie state professional oranizations etc are deliberately omitted from our presentation.Our task is to analyse the ttitude towards the problem of theory andpractice and the iew of history which results therefrom. For this reasonwe will nd it necessary from time to time to ie some attention to thetheoretical forerunners of this conception namely Berson Sorel andPareto. In the history of fascism two periods may be distinuishedeach of which has had distinct ideoloical repercussions. The rst phaseabout two years in lenth durin which fascism was a mere moementwas marked by the inltration of actiisticintuitie elements into its

intellectualspiritual outlook This was the period durin which syndicalisttheories found entrance to fascism The rst fasci were syndicalistand ussolini at that time was said to be a disciple of Sorel. In the secondphase beinnin in Noember 1921 fascism becomes stabilized and takesa decisie tu towards the riht In this period nationalistic ideas comto the fore For a discussion of the manner in which its theory becametransformed in accordance with the chanin class basis and especiallythe transformations since hih nance and larescale industry alliedthemseles to it cf Beckerath Wesen und Werden des fscstschenttes (Berlin 1927)






n a smlar sense The conservatves, the lberals, the socalstswere one n assmng that n hstory t can be shown that theres an nterrelatonshp between events and congratons throghwhch everythng, by vrte of ts poston, acqres sgncanceNot every event cold possbly hapen n every statoFascsm regads every nterpretaton of hstory as a mere ctveconstrcton estned to dsappear before the deed of te momt as t eaks throgh the temporal pate of hstory

That we are dealng here with a theory whch holds that hstorys meanngless s not changed by the fact that n fascst deology,especally snce ts trn to the rght, there are fond the deasof the natonal war and the deology of the Roman Empre Apart from the fact that these deas were, from the very rst,conscosly experenced as yths, e as ctons, t shold benderstood that hstorcaly orented toght and actvty donot mean the romantc dealzaton of some past epoch or event,bt consst rather n the awareness of ones place n the hstorcaprocess whch has a cleary artclated strctre It s ths clearartclaton of the srctre whch makes ones own partcpaton

n the process ntellgbleThe ntellectal vale of al poltcal and hstorcal knowledgequ knowledge, sappears n the face of ths prely nttonalapproach, whch apprecates only ts deologcal and mythologcal aspect Thoght s sgncant here only n so far as t exposesthe llsory character of these frtless theores of hstory andnmasks them as self-deceptons For ths actvstc nttonsm,thoght only clears the way for the pre deed free from llsons

The speror person, the eader, knows that all poltcal andhstorcal deas are myths He hself s entrely emancpatedfrom them, bt he vales themand ths s the obverse sde fhs atttdebecase they are dervatons (n Pareos

fom Piou Gatan Georges Sorel (18-1922) Pais (Macel Rivie) 192p 53 f also the eview by Est Posse in A rhiv jr die Geshihtdes Soziisms nd der A rbeiterbewegng vol 13 pp 31

f the essay by Ziele H Ieoloienlehe " in A rhiv jrSozilwissenshjt nd Sozilpoliti 192 vol 5 pp 65 . This authounetakes fom the point of view of Paeto Soel etc to emolish the myth of histoy " He enies that histoy contains any ascetainablecoheence an points out vaious contempoay cuents of thouht whichalso am this unhistoical appoach Mussolini epesse the samethouht in politicalhetoical fom : We ae not hysteical womenfeafully awaitin what the futue bin We ae not waitin fothe estiny an evelation of histoy " (loc cit p 129) an futhe We o not believe tat istoy epeats itself that it follows a pesciboute"




sense whch stmuate enthusastc feengs an set n motonrratona resues n men an are the ony forces that eato otca actvty! Ths s a transaton nto ractce of whatSore an Pareto formuate n ther theores of the myth anwhch resute n ther theory of the roe of the lits an avanceguars

The rofoun scetcsm towars scence an esecay cuturascences whch arses from the ntutona aroach s not cutto unerstan Whereas Marxsm ace an amost regousfath n scence Pareto saw n t ony a forma soca mechancsIn fascsm we see the sober scetcsm of ths reresentatve

of the ate bourgeos eoch combne wth the sefconenceof a movement st n ts youth Pareto's scetcsm towarsthe knowabe s mantane ntact but s suemente by a fathn the ee as such an n ts own vtaty

When everythng whch s ecuary hstorca s treate asnaccessbe to scence a that remans for scentc researchs the exoraton of that most genera stratum of reguarteswhch are the same or a men an for a tmes Aart from

soca mechancs soca sychoogy aone s recognze Theknowege of soca sychoogy s of vaue to the eaers ureyas a technue for manuatng the masses Ths rmtveeeyng stratum of mans syche s ake n a men whetherwe ea wth the men of toay or of ancent Rome or of theRenassance

We n here that ths ntutonsm has sueny fuse wththe uest of the contemorary bourgeose for genera aws The

resut was the graua emnaton from ostvsm as reresenteby Comte for nstance of a traces of a hosohy of hstoryn orer to bu a generazng socoogy On the other han thebegnnngs of the conceton of eoogy whch marks the theoryof usefu myths may be trace argey to Marxsm There arenevertheess uon coser examnaton essenta erences

Marxsm too rases the ssue o eoogy n the sense of thett tssue of es the mystcatons the ctons whch

Cf. Sorel G. Rexios sur la violece (Paris 1921) chap pp. 167 : A concise statement of Paretos sociological views may e found iBousquets Prcs de socolog d'aprs Viredo Pare to (Paris 192)

ussolini i one of his speeches said : We have created a myth.This myth is a faith a nole enthusiasm I does not have to e a reality [ it is an impulse and a hope elief and courage Our myth is the nationthe great nation which we wish to make into a concrete reality (Quotedfrom Carl Schmitt Die geistesgeschchtliche age des heutige Parlametasmus p. 89)



IDEY AD UTPI

t sees to expose It does not however brng every atteptat an nterpretaton o hstory nto ths category but onythose to whch t s n opposton. ot every type o thought sabelled deoogy ny soca strata who hav need ordsguses and who ro ther hstorca and soca stuato wnot and cannot perceve the true nterreatons as they actuayexst necessary al vcts to these deceptve experences utevery dea even a coect on through the very act that t can beconceved appears to be reated to a certan hstorcasocastuaton The act that a thought s reated to a certan hstorcasoca stuato does not howver rob t o a possbty

o attanng the truth The ntutona approach on the otherhand whch so repeatedy asserts tse n ascst theory cocevs o knowedge and ratonaabty as soewhat uncertannd o deas as o atogether secondary sgncance ny ated nowedge about hstory or potcs s possbenaeythat whc s contaned n the soca echancs and socapsychoogy reerred to above

For ascs the Marxan dea o hstory as a structura

ntegrato o conoc and soca orces n the na anaysss aso rey a yt ust as th character o the hstorcaprocess s n the cours o t dstegrated so the cass concepton o socety s rected too Ther s no protaratthere ar ny proetarats It s characterstc o ths type othought ad ths ode o e that hstory dssoves tse ntoa nuber o transtory stuatons n whch two actors aredecsve ; on th one hand the la o the great eader and

o the vanguard or lits and on the other the astery o theony type o kowedge whch t s beeved possbe to obtanconceng the psychoogy o the asses and the technque other anpuaton Potcs s then possbe as a scence onyn a ted sensen so ar naey as t cears the way oracton

It does ths n a twood anner rst by destroyng a theusons whch ake us see hstory as a process ; and secndy

by reconng wth and observng the assnd especay tspowerpuses and ther unctonng ow to a great extentths ass psyche does n act oow teess aws becaus ttse stands outsde the course o hstorca deveopent y

1 Tempeaments divide men more than ideas" Mussolini op. citp 55

Cf Beckerath v op cit p. 12 Also Mussolini op. cit. p 96





126 IDEOOY ND UOI

o odern social and econoic lie it attracts te explosiveirrational eleents in th odern ind

he correctness o the interpretation o this ieology as theexpression o a certain social stratu is proved by the act thathistorical interpretations ade ro this point o view areoriented towards the irrational sphere reerred t above. Beingsychologically and socially situated at a point ro which theycan discern only the unordered and unrationalized in the developent o society the structural developent and the interatedraework o society reain copletely hidden ro theirview

I t is alost possible to establish a sociological correlationbetween the type o thinking that appals to organic or organizedgroups and a conistently systeatic interpretation o history. Onthe other hand a deep anity exists between socially uprootedand loosely integrated groups and an ahistorical intuitionishe ore organized and organic groups are exposed to disintegration the ore they tend to lose the sense or the consistentlyordered conception o history and the ore sensitive they

becoe to the iponderable and the ortuitous. s spontaneouslyorganized putschist groups becoe ore stable they also becoeore hospitable to long range views o history and to an orderedview o socety lthough historical coplications oten enterinto the process this schee should be kept in ind bcause itdelineates tendencies and oers ruitul hypotheses. classor siilar organic group never sees history as ade up o transitoryisconnected incidents ; this is possible only or spontaneous

groups which arise within the. Even the unhistorical onto which activis conceives and which it hopes to seize uponis ctually torn out o its wider historical context. he concept opractice in this ode o thought is likewise an integral part o theputschist technique while socially ore integrated groupseven when in opposition to the existing order conceive o actionas a continuous oveent toward the realization o theirends!

he contrast between the lan o great leaders and lit on theone hand and the blind herd on the other reveals the arks o an

Mussolini himself speaks convincinly concein the chane whichthe putschist uneroes after attainin power It is increible how arovin freelance solier can chane when he becomes a eputy or atown ocial. He acquires another face He beins to appreciate thatmunicipal buets must be stuie an cannot be storme" (Op. cit.p 166



ROSECTS OF SCIENTIFIC OLITICS 127

idology caractristic of intllctuals o ar mor intnt onproviding ustications for tmslvs tan on inning supportfrom t outsid I t is a countr-idology to t prtnsions of a

ladrsip ic concivs itslf to b an organ xprssing tintrsts of broad social strata Tis is xmplid by t stratumof consrvativ ladrs o rgardd tmslvs as t organof t popl 1 by t libals o conivd of tmslvsas t mbodimnt of t spirit of t ag (i and by tsocialists and communists o tink of tmslvs as t agntsof a classconscious proltariat

From tis dirnc in mtods of slfustication it is

possibl to s tat groups oprating it t ladrmassdicotomy ar ascndant li ic ar still socially unattacdso to spak and av yt to crat a social position for tmslvsTy ar not primarily intrstd in ovrroing rforming orprsrving t social structurtir cif concrn is to supplantt xisting dominant li by otrs It is no accidnt tat ton group rgards istory as a circulation of li il fort otrs it is a transformation of t istoricalsocial structur

Eac gts to s primarily only tat aspct of t social andistorical totality toards ic it is orintd by its purposIn t procss of transformation of modrn socity tr ar

as as alrady bn mntiond priods during ic tmcanisms ic av bn dvisd by t bourgoisi forcarrying on t class struggl (g parliamntarianism) prov insucint Tr ar priods n t volutionary coursfails for t tim bing and criss bcom acut Class rlations

and class stratication bcom straind and distortd Tclassconsciousnss of t conicting groups bcoms confusIn suc priods it is asy for transitory formations to mrgan t mass coms into xistnc individuals aving lost orforgottn tir class orintations At suc momnts a dictatorsip bcoms possibl T fascist vi f istory and its intuitional approac ic srvs as a prparation for immdiataction av cangd at is no mor tan a partia situation

into a total vi of socityWit t rstoration of quilibrium folloing t crisis

t organizd istorical-social forcs again bcom ctivEvn if t li ic as com to t top in t crisis is abl

Saviny in his sense creaed he cion for evoluionary conservaismha he uriss occupied a special saus as he represenaives of hefolk spi ( om Bj nrr Zit zr tzgbng nd Rchtwisnschj, Freibur 1892 )



12 DEOLOG AND UOA

o adus self we o he new suaon, he dnamic focesof social life neveheless easse hemselves in he old wa is no ha he social sucue has changed, bu ahe hahee has been a eshuinga shf n pesonnel among hevaous social classes wihin he fame of he social pocesswhich coninues o evolve An example of such a dicaoshiphas wih ceain modcaions, alead been inessed in modehiso in he case of Napoleon Hisoicall his signied nohingmoe han he ise of cean . ociologicall i was anindicaion of he iumph of he ascendan bougeoisie whichknew how o exploi Napoleonic impeialism fo s own puposes

ma be hose elemens of he mind which have noas e been aionalized become csallized eve anew in a moesable social sucue ma be oo ha he posiion whichundelies his iaionalisic philosoph is nadequae o compehend he boad ends of hisoical and social developmenN one he less he exisence of hese sho-lived explosions decsaenion o he iaional dephs which have no as e beencompehended and whch ae incompehensible b odina

hisoical mehods ha which has no e been aionalizedhee oins wih he nonhisoical and h hose elemens n life whh canno be educed o hsoical caegoies e aegiven a glimpse of a ealm which up o he pesen appeas ohave emaned unchanging ncludes he blind bologcalinsincs whch in hei eenal sameness undelie eve hisoicaleven hese foces can be maseed exenall b a echniquebu can neve each he level of meaning and can neve be

ineall undesood esides his sub-hisoal bologicalelemen a spiual, anscendenal elemen is also o be foundin hs sphee is of his elemen whch is no full embodiedin hiso and which, as somehing unhisocal and alen o ouhough eludes undesanding ha he msics spoke Alhoughhe fasciss do no menon i mus neveheless ank as heohe gea challenge o he hisocal aionalism

ha has become ineligible undesandable aionalized

oganized, sucualized aiscall and ohewise fomedand consequenl evehing hisocal seems n fac o lie beweenhese wo eeme poles f we aemp o view he neelaonsof phenomena fom his mddle gound we neve ge o seewha lies above and below hiso f on he ohe hand wesan a ehe of hese aional eeme poles we compleellose sih of hisoial eali in is conceeness



PROSPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC POITICS 129

The attratins the asist treatent the rblem therelatins beteen ther an ratie lie in its esignatin allthght as ilsin Plitial thght ma be vale in arsing

enthsiasm r atin bt as a means r sienti mrehensin the el litis hih invlves the rgnstiatin the tre it is seless It seems nthing less than remarkablethat man living in the blining glare the irratinal is stilable t mman rm instane t instane the emirial knwlege neessar t arr n his evera lie Srel ne remarkears this We kn that the sial mths nt reventmen rm being able t take avantage all the bservatins

mae in the rse evera lie nr the interere iththeir exetin their reglar tasks In a tnte he ae It has ten been nte that Amerian an English setarianshse religis exaltatin is sstaine b aalti mthsare nne the les in man ases ver ratial ele 1 Thsman an at esite the at that he hinks

It has ten been insiste that even einism ntains a tinge asism. Bt it wl be misleaing t verlk the ierenes

in emhasizing the similarities The mmn element in the tvies is nne merel t the ativit aggressive minritiesOnl bease eninism as riginall the ther a minritnmrmisingl etermine t seize er b revltinarmeans i the ther the signiane leaing grs an their eisive energ me t the re Bt this ther nevertk ight int a mlete irratinalism The Blshevist gras nl an ative minrit ithin a lass mvement an

inreasingl selnsis rletariat s that the irratinal ativisti asets its trines were nstantl srte b theassmtin the ratinal inteligibilit the histral ress

The ahistrial sirit asism an be erive in art rm thesirit a brgeisie alrea in er A lass hih has alrearisen in the sial sale tens t neive histr in terms nrelate islate events Histrial events aear as a ressnl as lng as the lass whih vies these events still exets

smething rm it Onl sh exetatins an give rise ttias n the ne han an nets ress n the ther.Sess in the lass strggle hever es aa ith thetian element an res lng range vies int the bakgrnthe better t evte its ers t its immeiate tasks Th

Soel op ct p 1




cnseuence s h n plce vew he whle whch rmerlyk ccun endences nd l srucures, here ppers pcure f he wrld cmpsed ere mede evens nd

dscree cs The de " prcess nd he srucurlnellgbly hsry becmes mere myhFcsm nds sl serenely ble ke ver hs burges

repudn hsry s srucure nd prcess wihu nyncnvenence, snce scsm sel s he expnen burgesgrups I ccrdngly hs n nenn replcng he presenscl rder by nher bu nly subsung ne rulng grupfr nher wihn he exsng clss rrngemens 1 The chnces

r scs vcry s well s r he uscn s hsrclhery depend upn he rrivl juncures n whch crsss prundly dsrgnzes he cplsburges rder, hhe mre evlunry mens crryng n he cnc neressn lnger suce A mmens like hese, he chnces r pwerre wih hm wh knws hw ulze he mmen wh henecessry energy by smulng cve mnres ck, hussezng pwer

3 YTHESIS OF THE RIOUS ERSPETIVES S ROBLEM

OF OLITIL OIOLOG

In he precedng pges we emped shw cncreely hwne nd he sme prblem, nmely he reln beween herynd prcce, k deren rm n ccrdnce wih he dernglcl psns rm whch ws pprched Wh hlds

rue r hs bsc uesn f ny scenc plcs s vld lsfr ll her specc prblems I culd be shwn n ll cses hn nly d undmenl renns, evluns, nd he cnen des der bu h he mnner sng prblem, hesr pprch mde, nd even he cegres n whch experiences re subsumed, clleced, nd rdered vry ccrdng he scl psn he bserver.

I he curse plcl sruggles hus r hs decsvely shwn

h here s n nme relnshp beween he nure plcl decsns nd nellecul perspecve, hen wuldseem fllw h scence plics s mpssble Bu s

s eads Mussolins atttude towads apitalism : the ealstoy of apitalism w now bein Capitalism is not ust a systemf oppessonon the ontary it epesents the hoie of te ttestequa opportunities fo the most ifted a moe developed sense of individualesponsibility" op. it. p. 96




precisely at this point, where the iculties become mostpronounce, that we reach a tuing point

It is at this juncture that two new possibilities emerge an at

this stage in the formulation of the problem we see two pathswhich may be followe On the one han it is possible to say Since in the realm of politics the only knowlege that we haveis a knowlege which is limite by the position which we occupy,an since the formation of parties is structurally an ineraicableelement in politics, it follows that politics can be stuie onlyfrom a party viewpoint an taught only in a party schoolI believe, in fact, that this will prove one roa from which

immeiate evelopments ill followBut it has become evient an promises to become more sothat, owing to the complicate character of contemporary society,the traitional methos of training the next generation of politicalleaers, which have ha hitherto a largely acciental character,are not aequate to supply the presentay politician with therequisite knowlege The political parties will therefore n inecessary to evelop their party schools with ncreasing care an

elaborateness. Not only will they provie the factual knowlegewhich wi enable prospective political leaers to formulatefactual jugments concernng concrete problems, but they willalso inculcate the respective points of view from which experiencemay be organize an mastere

Every political point of view implies at the same time more thanthe mere armation or rejection of an inisputable set of factsIt implies as well a rather comprehensive ltanchauung. The

signicance that political leaers attach to the latter is shownby the eorts of all parties to moul the thinking of the masses,not only from a party stanpnt, but also from the point ofview of a ltanchauung Political peagogy sgnies the transmission of a particular attitue towars the worl which willpermeate aspects of life Political eucation toay signiesfurther a enite conception of history a certain moe of interpreting events, an a tenency to seek a philosophical orientationin a eite manner

This cleavage in moes of thought an ltanchauungnan this ncreasing ierentiation accoring to political positionshas been going on with an increasing intensity since the beginningof the nineteenth century The formation of party schools willaccentuate this tenency an carry it to its logical conclusion

But the formation of party schools and the developmen



12 IEOLOY AN UTOIA

f paty teoes s ony one of te ineitabe consequencesof te pesent situation. It is one wic wi appea to tse wobecause tey occupy an exteme position in te socia ode

must cing to tei patisansip must conceie of antagonismss absoutes and suppess an conception of te woe.Te pesent situation poides sti anote possibiity It

ests so t speak on te eese side of te fundamentaypatisan caacte of poitica oientation Tis ateatiewc is at east as impotant as te ote consists in te foowing not ony e necessay patisan caacte of eey fomof poitica knowedge is ecognized but aso te pecuia ca

acte of eac aiety. It as become incontoetiby ceatoday ta a knowedge wic is eite poitica o wicinoes a wod-iew is ineitaby patisan. Te fagmentaycaacte of a knowedge is ceay ecognizabe But tis impieste possibiity of an integation of many mutuay compementaypoints of iew into a compeensie woe

ust because today we ae in a position to see wit inceasingcaity tat mutuay opposng iews and teoies ae not innite

in numbe and ae not poducts of abitay wi but e mutuaycompementay and deie fom specic socia situations poiticsas a science is fo te st time possibe Te pesent stuctueof society makes possibe a poitica science wic wi not bemeey a paty science but a science of te woe Poiticasocioogy as te science wic compeends te woe poiticalspee tus attains te stage of eaization.

Wit tis tee comes te demand fo an institution wit a

boade base tan a paty scoo wee tis science of te poiticatotaity may be pusued Befoe going into te possibiity andstuctue of tis type of inestigation it is necessay to estabismoe my te tesis tat eac paticua point f iewneeds to be compemented by a te otes Let us eca teinstance wic we used to iustate te patisan setting of eeypobem

We foun tat ony cetain imted aspects an aeas of istoica

and poitica eaity eea temsees to eac of te aiouspaties. Te bueaucat esticted is ange of ison to testabiized pat of te ife of te state istoica conseatismcoud see ony te egions in wic te sienty woking lksgeswas sti opeating in wic as in te eam of cstom andusage in eigious and cutual association oganic and notoganize foces ee at wok istoica conseatism aso



PROSPTS OF SNTF POTS 33

ws wre tht there ws plce fo peculir tpe of rtonlity in this sphere of orgnic forces it hd to decipher theinherent tenencies of growth ven though the one-sidedness

of historicl conservtism consisted in the exggertion of thesignicnce o the irrtionl elements in the mind nd of theirrtionl socil forces corresponding to it in socilhistoricl relitit did nevertheless bring out n importnt point which could nothve been perceived from nother stnoint. The sme istrue of the remining oints of view Bougeoisdemocrticthought both iscovered nd develoed the possibility of rtionl mens of crring on the conict of interests in society

which will retin its relit nd function in moern life s longs eceful methos of css conict re possibeThe development of this roch to politicl problems ws

n historicl nd lsting chievement of the bourgeoisie, ndits vlue m be pprecited even though the onesiednessof its intellectulism hs been completel li bre The bourgeoismind h vitl soci interest in conceling from itself, bymens of this intellecuism, the limits of its own rtionliz

tion Hence it cted s if rel conicts could be full settledby iscussion It did not relize, however, tht closely connected with the relm of politics there rose new kind ofthinkig in which theor coul not be seprted from rcticenor thought from intent

Nowhere is the mutull complementry chrcter of socillypoliticll etermined prtil views more clerl visible thnhee For here it becomes once more prent tht socilist

thought begins t tht oint where bourgeois-emocrtic thoughtreches its limits, nd tht it threw new light on ust thosephenomen which its preecessors, becuse of the intimteconnection with their own interests, h left in the drk ToMrxism belong the credit for discovering tht politics doesnot consist merel in rimentry rties nd the discussionsthe crry on, nd tht these, in whtever concrete form thepper, re onl surfce expression of eeerling economicn socil situtions which cn be me intelligibe to rgeextent through new mode of thought These iscoveriessignlize the rising of the discussion to higher level fromwhich more extensive n more incusive view of histor nd clerer conception of wht ctully constitutes the dominof politics cn be obtined The discover of the henomenonof idolog is structurll closel ound up with thi discov



134 IDELGY ND TPI

lthough quite onesided it represents the rst attempt todene the position of socially bound thought as over against pure theory

inally to return to the last antithesis whereas Marxismfocussed its attention too sharply on and overemphasized theprely structural foundation of the political and historicalrealm fascism turned its attention to the amorphous aspectsof life to those moments in critical situations which are stillpresent and still have signicance in which class forces becomedisointed and confused when the actions o men acting asmembers of transitory masses assume signicance and when

the outcome entirely depends on the vanguards and their leaderswho are dominating the situation at the moment. But heretoo it would be overemphasis of a singe phase of historicalreality to regard these eventualities even though they are offrequent occurrence as the essence of histoical reaity Thedivergence of political theories is accouted for mainly by thefact that the dierent positios and social vantage points asthe emerge in te stream of social life enable each one from

ts particular point in the stream to recognize the stream itelfThus at derent times dierent elementary social interestsemerge and acordingy dierent obects of attention in the totalstructure are illuminated and viewed as if they were the onlyones that existed

ll points of view in politics are but partia points of viewbecause historical totality is always too comprehensive to begrasped by any one of the individual points of view which

emerge out of it. Sin however all these points of view emergeout of the same social and historical current and since theirpartiality exists in the matrix of an emerging whole it is possibleto see them in uxtaposition and their synthesis becomes aproblem which must continually be reformulated and resolvedThe continuously revised and renewed synthesis of the existingparticular viewpoints becomes all the more possible because theattempts at synthesis have no less a tradition than has theknowledge founded upon partisanship. Did not Hegel comingat the end of a reatively closed epoch attempt to synthesizein his own work the tendencies which hitherto had developedindependently Even though these syntheses time and againtued out to be patial syntheses and disintegrated in thecourse of subsequent development producing e .g . left and rightHegelianism though they were nevertheless not absolute but




eatve syntheses as such ey poned n a vey pomsndecton

A demand fo an absoute, pemanent synthess woud, as

fa as we ae concened, mean a eapse nto the statc wodvew of nteectuam In a ealm n whch eveythn s nthe cess f becing the ny adeuate synthess wud bea dynamc one, whch s efomuated fom tme to tme Theeis sti the necessty, hwev, to sove ne of the most mpotanobems that can be sted, namey, that of funshn themst comehensve vew of the whoe whch s attanabe aa gven te

Attemts at synthess do nt come nto ben uneated tne anthe, because each synthess pepaes the oad fo henext by summazn the foces and vews of ts tme A cetangess towads an absoute synthess n the utopansense ay be noted n that each synthess attempts oave at a wde pesectve han the evous one, and hathe ate ones ncopoate he esuts of those tha have onebefoe

At ths stage f he dscusson two dcutes ase even nconnection wth the eatve synthessThe st coes fom the fac that we can no one conceve

of the pataty o a pont of vew as meey ben a matteof degee. If the ceavage n potca and phosophca peceptns cnssted meey n the fact that each was concened wthanthe sde o secton of the whoe, that each umnated ony patcua segment of hstoca events, an addtve synthess

oud be possbe thout futhe ado A that woud be necessaud be to add up hese paal uhs nd o on them no whe

ut ths smped concepton s n one tenabe whenwe have seen that the detemnaon of patcua vewpontsby the stuatons s based not ony on he seecton of subecmatte, but as on the dvegence n aspects and n ways ofsettng the pobem, and nay n he dvegence of cateocappaatus and pnces f oanzaton The ueston hens ths s pssbe fo deent styes of thouht (by whcwe mean the deences n mdes o thnkng ust descibed be fused wth one anthe and o undeo synhess The cousof hstca deveomen shows that such synthess s possbeEvey cncete anayss of thnkn whch poceeds socoocyand seeks eveal the hsocl successon of houhsyes





PRSPECTS F SCIENTIFIC PLITICS 13

And indeed a glance at the history of political thought showsthat the exponents of synthesis have always represented denitesocial strata mainly classes who feel threatened from above and

below and who out of social necessity seek a middle way out.But this search for a compromise from the vey beginningassume both a static as we as dynamic form. The socialposition of the group wth which the carriers of the synthesisare aliated determnes largely which of these two alternativesis to be emphasized.

The static rm of mediation of the extremes was attemptedrst b the victorious bourgeoisie especially in the period of the

bourgeois monarchy in France where it was expressed in theprincple of the juse milieu This catchphrase however israther a caricature of a tue synthesis than a solution o itwhich can only be a dynamic one. For that reason it may serveto show what errors a solution must avoid.

A true synthesis is not an arithmetic average of a the diverseaspirations of the existing groups in society If it were suchit would tend merely to stabilize the saus qu to the advantage

of those who have ust acceded to power and who wish to protecttheir gains from the attacks of the t right as well as the I left n the contrary a vali synthesis must be based on a politicalposition which ill constitute a progressive development in thesense that it will retain and utilize much of the accumulatedcultural acuisitions and socil energies of the previous epoch.At the same time the new order must permeate the broadestranges of social life must take natura root in society in orderto bring its transforming power into play. This position callsfor a peculiar alertnes towards the hstorical reality of thepresent. he spatial t here and the temporal I now nevery situation must be considered in the historical and socialsense and must always be kept in mind in order to determinefrom case to case what is no longer necessary and what is notyet possible.

Such an experimental outlook unceasingly sensitive to hedynamic nature of society and to its wholeness is not likely tobe developed by a class occupying a midle position but onlyby a relatively classless stratum which is not too rmly situatedin the social order The study of history with reference to thisuestion will yield a rather pregnant suggestion

This unanchored reaively classless stratum is to use Alfredebers terminology the socially unattached intelligentsia



138 DEGY AND UTA

reischwebene nelligen) t s mossle n ths connectonto gve even the sketchest outlne of the cult socologcalolem ased y the exstence of the ntellectual But the

olems e ae consdeng could not e adeuately fomulatedmuch less solved thout touchng uon cetan hases of theoston of the ntellectuals. A socology hch s oented onlyth efeence to socaleconomc classes ll neve adeuatelyundestand ths henomenon. Accodng to ths theoy the ntellectuals consttute ethe a class o at least an aendage to aclass Thus t mght desce coectly cetan detemnants andcomonents of ths unattached socal ody ut neve the essental

ualty f the hole. t s of couse tue that a lage odof ou ntellectuals come fom ente stata hose nome sdeived dectly o ndectly fom ents and nteest on nvestments But fo that matte cetan gous of the ocals andthe socalled leal ofessons ae also memes of the ntellgentsa. A close examnaton hoeve of the socal ass of thesestata ll sho them to e less clealy dented th one classthan those ho atcate moe decty n the economc ocess.

f ths socologcal cosssecton s comleted y an hstocalve futhe heteogenety among the ntellectuals ll edsclosed. Changes n class elatonshs at deent tmes aectsome of these gous favoualy othes unfavoualy Conseuently t cannot e mantaned that they ae homogeneouslydetemned. Although they ae too deentated to e egadeas a sngle class thee s hoeve one unfying socologcal ondeteen all gous of ntellectuals namely educaton hch

nds them togethe n a stkng ay Patcaton n a commoneducatona hetage ogessvely tends to suess deencesof th status ofesson and ealth and to unte the ndvdualeducated eole on the ass of the educaton they have eceved

n my onon nothng could e moe ong than to msnteetths ve d mantan that the class and status tes of thendivdual dsaea comletely y vtue of ths t s hoeveeculaly haacteistc of ths ne ass of assocaton that teseves the multlcty of the comonent elements n all thevaety y ceatng a homogeneous medum ithn hch theconctng aes can measue the stength Mode educatonfom ts nceton s a lvng stuggle a elca on a small scaleof the conctng uoses and tendences hch age n socetyat lage Accodngly the educated man as concens hs ntellectual hozon s detemned n a vaety of ays hs acued



PROSPCTS OF SCINTIFIC POITIC 139

ductionl hitg ubct hi to th inunc of oppoingtndnci in ocil lity whil th pon who i not intdtowd th whol though hi duction but th pticipt

dictly in th ocil poc of poduction ly tnd tobob th Welanschauung of tht pticul goup nd to ctxcluivly und th inunc of th condition ipod by hiimmdit ocil itution

On of th ot impiv fct bout modn lif i thtin it unli pcding cultu intllctul ctivity i not cdon xcluivly by ocilly igidly dnd cl uch pithood but th by ocil ttu which to lg dg

unttchd to ny ocil c nd which i cuitd fo nincingly incluiv of ocil lif Thi ociologicl fctdtin ntilly th uiqun of th od ind whichi chctiticlly not bd upon th uthoity of pithoodwhich i not clod nd nihd but which i th dynicltic in contnt tt of u nd pptuy confontdby nw pobl vn huni w ldy lgly th xpion of uch o o l ocilly nciptd ttu nd

wh th nobility bc th b of cutu it bo thoughth xdn of cl-bound ntliy in ny pct ut notuntil w com to th piod of bougoi cndncy do th lvlof cutul lif bcom incingly dtchd fom givn cl

Th odn bougoii hd fo th bginning twofoldocil ooton th on hnd th own of cpitl on thoth tho individul who only cpitl conitd in thiducion It w coon thfo to p of th poptidnd ductd cl th ductd lnt bing howv by non idologiclly in gnt with th popty-owninglmnt

Th i thn in th idt of thi ocity which i bingdply dividd by cl clvg ttu which ociologyointd olly in t of cl ith cn only lightlycophnd. Nvthl th pcic ocil poition of thittu cn b quit dqutly chctizd Althoughitutd btwn cl it do not fo middl cl Notof cou tht it i upndd in vcuu into which ocil

Cf. Fr Bremann Der Kampf u die brerlihe Wel undebensanshauun i der deushen ieraur des 18 ]ahrhunders"Deutsche Vertelhrsschrft fr Lterturwssenschft und stesgeschcht (Halle 1925) pp 9 This aords a ood reamen of he periodirerudesene of he supraboureois elemen in he boureois erarirles of he eieenh enury



10 DY AD UA

teests do ot peetate the cotay t usues tsef a hose teests th hch soca fe s peeatedWth the cease the ume ad vaety of the casses ad

stata fo hch the dvdua goups of teectuas aeecuted thee comes geate mutfomty ad cotast theteeces opeatg o the teectua eve hch tes theto oe aothe The dvdua the moe o ess taes a pat the mass of utuay coctg tedeces.

Whe those ho patcpate decty the pocess of poductothe oe ad the etepeeueg oud to apatcua cass ad mode of fe have the outoos a actvtes

ecty ad excusvey deteed y the specc soca stuatos the telectuas esdes udoutey eag the mpof the specc cass aty ae aso detemed the outooy ths teectua meu hch cotas a those cotadctoypots of ve hs soca stuato aays povded the potetaeegy hch eaed the oe outstadg teectuas todeeop the soca sesty that as esseta fo ecomgattue to the dyamcay coctg foces vey pot of

ve as examed costaty as o ts eevace to the pesetstuato. Futheoe pecsey though the cutua attachmets of ths goup thee as acheved such a tmate gaspof the tota stuato that the teecy toads a dyamcsythess costaty eappeaed despte the tempoay stotos th hch e have yet to dea.

Htheto the egatve se of the uattacheess of theteectuas the soca staty ad the pedomaty

deeate chaacte of the etaty has ee ephaszedalos excusvey as especay the potcaly exteegoups ho demadg a dete ecaato of sypathesaed ths as chaacteessess " t eas to e asedhoeve hethe the potca sphee a ecso favouof a dyamc edato may ot e just as uch a decsoas the uthess espousa of yesteays theoes o the oesdedemphass o tooo's

Thee ae to couses of acto hch the uattached teectuas have actualy tae a out of ths deoftheoadposto st hat amouts to a agey voutay aatoth oe o the othe of the vaous atagostc casses secodscuy of the o soca oogs a the quest fo thefumet of the sso as the edested advocate of hteectua teests of the hoe



PROSPECTS O SCIENTIIC POITICS 11

As egads the st way out uattached iteectuas ae to befoud i the couse of histoy i a cams. Thus they awaysfuished the theoists fo the cosevatives who themseves

because of thei ow socia stabiity coud oy with dicutybe bought to theoetica sef-cosciousess. They ikewisefuished the theoists fo the oetaiat which because of itssocia coditios acked the eequisites fo the acquisitioof te kowedge ecessay fo mode oitica coict Theiaiatio with the ibea bougeoisie has aeady bee discussed

This abiity to attach themsees to casses to which theyoigiay did ot beog was ossibe fo itelectuas because

they coud adat themseves to ay viewoit ad beausethey ad they aoe wee i a ositio to choose thei aiatiowhie those who wee immediatey boud by cass aiatioswee oy i ae excetios abe to tasced the boudaiesof thei cass outook This voutay decisio to j oi i theoitica stugges of a cetai cass did ideed uite them withthe aticua cass duig the stugg but it did ot feethem fom the distust of the oigia membes of that cass

This distust is oy a symtom of the socioogica fact thathe assimiabiity of iteectuas ito a outside cass is imitedby the sychic ad socia chaacteristics of thei ow Socioogcay this ecuiarity of beogig to the iteigetsia accoutsfo the fact that a oetaia who becomes a iteectua isikey to chage his socia esoaity A detaied case-studyof the ath take by the iteectu cofoted by this distustwoud ot be i ace hee We wsh meey to oit out that tefaaticism of adicaized iteectuas shoud be udestood i thisight It beseaks a sychic comesatio fo the ack of a moefudameta itegatio ito a cass ad the ecessity of ovecomig thei ow distust as we as that of othes

Oe coud of couse codem the ath take by idividuaiteectuas ad thei edess waveig but ou soe cocehee is to exai this behaviou by meas of the ositio ofitectuas i the whoe soci stuctue Such socia deeictioad tasgessio may be egaded as o moe tha a egativemisuse of a ecuia socia ositio The idividua isteadof focussig his eegies o the ositive otetiaities of thesituatio fas victim to the temtatios otetia i the situatioNothig woud be moe icoect tha to base oes judgmetof the fuctio of a soci statum o the aostatic behaviouof some of is mmbes ad to fai to see that the feque



142 IDELGY AND UTPIA ack f cvictin f the iteectuas is merey the reerseside f the fact tht they ae re in a psitin t have inteectua cnvictis In the g ru, histry c be vieed

as a series f tria and errr eperimets i hich eve thefaigs f men have a tetative vaue and in the curse f hichthe inteectuas ere thse h thrugh their hmeessnessi ur sciety ere the mst epsed t faiure The repeateattempts t idetify themseves ith, s e as the cntiuarebus received frm, ther csses must ead eventuay t acearer ccepti n the part f the inteectas f the meaiga the vaue f their n psitin i the sc rder

The rst y, the, ut f the predicment f the iteectuas,amey, the direct iatin ith casses ad paties, shs atedecy, even thugh it is ucscius, tards a dymicsythesis It s usuay te cass in need f iteectua devepmet hich receive their supprt It as primariy the cictf iteectuas hich trasfrmed the cct f interests ita cnict f ides This attempt t ift the cict f iterestst a spiritua pae has t aspects the e had it meant

the empty grictin f aked interests by meas f thetissues f ies spu by apgists n the ther hand, i a mrepsitive sense, it meat the ifusi f certai inteectudemads int practica pitics n return f heir cabratinith parties ad casses, the iteectuas ere abe t eavethis imprit upn them If they had ther chievementt their credit, this ane ud have been a signicat ccmpishment. Their fucti is penetrate it he raks f

the cictig parties in rder t cmpe them t ccept theirdemads. This activity, vieed histricay, has ampy shnherein the scigica pecuiarity and the missin f thisunttached sci stratum ie

The secnd ay ut f he diemma f the iteectuas cnsistsprecisey in becmg aare f their n scia psitin dthe missin impicit in it When this is chieved, piticaaiatin r ppsitin i be decided n the basis f a cnsciusretatin in sciety ad in accrdace th the demads fhe inteecua ife

ne f he basic tendencies in he cntemprary rd is thegrdua aakening f casscsciusness in casses If hisis s, i fs that even the inteectuas arrive at a cnsciusnessthugh nt a casscnsciusnessf their ngenera scia psitin ad the prbems and pprtuities it



POSPETS OF SIENTIFI POLITIS 13

involves This attempt to comprehend the sociological phenomenon of the intellectuals and the attempt on the basis ofthis to take an attitude toards politics have traditions of thei

o quite as much as has the tendency to become assimilatedinto other partiesWe are not concerned here ith examining the possibilities

of a politics exclusively suited to intellectuals Such an examinaion ould probably sho that the intellectuals in the presentperiod could not become independently politically active Inan epoch like our on here class interests and positions arebecoming more sharply dened and derive their force and

direction from mass action political conduct hich seeks othermeans of support ould scarcely be possible. This does notimply hoever that their particular position prevents themfrom achieving things hich are of indispensable signicancefor the hole social process Most important among theseould be the discovery of the position from hich a total perspective ould be possible. Thus they might play the part of atchmen in hat otherise ould be a pitchblack night It is

questionable hether it is desirable to thro overboard a ofthe opportunities hich arise out of their peculiar situationA group hose class position is more or less denitely xed

already has its political viepoint decided for it Where thisis not so as ith the intellectuals there is a ider area of choiceand a corresponding need for total orientation and synthesisThis latter tendency hich arises out of the position of theintellectuals exists even though the relation beteen the various

groups does not lead to the formation of an integrd partySimilarly the intelectuals are still able to arrive at a totalorientation even hen they have oined a part Should thecapacity to acquire a broader point of vie be considered merelyas a liability Does it not rather present a mission Onlyhe ho really has the choice has an interest in seeing the holeof the social and political structure Only in that period oftime and that stage of investigation hic is dedicated todeliberation is the sociological and logical locus of the development of a synthetic perspective to be sought The formationof a decision is truly possible only unde conditions of feedombased on th possibility of choice hich continues to exist evenafter the decision has been made We oe the possibility ofmutual interpenetration and understanding of existent currentsof thought to the presence of such a relatively unattached





PROSPECTS O SCENTC POLCS 15

fro a oint of view which has been attaine by carefl tinkingleaing to a corehension of the total sitation an a teacherwho is exclsively concerne with inclcating a arty otlook

alreay rly establisheA oliticl sociology which ais not at inclcating a ecisionbt reares the way for arriving at ecisions wil be able tonerstan relationshis in the otical rea which havescarcely even been notice before Sch a isciline ill beesecialy valable in illinating the natre of socialy boninterests t will ncover the eterining factors nerlyingthese class jgents, isclosing thereby the anner in which

colective forces are bon with class interests, of wicheveryone who eals with olitics st take accont. Relationshis like the following will be clarie Given sch an schinterests, in a given jnctre of events there will follow schan sch a tye of thinking an sch an sch a view of thetotal social rocess However, what these secic sets of interestwill be eens on the secic set of traitions which, in trneens on the strctral eterinants of the social sitation

Only he who is able to forlae the roble in sch a anneris in a osition to transit to others a srvey of the strctreof the olitical scene, an to ai the in getting a relativelycolete concetion of the whole. This irection in researchwi give a better insight into the natre of historical an oliticalthoght an wil eonstrate ore clearly the relationshisthat always exist between concetions of history an oliticaloints of view. Those with this aroach, however, are toosohisticate oliticaly to believe that olitical ecisions theselves are teachable or that they can, while they are stil revailing be arbitrarily ssene. To sarize whatever yorinterests, they are yor intrests as a olitical erson, bt thefact that yo have his or that set of interests ilies also thatyo st o this or that to realize the, an that yo stknow the secic osition yo occy in the whole social rocess.

While we believe that interests an roses cannot be taght,the investigation an conication, however, of the strctralrelationshi between jgent an oint of view, between the

Ma Weber formulated the problems of poitical socioloy somewhatsimilarly althouh he started from entirely dierent premises. Hisdesire for impartialty in politics represents the old democratic traditionlthouh his solution suers from the assumption of the separabilityof theory and eauation his demand for the creation of a common ointof departure for political analysis is a oal worthy of the reatest eorts.



16 DEOOGY AND UTOPA

socal process and the development of nterest, s possble.Those who demand f potcs as a science that t teach norsand ends shold consider that this demand mpies actaly

the denial of the reaty of potics. The only thing that wecan demand of politics as a science is that it see realty withthe eyes of actin hman beings, and that t teach men, n acton,to nderstand even their opponents n the light f their actamotives and their position n the historcasocia sitationPotca socoogy n this sense mst be conscios of ts fncionas the flest possibe synthesis of the tendences of an epocht mst teach what alone s teachable, namey, strctral

relationships the dgments theseves cannot be taght btwe can become more or less adeatey aware of them and wecan ntrpret them

5 THE ATURE O F OLT At KNOWLEDGE

The estion, whether a science of potcs is possible andwhther t can be taght, mst, f we smmarize al that we

have said ths far, be answered in the armative Of corseor sotion mpies a te diernt form of knowledge fromone cstomariy conceved Pre nteectaism wod nottolerate a science whch s so ntimately ted p with practce

The fact that poliical science in ts spontaneos form doesnot t nto the existing faework of science, as we nderstandt and that it is n contradiction with or presentday conceptonof science does not mean that poltcs is at fat. Rather t

shd be a stls to the revson of or conception of scienceas a whole. Even a passng glance at contemporary notons ofscience an ts nstttiona organiation wil show that whave not been abe to deal satisfctorily with theories wherethe sciece n eston s cosely concerned wth practicalproblems There is no mre of a science of pedagogy than thereis a scentc potics Still, there wold be nothing gaine f,after having reazed that we have not been able to resolve the

most important prbems n these branches of science, we wereto dsmiss what s pecliary pedagogcal and poitical as t arts or ntte skis Al that wod be accompished therebywod be an escape fro problems which mst be faced

Acta eperence shows that in teachng as well as n politicsit is precisey in the corse of actal condct that specc andrlevant knowedge s atanable ncreasing measre, and



PROSPETS OF SIENTIFI POLITIS 17

unde cetain conditions communicable onseuently itappeas that ou conception of science is much naowe hanthe scope of pesent-day knowledge and that attainabe an

communicable knowledge by no means ends at the boundaiesof esablished pesent-day sciences.If howeve it is tue that life aods possibilities of knowledge

and undestanding even whee science plays no pat it is nosolution to designate such knowledge as pescientic o toelegate it to the sphee of intuition siply in ode topeseve the puity of an abitay denition of science Onthe contay it is above all ou duty to inuie ino the inne

natue of these still unfomulated types of knowledge and tento lean whethe the hoizons and conceptions of science cannotbe so extended as to inlude these ostensibly pe-scientic aeasof knowledge.

The deence between scientic and pe-scienti depends of couse on what we pesuppose the limits of scienceto be It should be evident by now that hitheto the denitionhas been too naow and that only cetain sciences fo histoical

easons have become models of what a science should be It isfo instance well known how moden intellectual developmenteects the dominant ole of mathematics Stictly speakingfom this pont of view only what is measuable should beegaded as scientic In this most ecent epoch the idealof science has been mathematically and geometically demonstabe knowledge while eveything ualitative has been admissible only as a deivative of the uantitative. Moden positivism(which has always eained its anity with the bougeois-libealoutlook and which has developed in its spit has always adheedto this ideal of science and of tuth At the most what it addedin the way of a wothy fom of knowledge was the uest fogeneal laws In accod with this pevailin ideal the modenmind has been pemeaed by measuement fomalization andsystematization on the basis of xed axioms This was ite

successful fo cetain stata of eality which wee acessibleto a fomal uantitative appoach o at least subsumption undegenealizatons

Pusuing this mode of investigation it became obvious that itwas adapted to the scientic compehension of a homogeneouslevel of subject-matte but that this subect matte by omeans exhausted the fullness of eality This onesidedness ispaticulaly appaent in the cultual sciences in whih in the



48 IDEOOY AND UTOIA

natu of th cas a not so much concnd ith thnao sh of subjctmatt hich can b ducd to las asith th alth of uniqu conct hnomna and stuctus

hich a familia to actical mn of aais but hich anot attainabl though th axioms of ositivistic scinc Thushot of this as that th actical man daing ith conctsituations and alying his knoldg infomally as mointllignt than th thoist ho obsvd only a limitd shbcaus h as imisond by th suositions of his scincIt bcam mo and mo obvious that th om had somknolg in alms h th latt th mon intllctual

thoistlong ago casd to hav any knoldg It follosfom this that th modl of modn mathmaticalnatual scinccannot b gad as aoiat to knoldg as a hol

Th st fatu to b islacd by this modn ationaliststyl of thought hich as sociologically closly tid u ithth caitalist bougoisi as th intst in th qualitativBut sinc th funamntal tndncy of mon scinc asanalytical and sinc nothing as gadd as scintic unlss

it had bn ducd to its constitunt lmnts th intstin th immiat and dict ction of totalitis disaadI t is no accidnt that Romanticism as th st to tak u thostndncis in thght hich shod a n mhasis on thscic cognitiv valu of qualitativ knoldg and knoldgof th hol And Romanticism it should b calld sntd th mod countcunt hich in many dlivdvn in th alm of olitics th count attack against thbougoisationalistic old outlook Simily it is no accidntthat toay th Gesal thoy of ction and th thoisof mohology and chaactology tc hich constitut ascintic and mthodological count attack against ositivisticmthodology a coming to th fo in an atmosh hichdivs its Welanschauung and olitical outlook fom noomanticism

I t is not ou task h to giv a dtaild account of th intlay btn olitical movmnts and cunts in scinticmthodology Hov th agumnt u to this oint shosthat th ntllctualistic conction of scinc unlyingostivism is itslf ootd in a dnit Welanschauung and hasogssd n clos connction ith dnit olitical intsts

Fom th standoint of th sociology of knolg havnot fuly vald th ssntial chaact of this styl of thinkin



POSPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC POLITICS 4

when we have ncate ts anaytca an anttatve tenences We mst ee back to the potca an soca nteestswhch ae expesse by these methoooca tenets. Ths w

be possbe ony ate an examnaton o the basc cteon oeaty assme by the exponents o ths stye o thoghtThs s contane n the tess that nothng s egae as te o knowabe " except what co be pesente as nvesayva an necessaythese two eements beng pecatewthot the ao as synonymos I t was smpy assmewthot the anayss that ony that s necessay whch snvesay va, .e. commncabe to eveyone

akng these two synonymos, howeve, s not necessaycoect, snce t s easy possbe that thee ae tths o coectnttons whch ae accessbe ony to a cean pesona sposton o to a ente oenaton o nteests o a cetangop. The emocatc cosmopotansm o the ascenantbogeose ene the vae an the ght to exsence o thesensghts th ths, thee was eveae a pey socoogcacomponent n the cteon o tth namey, the emocatc

eman that these tths sho be the same o eveyoneThs eman o nvesa vaty ha make conseences

o the accompanyng theoy o knowege It oowe theeomthat ony those oms o knowege wee egtmate whchtoche an appeae to what s common n a hman bengsThe eaboaton o the noton o a conscosness n tse "s no moe than a stton o those tats n the nvahman conscosness whch we may assme to be the same na men, be they Negoes o Eopeans, meevas o moens.The pmay common onaton o ths common conscosnesswas on st o a n the conceptons o tme an space, ann cose connecton theewth, n the pey oma eam omathematcs Hee, t was et, a patom ha been eectewhch evey man co shae An, smay, t was et thatan economc man, a potca man, etc, espectve o tme an

ace, co be constcte on the bass o a ew axomatcchaactestcs. Ony what co be known by the appcatono these axoms was consee as knowbe Eveythng esewas smpy e to the pevese manoness o the ea ,concenng whch pe " theoy nee not woy tse Theoemost am o ths moe o thoght was a pe boy ogeneay va knowege whch s knowabe by a an commnce to a



150 DEOOY AND UOPA

Al knwledge which depended n the ttal receptiity fmen r pn certain histricalscial characteristics f menin the cncrete was sspect and was t be eliminated. hs

n the rst place all experience was sspect which rested pnthe prely persnal percetis f the indiidal he repdiatin f alitate knwledge which has already been mentinedgrew t f this Snce the senseprceptin f the indiidalin its cncrete and nie frm is a fnctin f the liing sbectas whle and since this senseperceptin cld be cmmnicatednly with diclty ne was inclined t deny it any specicale hatseer

imilarl eery kind f knledge which nly certain specichistricalscial grps cld acire was distrsted Only thatknd f knwledge was wanted which was free frm all theinences f the sbects elanschauung What was ntnticed was that the wrld f the prely antiable andanaysabl was itself nly discerable n the basis f a deniteWenschauug Simlarly it was nt nticed that a Welanschau is nt f necessity a srce f errr bt ften gies

access t speres f knwlege therwse clsedMst imprtant hweer as the attempt t eliminate the

nterests and ales which cnstitte the hman element inman n the characterizatin f brgeis intellectalismattentin was directed t the endear t eliminate interestseen frm pitics and t rece plitical discssin t a kindf general and niersal cnscisness which is determined y naral law

hereby the ranic cnnectin between man as an histricalsbect an as a member f sciety n the ne hand and histhght n the ther hand was arbitrarily seered. his cnstittes the chief srce f the errr with which in this cntextwe mst rst deal. t may be said fr frmal knwlege that it isessentially accesible all and that its cntent is naected bythe indiidal sbect and his histricalscial aliatins tn the ther hand it is certain that there is a wde range fsbectmatter which is accessible nly either t certain sbectsr in certain histrical perids and which becmes apparenthrgh the scial prpses f indidals.

An llstratin f the rst is that nly ne wh les r hategets t see in the led r hated bect certain characteristicswhich are inisible t thers wh are merely spectatrs rthermre there is a type f knwledge which can neer be cnceied



PROSPECS OF SCENFC POLCS 151

hn he caegoes of a puely conemplave conscousnessassuch, and hose s assupon s he fac ha e come okno ou assocaes oly n lvng and acng h hem, no

ony because akes me o obseve hngs, bu because humanbegs do no have as hch can be veed apa fom hemand hch, as e ae eoneously accusomed o say, auomacally come o lgh e ae dealng hee h adnamc pocess n man, n ha hs chaacescs emege nhe couse of hs concee conduc and n confonaon hacual poblems Selconscousness self does no ase fommee selfconemplaon bu oly hough ou suggles h he

olde n he couse of he pocess n hch e s becomeaae of ouselves

Hee selfaaeness and aaeness of ohes ae nsepaablynened h acvy and nees and h he pocesses ofsocal neacon heneve he poduc s solaed fom hepocess and fom he pacpaon n he ac, he mos essenalacs ae dsoed hs, hoeve, s he fundamenal feaueof he knd of hnkng hch s oened oads a dead naue,

n ha shes a all coss o cancel ou he subecve, voloaland pocessual elaons fom acve knoledge n ode oave a pue, homogeneously coodnaed esuls

he exaple us ced shos a case of he suaonaldeemaon of knoledge as opeaes n he elaonshpbeeen specc ypes of pesoales and specc foms ofknoledge Bu hee ae also cean domans of knoledgehose accessbly s no a mae of specc pesonales, buahe of cean dene hsocal and socal pecondons.Cean evens n hsoy and n he psychc lfe of men becomevsble only n cean hsocal epochs, hch hough a seesof collecve expeences and a concuenly developed elanschauung open up he ay o cean nsghs . Fuhemoe,o eu o ou ognal heme, hee ae cean phenomenahe pecepon of hch depends upon he pesence of cean

collecve puposes hch eec he neess of specc socalsaa. appeas hen ha cleacu and eadly objecableknoledge s possble n so fa as s a ueson of gaspnghose elemens n socal ealy hch, o begn h, e descbedas seled and ounzed componens of socal lfe. hee doesno seem o be any obsacle o he fomulaon of las n hsdoman, snce he objecs of aenon hemselves obey a ecuenhyhm of egula seuence



152 DOOGY AND UTOA

en howeve we ente the eam of poitics in which eveything is in pocess of becoming and whee the coective eementin us as kowing subjects heps to shape the pocess of becoming

whee thought is not cntempation fom the point of view of aspectato but athe the active paticipaton and eshapingof the pocess itsef a new type of knowege seems to emegenamey that in which decision and standpoint ae insepaabybound up togethe n these eams thee is no such thing as apuey theoetica outook on the pat of the obsee t ispecisey the puposes that a man has that give him his isioneven though his inteests thow ony a patia and pactica

iumination on that segment of the tota eaity in whichhe himsef is enmeshed and towads which he is oiented byvitue of his essentia socia puposes.

n such cases we must neve see inteest eauation andWelanschauung fom the poduct of thought and must evenin case it has aeady been seveed estabish the eationshipanew. This is the task of socioogy in so fa as it is the science ofthe poitica t accepts no theoetica contention as absotey

vaid in tsef but econstucts the oigina standpoits viewefom which the wod appeaed thus ad such and ties to undestand the whoe of the views deied fom the vaious pesp£esthough the whoe of the pocess.

Poitics as a science in the fom of a poitica socioogy isnee a cosed and nished eam of knowedge whh can besepaated fom the continuous pocess out of which it eveopedt is aways in the pocess of becoming and i aways nevetheess

bond to the steam fom which it deies. t aises in the dynamicnfoding of conicting foces. Consequenty it may be buiteithe upon quite onesided pespectives eecting the ietions of events as a given poitica paty sees them o itay appea in its most advanced fomas a onstant enewedattempt at synthesis of a the eistent petives aiming at aynamic econciiation.

t may we be that ou inteectuaism wi epeatey stimuatein us the onging f a point of view beyond time and histoyfo a consciosness such out of which thee aise sightsinependent of paticua pespectives and capabe of fomuation to genea aws which a eteay vaid But this objectie cannot be attained wthout oing vioence to the subjectmatte. f we seek a science of that which is n pocess of becomingf pacice nd f pacc w cn ie it o dving




a ne framerk n hch ths knd f knledge can ndadequate expressn

6. THE COMMUIABILITY OF OLITIAL KOWLEDGE

The rgnal mpetus t research n the prblem f delgyhas sprug frm plitical lfe itsef n ts mst recent develpments It des nt represent a scence hch has been cnjuredup ut f hairsplittng ntellectualistc subtletes We havealready t many such frmulatns f prblems and t uldindeed be harmul t ncrease ther number On the cntrary

the studet delgy s merely tryng t think ut a prblemhch peple have stumbled upn n the curse ther ertt rient themselves n the everyday le f scety Ths prblemcnsists essentaly f the nescapable necessty understandngbth neself and nes adversary n the matrx f the scaprcess

It s mperative at ths pint t ntrduce sme reectnscncernng the external frms f such a scence ts cmmunca

blty and the requirements fr ts trasmissn t cmggeneratns It s evident rm hat has aready been said that ascncers the external frm f the science that part pliticalscience hich is made up cncrete actual knledge is ntsubject t the prblematc cnsderatins just mentined What specuiarly prbematcal in plitcs as science ad in piticsprper des nt begn untl e reach that sphere f lfe n hchur nterests and ur perceptns are clsely bund up th neanther and hch makes hat has gne befre appear n a nelght

It has been shn that here t there are relatinshp ichcan be nvestigated but hch just because they are n cnstantx can be taught nly f n the case f every phase t becmmunicated there is taken nt accunt the bservatnalpstn hich makes these nterrelatns assume ther dente

certan character Every ve shuld be equated ith the scalpstn f the bserver. I pssble t shuld be nvestgatdn every case hy the relatns appear as they d frm everygven standpnt We cannt emphasze t much that the scalequatn des nt alays cnsttute a surce f errr but mrefrequently tan nt brngs nt ve certan nterrelatns hchuld therse nt be apparent The peculiar nesidedness a al itin is aas m ppet h ths ptn





PROSPCTS OF SCNTFC POLTCS

subectmatter with an ordering and schematizing tendencywhereas the ractical manin our ase the olitical ersonseeks orientation with reference to action. t is one thing to aim

at a schematically ordered birds eye view it is quite anoterthing to seek a concrete orientation for action. The desire forconcrete orientation leads us to view things only in the contextof the lifesituations in which they occur. A schematicallyordered summary tears aart the organic interconnection inorder to arrive at a ordered system which although articiallyconstructed is nevertheless occasionally useful.

An ilustration will further iluminate this central distinction

between the schematically ordering and actively orientingattitudes. There are three ossible aroaches to modern oliticaltheories : rst they may be resnted by means of a tyologywhich is detached from the historical moments and the concretesocial situations to whch they refer This tyology rangesthe theories in an indierent sort of series and at best attemtsto discover some urely theoretical rincile for dierentiatingbetween them This sort of tyology which is today very much

in fashion may be called a surface tyology because itreresents an attemt to resent the manioldness of lifeuon anarticially uniform level. The only sensible ustication sucha scheme could ossibly have is that there are dierent ways oflife and following one or the other o these is simly a matter ofchoice This oers a surey of course but it is a urely schematicsurvey. Acording to this scheme one can gie names t thetheories and attach labels to them but thei real inerconnectios

are thereby obscured since the theories originaly are not modeso lie in eneral bt merely ramications of concrete situations.A somewhat moe comlex form of this twodimensionl tyologyis that aredy efered to which seeks to discover a basis ofdierentiation uon some rincilereferabl a hilosohicalone. Thus for instance Stahl! the rst theorist and systematzerof the German arty system classied the dierent oliticaltendencies of his time into variants of two theoretical rincilesthe rincile of legitimism and the rincile of revolution.is classication oers not merely a survey of but also ainsight into existing arty-ideologies. n reducing them to ahilosohical dychotoy no doubt he deeens our understandingThe temtation of such a hilosohical deduction is that it laysan undue stress on a theoretical princile which of course is

tahl D ggwtg Part Stat ud Krch (Berlin 1863)





JPROSPECTS OF SCENTFC POTCS 57

f a gve sngle stuatn but t s rather that scal grupshavng a certan tpe structure frmulate theres crrespndng t ther nterests as perceved b them n certan

stuatns As a result fr each specic scal stuatn there aredscvered certan mdes f thnkng and pssbltes f rentatn t s nl because these structurall cndtned cllectvefrces cntnue t exst bend the duratn f a sngle hstrcalstuatn that the theres and pssbltes f rentatn alscarr ver. t s nt untl ther structural stuatns changeand are graduall dsplaced b thers that the need fr newtheres and new rentatns arses.

On he s able t fllw the curse f events ntellgentlwh cmprehends the structural algnment whch underles andmakes pssble a gven hstrcal stuatn and event. Thsehwever wh never transcend the mmedate curse f hstrcalevents as well as thse wh s cmpletel lse themselves nabstract generaltes that the never nd the wa back tpractcal lfe wll never be able t fllw the changng meanngf the hstrcal prcess

Ever pltcal gure peratng n ths level f cnscusnesswhch s apprprate t ur present stage f ntellectual develpment thnksmplctl f nt explctln terms f structuralstuatns Ths tpe f thnkng alne gves meanng and cncreteness t actn rented twards sme far- gal thughmmentar decsns ma well rest n mmentar rentatnsThus he s prtected aganst empt and schematc generaltesand s at the same tme gven sucent exblt s that he wllnt be vempressed b sme sngle even f the past as annadequate mdel fr future actn

The man wh s purpsefull actve wll never ask hw smerevered leader acted n a past stuatn but rather hw he wuldreall rent hmsel� t the present stuatn. Ths ablt trerent neself anew t an ever newl frmng cnstellatn ffactrs cnsttutes the essental practcal capact f the tpef mnd whch s cnstantl seekng rentatn fr actn Tawaken ths capact t keep t alert and t make t eectvewth reference t the materal at hand s the specc task fpltcal educatn.

n the expstn f pltcal nterrelatnshps the purelcntemplatve atttude must never be allwed t dsplace thergnal eed f the pltcal persn fr actve rentatnCnsderng the fact that ur educatnal prcedure s rented




pimai to th contmpativ attitud and that in th tansmission of ou subjctmatt w am mo at a schmaticsuv than at a conct ointation to if it is impativ

to dtmin at ast a point of dpatu fo thos pobmswhich concn th ducation of futu gnations in th amof th activ and of th poitica

A th amications of th pobm cannot b dat with hLt it suc to psnt th stuctua pincip of th ssntiaintationships that obtain h. Th foms and mthods oftansmitting th socia and pschoogica subjct-matt vawith th pcuiait of th stuctua foundations of th goup

on which th st! A ctain fom of socia goup and a ctainpdagogica tchniu is suitab fo atistic taining anothfo scintic taining Aong th vaious scincs mathmaticaknowdg cas fo dint pdagogica mthods and fo dintations btwn tach and pupi than dos th tansmissionof cutua subjctmatt Th sam is tu fo phiosophicaas contastd with poitica subjcts tc

Histo and pactica if show a constant if unconscious

sach fo mo aduat ducationa mthods in th dintds Lif is an incssant pocss of tainin and ducationUags customs and habits a fomd b pocsss and insituations of which w a utt unawa. h foms of association a continuous changing ; ationships btwn individuasbtwn individuas and goups va fom momnt to momntIn on situation w a confontd with suggstion ; thn withspontanous pticiation ; thn with snsitivnss to oths ;

thn with staint b oths tc It is not possib to st up ha compt tpoog of th foms of communication Thmg and pass awa in th histoica pocss and th canon b undstood though thi ivng contxt and its stuctua changs and not in a vacuum

As a st ointation w psnt two tndncis of modif which pa a signicant o in th xta and ntnashaping of th coming gnation On th on hand th is th

The phenomenoloical school in partiular has souht to show inopposition t modern intellectualism that there is more than one formof knowlede . Cf particularly Ma Schelers Di ormn ds Wissnsnd di ildng (Bonn 925 ; Di Wissnsformn nd di Gsllschf(eipzi 926 Heideers Sein und Zeit Jhrbch j Philosophind phnomnologisch orschng Bd 8. (Halle 927 oers even thouhindirectly much that is valuable in this respect Hoever the specccharacter of olitical kowlede is not treated there.



PROSPECTS OF SCENTFC POTCS 59

tenden n aord wth modrn ntetasm to makehomogneos and to nteetaze the foms of edaton andof the roagaton of knowedge As a ontrrrent to ths

thr s Romantsm whh desres th retrn to oder and mor orgna " forms of edatonThe meanng of ths w be made ear b an staton For

the transmsson of re assator knowdg th tres the most stabe t of edagoga thne f knowdgehas to b sstmatzed assed nto ts or otherws ordredthe most adeate dagoga form sems to onss n thatear sort of sbordnaton whh s evdent when one stns

to a tre. The stener as mer stener " takes ognzane of t ndern ths s the asmtonmt nth tre tsfthat r sbjtv rsona fators haveben mnated Ths ntet ats on ntt n a raredatmoshre detahed from th onret staton Bt snethe sbjetmatter of th tre s not onrnd wh sardand athortatve texts bt wth matras that are b andsbjet to free and ndeendent nvestgaton whh an be

hkd dssson after the etre s ossbe Ths jstesthe soad smnar rodre. Here too the essenta atres that sbjetve and emotona mss and ersona ratonsare shd nto th bakgrond as far as ossb so that abstratossbtes are onsdered one over aast the other on afata bass

From the standont of sbjet atter ths te of edagogaassoaton of etrer and adene and the te of ommna

ton t ms seem to be jsted n the as of those snewhh Afrd eber 1 has aed vlzatona ", e thos formsof knowedge whh are not sbjet to the nnes oflanhaun or of rsonavotona mss s robmata whether ths t of ommnaton aes to the trasenes and even more to those orented towards mmdaterate t s n aord the te of knowdg and thetenden nherent n mod_ � ntelletasm that t shod set as mode ths one se mode of assoaton betwen taherand stdent and ths s form of ommnaton and attemtto arr t over nto other rams of knowedg

The datona nstttons of mdeva shoastsm anderhas even more the nverstes n the age of absotsm

ed Webe Pinzipielles zu ulusozioloie A rhiv fr Soilssenschft und Soilpoitik (920)



60 IEOOGY AN UTOPIA

whose ain urose was the training of state ocials werenstruental in the elaboration and stabiliation of this tye ofnstruction Only the sects and conventicles which were not

riarily interested in secialied techncal tranng and forwhich siritual awakening was the rerequisite for knowledgeand insight develoed the tradition of other fors of huanassociation n the edagogical rocess and cultivated other odesof intellectual transission

In our own eoch the inadequacy of an educational systemwhich conned itself to erely handing down and counicatingknowledge to the student by the lecture syste which sub

ordinated the listener " to the l lecturer " becae acutelyevident in those elds whch we are accustoed to refer to as the arts ere too trainng n organied acadees has dislaced the older for of studentteacher association the rototyeof whih was the worksho aelier) None the less the tyeof association characterstic of the worksho s better suitedto the sort of substratu to be comunicated than is trainngn academies The worksho brings about a relationshi of

utual articiation between aster and arentice erenothing is systeatically exounded to be H taken cognianceof " by the arentice All that is comunicated is shown inconcrete situatios as oortunites arise " , and not erely said " Arentice and aster work together assist oneanother and articiate in comon in the coletion of thosecreative enterrises which y have originated with either oneof the The nitiative is transitted fro the teacher to the

uil and there nds a resonse Along with the transssionof the technique there goes also the transission of the deathe style not by eans of teoretical discussion but n the courseof creative collaborative clarication of the ai which unitesthe Thus the whole erson is aected and there s a wdedierence between this huan relationsh and the ere takngcognance " which s involved in the lecture syste It s nota scheatic syste which is taught, but always a cocrete

orientation (in the case of the artistic rocess, a feeling for forms counicated) ere too analogous situations reeat theselves but they are corehended in the light of the characteand the unity of the work newly to be created

The Roantic iulse led to an nstinctive recognition of thesueriority of the for of association characteristic of theworksho It ehasied that great daage had been done




to the atic art by the acaemie or to ay the eat thatcreatie art eite reay not becae bt in ite of acaemieEery moement ich in a reate manner tene to hae

oitica or oaitic eagogy in the ame attern aiee ith aarm In thi e too inteectaim n acomenatory force in Romanticim The acenancy of thiRomantic crrent ha in fact achiee ractica ret ina fe e ch a eg in the craftor to take a ery erenthere in nrer choo an kinergarten It fon accetancein a thoe here of ife in hich inteectim not a aninherent neceity ariing ot of the fact of the itation bt

rather becae of a mere formaexanionitic rge iacethe coaboratie form of reationhi of the orkho hich

ha originay gron Bt the Romantic tren reache itimit hereer ytematic knoege i an inienabe rereiite of moern ife The more aance the ee of trainingan the more comex the form of artitic orkmanhi themore etionabe oe the e of orkho metho becomeeen thogh on thee higher ee of actiity a great many

excee may be acribe to a neee oerrationaization(e note here an at trctra anaogy ith the henomenonof oerrationaization an oerbreacratization of caitaiticenterrie ) Th e are abe reciey to ene the imitbeyon hich the Romantic contercrrent i no onger tieThe acaemic intittionaization of intrction in the cae ofarchitect for intance i not to be attribte exciey tothe exaggerate inteectaim of or age bt to the facta

conition of the comexity of the technica knoege that ieentia an mt be matere Frtermore it i eentiato recognize that he exitence an the ominance of or inteectaim i not itef an inteectay remeiate an contriehenomenon bt ha arien natay from the organic conitionf the tota roce of ocia eeoment Hence it i not ortak to rie inteectaim from the ace here it actayf an organic nee that ha arien in recent time bt rathermerey from thoe here in hich e to it inner formarge for exanion it tene to ay intellectaitic methoseen here more ontaneos an irect aroaches are toayti eectie The rey technica reirement of engineringcan no onger be taght in orkho It i ite oibe hoeer here e ea ith creatie me hoe form i ti inroce of groth to a thoe more iing form of coaboratie



62 IEOLOG AN UTOIA

eucatonal assocaton hch are esgne to aaken nteresan transmt nsght

A soluton s no longer to be oun n one or the other extreme

bt ony on the bass o a ealstc meaton betee the varousconctng currents o our tme hch reures that e seek toscover exactly n each concrete case to hat extent naccor th the artcular subectmatter the systematzngan to hat extent the ersonal eucatonal roceure s tobe use.

What has been sa here about the teachng o the arts ales mai ma n a very large egree to oltcs.

Htherto oltcs as an art as been taught an transmtteonly ncetally as occason arose .oltcal knolege an skll have thus ar lays been

asse on n an normal an sasmoc ashon. The hanngon o the seccally oltcal has been let to chance occasonshat the stuo has meant to creatve art an the orkshopto the hancrats the socal orm o the club has meant tlberalbourgeos oltcs. The club s a secc orm o human

assocaton hch eveloe ute unntentonally as a sutablemeum or socal selecton along arty lnes as a bass orachevng a oltcal career as ell as or the cultvaton ocollectve nterests. The ecular socologcal structure o theclub s the ey to the unerstanng o the most sgncant ormso rect an normal transmsson o oltcal knolegegrong out o the nterest o those concerne But n ths caseas n the arts e note that the more orgnal an sontaneous

orms o learnng an tranng hch rest uon chance occasonsdo not suce. Our resentay orl s much too comlcatean every ecson even t s to be base only n art uon thenolege an tranng mae ossble by resent oortuntesreures too much secalze knolege an too broa a ersectve to ermt the kn o knolege an skll hch has beenacur by casual assocaton to suce n the log run The neeor systematc tranng alreay tens an n the uture llen even more stongly toars the necessty o gvng to thasrng oltcan or ournalst a secalze tranng. Onhe other han there s the anger that ths secalze tranngll overloo the esentally poltcal element. urelyncycloc knolege hch oes not emhasze actualonuct ll not be o much use At the same tme a roblemll arse nee t has alreay arsen or those o broaer



PROSPECTS OF SCENTIFIC POLITICS 163

visin, nmey s te trining f iticins be eft witutfurter t rty scs ?

In tis resect, rty scs ve certin vntge :

te incuctin f te vues, crresning t certin interests,tkes ce mst utmticy n ermetes te subectmtter n every eve f resenttin Te tmsere f tecub wic curs t interest te mebers s uite unwittingycrrie ver int reserc n tecing Te re uestin isweter tis frm f itic euctin is te ny esirbene, fr, un cser emintin, it turns ut t be n mre tnte cutivtin f given set f vues n ersectives, wic

re ictte by te rti int f view f given sci nitic strtum

But su tere nt n cu tere nt be frm f iticeuctin wic resuses retivey fre cice mngterntives, wic is n su becme t n even greteregree te funtin f te mern inteectu strtum ?Wu we nt, witut furter , be giving u signicntcievement f Euren istry recisey in te critic

mment wen rty mcinery tretens t verwem usif we i nt mke te ttemt t strengten tse tenencieswc enbe us t mke ecisins n te bsis f rir ttrienttin ? Cn interests be ruse ny by mens finctrntn ? Are nt interests wic ve been subectet n ve risen ut f criticism s interests, n ers ier tye r frm f interest wic su nt be renuncedwitut cnsierbe reectin ?

One su nt w esef t be ctivte by te imitectrin wr, te termingy n utk f te etremistgrus One must nt ssume tt ny incucte interests reinterests, n tt ny revutinry r cunterrevutinryctin is truy ctin Here bt te etreme wings f te iticmvement insist n imsing teir nesied cncetin rctice un us n tereby cnce wt is rbemticust it be ssume tt ny tt is tics wic is rertinfr n insurrectin ? Is nt te cntinu trnsfrmtin fcnitins n men s ctin ? Te signicnce f te revutinry ses cn be unerst rm te stnpint f te we,but even wen tey re s unerst tey re ny rtifunctin in te tt sci rcess Is it t be ssume tt tereis n tritin n frm f euctin crresning t reciseytse interests seeking t estbis ynmic euiibrium, nd



16 IEOLOG AN TOPIA

hih are oriened o he hole Would it no be in the rueineres of the hole o se up more entres from hih radiaehose poliial ineress imbued ith he vialiy of a ritial

point of vie Tee eiss the need for he kind of politial eduation inhih the hisorial legal and eonomi subetmatter requisito suh rtial orienaion the obetive ehnique of massdominaion an the formaion and ontrol of publi opinionan be augh Suh an eduaion should also take aount ofhe fa tha here are spheres in hih neress are unavoidablybound up ih insigh. Wha is more he subemaer elaing

to these spheres should be presened in a manner hih presupposes hat e are dealing ih people ho are sill searhingfor soluions and ho have no ye arrived at nal deisionsAnd as a resul it ill be possible o deermine here he olderforms o formalheoreial eduaional assoiaion and hrehe more living tyes of poliial assoiaion hih are orienedtoards aion are appliable

Thus i seems erain ha he inerelaions in he speially

polial sphee an be undersood only in he ourse of disussionthe paes to hih represen rea fores in soial life. There isno doub for eample ha in order o develop he apaiyfor aive orientaion he eahing proedure mus onenraeon evens ha are immediae and aual and in hih he sudenthas an opporuniy to pariipate. There is no more avourableopporuniy for gaining insight ino he peuliar sruure ofhe realm o politis han by grappling ith ones opponents

abou he mos vial and immediate issues beause on suhoasions ontraditry fores and poins of vie eising agiven period nd epression

Those ho enoy suh a apaiy for observaion based onaive orientaion ill see hisory dierenly from he maoriyof heir onemporaries. Hisory ill aordingly no longerbe studied only from he poin of vie of he arhivis or moralisHisoriography has already passed from modest hronile andlegend devlopig furher as rheori ork of art and vividpiorial represenaion unil i arrived a a romanti yearningfor immersion in he pas I has already undegone so manytransforma

ons hat oday it an one again undergo

transformaion.These modes of hisorial inerpreation orresponded to he

dominan orienaions ha the respeive epohs had to thei




as Once hs new moe o ace orenaon o le whchseeks o scoer he socologcal srcral relaonshs assesrom olcal le back no he ream o scholarsh he corre

sonng new orm o hsorograhy wll eelo Ths neworm o hsorograhy oes no mly ha he moranceaccore o he sy o he sorces an he ggng n hearches w eclne nor ha oher orms o hsorograhywll cease o exs There are oay nees whch are sll saseby re olcal hsory " an ohes whch call or morhologcal " resenaon B js hose mlses whcharsng o o or resen moe o orenaon o le lea s

o see as eens as a sccesson o changes n he socal srcreare sll n her begnnngs Or resenay orenaon ole canno be comlee nl has arecae s connywh he as When once hs on o ew has esablshesel n e hen he as oo wll become nellgble n helgh o he resen

7 HEE IETIES OF THE OIOLOGY OF KNOWEDGEThs ar we hae no been able o oer a ene solon o

or roblem b hae ha o conen orseles wih ncoerghen nerrelaons an agan calng no qeson sseswhch were seemngly sele Wha wol aal o receereassrng answers concernng olcs as a scence as long asolcal hnkng n no way corresone o hese answers

We ms rs o all nersan ha olcalsorcalhnkng roces a kn o knowlege o s own whch s nore heory b whch neerheless emboes real nsghLkewse ms be recognze ha olcalhsorcal knowleges always aral an sees hngs only rom ran ersecesha arses n connecon wh collece gro neress aneelos n close conac wh hese b ha neerheless oes oer a ew o realy as seen rom a secc angle Forhs reason we hae mae a eale hsorcalsocologcal analysso he ormlaon o he roblem whch was nene o showha he namenal qeson o he relaon beween heoryan racce are n accorance wh wheher was seen roma breacrac hsorsc lberal socalcommns or ascsangle In orer o arecae he eclar nare o olcalhogh s necessary o hae grase he sncon beweenknowlege whch s orene owars acon an knowlege whch







168 IEOLOG AN TOPIA

shoud tun out to b such a sh it woud b attainab onyby taing account of a th socia uations in thiningwhich a accssib to us.

ai thn at th thid atnati to which w oussa committd. It is th viw that at th oint wh what isoy oitica bgins th auativ mnt cannot asiyb saatd out at ast not in th sam dg as is ossibin foma socioogica thining and oth sots of uy fomaizingnowdg. This osition wi insist that th vountaistic mnthas an ssntia signicanc fo nowdg in th oitica andhistoica sh o vn though in th cous of histoy

w may obsv a gadua sctio of catgois which moand mo acui vaidity fo al atis. Nonthss thoughth is a ssus x p 1 o an incasingy boad statumof nowdg which is vaid fo a atis w shoud not aowousvs to b misd by this o to ovoo th fact that atvy givn histoica oint in tim th is a substantia amountof nowdg which is accssib to us ony sn in sociasctiv But sinc w do not as yt i in a iod f

fom munan toubs and byond histoy ou ob isnot how to da with a ind of nowdg which sha b tuthin itsf but ath how man das with his obms of nowingbound as h is in his nowdg by his osition in tim andsocity If w adocat a comhnsi viw of that which isnot yt synthsizab into a systm w do this bcaus wgad it as th ati otimum ossibiity in ou sntsituation and bcaus in so doing w biv as is aways th

cas in histoy w a taing th ncssay sts aatoyto th nxt synthsis But having statd this soution to thobm w shoud b ady to add at onc that th disositionto achiv a synthsis fom th most comhnsiv and mostogssiv oint of viw aso has imicit in it a io jugmntnamy ou dcision to aiv at a dynamic intctua mdiationCtainy w woud b th ast to dny that w hav mad thisvauudgmnt. Indd it is ou main thsis that oiticanowdg as ong as oitics confoms to th dnition viousymad is imossib without som such dcision and that thisdcision in favou of dynamic intctua mdiation must bsn as an mnt in th tota situation. But it mas a good

Cf or urther details the papr presented by the author n 1928at Zrih ( Die onurrenz im Gebiete des Geistien ) in whih thereis a disussion o the nature and enesis o e post consensual nowlede



PROSPETS OF SIENTIFI POITIS 169

ea of erence wheher hs prespposon nences onespon of vew nconscosy an navey (whch w hner afnamena enargemen of or perspecve) or wheher

appears ony aer everyhng of whch we can become awarean whch we areay know has enere no or eberaonsThe very qnessence of pocal knowege seems o s o

le n he fac ha ncrease knowege oes no elmnaeecsons b ony forces hem farher an farher back Bwha we gan hrogh hs rerea from ecsons s an expansonof or horon an a greaer nelecal masery of or woronseqenly we may expec from he avances n socoogcal

research no eoogy a nerreaons of soca posonmoves an pons of vew whch have hhero been onlyparaly known w now become more an more rasparenThs w enabe s as we have areay ncae o calcaemore precsey coecve neress an her corresponng moesof hogh an o prec approxmaey he eoogca reaconsof he eren soca sraa

The fac ha he socology of knowege gves s a ceran

fonaon oes no free s from he responsby of arvnga ecsons I oes however enarge he e of vson whnhe ms of whch ecsons ms be mae Those who feaha an ncrease knowge of he eermnng facors whchener no he formaon of her ecsons wl hreaen her freeom " may res n peace Acaly s he one who sgnoran of he sgncan eermnng facors an who acsner he mmeae pressre of eermnans nknown o hmwho s eas free an mos horoghly preeemne n hsconc Wenever we become aware of a eermnan whchhas omnae s we remove from he realm of nconscosmovaon no ha of he conroabe cacable anobece hoce an ecson are hereby no emnae ;on he conrary moves whch prevosy omnae s becomesbec o or omnaon we are more an more hrown back

pon or re sef an whereas formery we were he servansof necessy we now n possbe o ne conscosly whforces wh whch we are n horogh agreemen

Increasng awareness of prevosly nconrole facors anhe enency o sspen mmeae gmens n he aresen n a broaer conex appears o be he prncpal ren nhe eveopmen of polca knowege Ths corresons ohe fac menone earler ha he sphere of he raonaable



170 IEOOG AN UTOPIA

and of the rationay controabe even in or mot eronallife) i away growing, whie the here of the irrationa becomescorreondigy narrower We ha not dic here whether

ch a deveoment wi ltimately lead to a fy rationaizedword in hich irrationaity and evalation can no longer exitor whether it wi ead to the ceation of ocial determinatioin the ene of freedom throgh a comete awarene of al theocial factor invoved Thi i a toian and remote oibilityand i therefore not bject to cientc analyi

However, thi mch may be safey aerted olitic asoitic i oibe only a long a the realm of the irrational t

exit where it diaear, adminitration take it lace Frthermore, it may be tated that the eciar natre ooitica knowedge, a contrated with the exact cience, ariesot of the inearabiity, in thi realm, of knowedge from interetand motivation In oitic the rationa eement i inherentlintertwned wth the irratioal ; and, naly, there i a tendencto eliminate the irrational from the realm of the ocial, and incloe connection therewith, there ret a heightened awarenes

of factor which have hitherto dominated nconciolyIn the hitory of mankind thi i reected in man origina

accetance of ocial condition a nalterabe detiny in the amway that we hal robaby away have to accet ch natraand inevitabe limitation a birth and death Together withthi otook ther went an ethical rinciethe ethic offatalim, te main tenet of which wa bmiion to higher andincrtabe ower The rt break in thi fataitic otook

occrred in the emergence of the ethic of concience in whichman et hi ef ove againt the detiny inherent in the corof ocial event He reerved hi eronal freedom, on the onand in the ene of retainng the abiity throgh hi owaction to et new caa eence going in the world (eventhogh he renonced the abiity of controling th coneencesof thee act) and on the other hand, throgh the beief in thindeterminatene of hi own deciion

Or own time eem to rereent a third tage in thi develoment the word of ocia reation i no onger incrtabe oin the la of fate bt, on the contrary, ome ocia interreationsare otentiay redictabe At thi oint the ethical rincilof reoniblity begin to dawn It chief imerative are, rtthat action hold not ony be in accord with the dictate oconcience, bt hod take into conideration the oibe



POPECT OF CIETIFIC POITIC 7

cnseences f the actin in s far as they are cacae ansecn hich can e ae n the asis f r reis iscssin,that cnscience itsef sh e secte t critica sef

examinatin in rer t eiminate a the iny an cmsieyera ting factrs.Max Weer has frnishe the rst accetae frmatin

of this cncetin of itics His ieas an researches reectthe stage in ethics an itics in hich in fate seems t eat east artiay in the crse f isaearance in the sciarcess an the nege f eerything nae emesthe igatin f the acting ersn It is at this int if at any

that itics can ecme a science since n the ne han thestrctre f the histrica ream, hich is t e cntre, hasecme transarent an n the thr han t f the ne ethicsa int f ie emerges hich regars nege nt as a assiecntematin t as critica sefexaminatin an in this sensereares the ra fr itica actin





V THE TOPAN MENTALT

1 . TOPIA EOLOGY, AN THE ROBLEM OF EALITY

A state of mind is utoian when it is incongruous with thestate of reality within which it occurs

This incongruence is always evident in the fact that such

a state of mind n eerience, in thought, and in ractie, isoriented towards objects which do not exist in the actual situation.However, we should not regard as utoian every stte of mindwhich is incongruous with and transcends the immediate situation(and in this sense, dearts from reality ") . Only those orientations transcending reality will be referred to by us as utoianwhich, when they ass over into conduct, tend to shater, eitherartially or wholly, the order of things evailing at the tie

n limiting the meaning of the term utoia " to that tyeof orientation which transcends reality and which at the sametime breaks the bonds of the existing order, a distinction isset u between the utoian and the ideological states of mindOne can orient himself to objects that are alien o eality andwhich transcend actual existenceand nevertheless still beeective in the realization and the maintenance of the eistingorder of things n the course of history, man has occuiedhimself more frequently with objects transcending his scoeof existence than with those immanent in his existence and,desite this, actual and concrete forms of social life have beenbuilt uon the basis of such ideoogical sates of mind whichwere incongruent with reality Such an incongruent orientationbecame utoian only when in addition it tended to burst thebonds of the eisting order Consequently reresentatives ofa given order have not in all cases taken a hostile attiudetowards orienta ions transcending the existing order Ratherthey have always aimed to control those situationally transcendent ideas and interests which are not realizable within thebounds of the resent order, and thereby to render them sociallyimotent, so that such ideas would be conned to a world beyondhistory and society, where they could not aect the saus u

Every eriod in history has contained ideas transcending

173



174 IEL AN PIA

the eisting rer bt these i nt nctin as tias theyer rather the arriate iegies this stage eistenceas ng as the ere rganicay " an harmnisy integrate

int the rie characeristic the eri (ie i nter retinary ssibiities As ng as the cericay aneay rganize meiea rer as abe t cate its araisetsie sciety in sme therr shere hich transcenehistry an e its retinary ege the iea araiseas sti an integra art meiea sciety Nt nti certinscia grs embie these ishimages int their actacnct an trie t reaize them i these iegies becme

tian I r the mment e Lanaers termingyan in cnscis sitin t the sa enitin ca eeryacta eisting an nging scia rer a tia " (rm ther n·s then these ishimages hich tae n a retinarynctin i becme tias

It is cear that a enite cncetin eistence an acrresning cncetin the transcenence eistenceneries the abe istinctin his assmtin mst be

thrghy inestigate bere rceeing arther he natre reaity r eistence as sch " is a rbem hich bengst hishy an is n ncern here Heer hat ist be regare as re istricay r scigicay at a gientime s imrtance t s an rtnatey can be eniteyascertine Inasmch as man is a creatre iing rimariy ihistry an ciety the eistence that srrns him is neer eistece as sch " b is aays a cncrete histrica rm

scia eistence Fr the scigist t t eistence is thathich is cncretey eectie i e a nctining scia rerhich es nt eist ny in the imagiatin certain iniialsbt accring t ich e reay act

Eery cncretey erating rer ie " is t be cnceiean charcterize mst ceary by means the articarecnmica an itica strctre n hich it is base Bt tembraces als a tse rms hman iingtgether "(secic rms e sciabiity cnict etc) hich thestrctre maes ssibe r reires an as a thse mesan rms eerience an thght hich are chaacteristic this scial system an are cnseenty cngrs ith it(Fr the resent statement the rbem this i be scienty

andaue G De Reolton vol 3 of the seies De Gesellschfed. by atin Bube (Fankfutamain 1923).



THE TOPIAN MENTALIT 175

recie It i nt t be enie that if he int f iew frm whichthe aai i mae were ree rther there wu be muchmre t be exaine The extent t which a cncet exain

mething can neer be abute it awa kee te withhe exanin an intenicatin f inight int the ttatructure ) But ever actua eraing rer f ife i ahe ame time enmehe b cncetin which are t be eignatea < rancenent r unrea bcaue thei cntent canneer be reaie in the cietie in which the ext an becauene cu nt ive an act accing t them within the imitf the exiting cia rer

In a wr a the iea which nt t int the urrenrer are ituatina trancenent r unrea Iea whichcrren t the cncrete exiting an e fa rer areeignae a aeuate an ituatina cngru Theeare reative rare an n a tate f min that ha beencigica fu carie eate with ituatina cngruuiea an mtie Cntrate with ituatin a cngruuan aeuate iea are the tw main ategrie f iea which

rancen the ituatiniegie an utiaIegie are the tutina trancenent iea which

never uccee e fa in the reaiatin f teir recte cntentThgh the ften becme the gintentine mtive fr teubtie cnuct f the iniviua when the ae actuaembie in ractice their meaning are mt freuntitrte The iea f Chritian brther e fr intance in aciet fune n erfm remain an unreaiabe an in thiene iegica iea even when the intene meaning i in gfaith a mtive in the cnuct f the iniiua T ive cnitent in the igh f Chritian brther e in a cietywhich i nt rganie n the ame rincie i imibe Theniviua in hi era cnuct i awa cmeein fara he e nt rert t breaking u the exiting cia tructuret fa hrt f hi wn nbe mtive

The fact that thi iegica etermine cnuct awafa ht f it intene meaning ma reent itef in everafrman crrening t thee frm there i a whe eief ibe te f iegica mentait A the rt te thi erie we ma regar the cae in which the cnceiving anhinking ubect i revente frm becming aware f theincngruence f h iea with reait b the whe b axim invve in hi hitrica an cia etermine



176 IEOLOG AN TOPIA

h As a secn e f ieica menaiy e mayresen he can menaiy hic is charcerize by heac h hisricay i has he sibiiy f ncveri he

incnence beeen is ieas an is cnc b inseacnceas hese insihs in resnse cerin viaeminainers As na ye hee is he ieica menaiy bsn cnscis ecein here iy is be inerree sa rsefl ie. n is case e e n ean ih sefesinb rher ih ref ecein f nher. There is aneess nbr f ransiina ses ranin a he a frminenine siainy nseen meaiy hrh

an mentaiy " iey in he sense f cnscis ies.ih hese henmena e nee n ccy rsevs frhera his in. I is necessry here ca aenin each fhese yes hever in rr cnceive me ceary n hiscnnecin he eciriy f he in eemen.

ias ranscen he scia siai fr hey rien cnc rs eemens hich he siin in s fr asi is reaize a he ime es n cnain. B hey are n

ieies i.e hey are n ieies in e mesre an ins far as hey sccee hrh cneraciviy in ransfrminhe eisin hisrica reiy in ne mre n acc ih heirn cnceins. T an bserver h hs a reaivey exernavie f hem his heeic an cmeey frm isincinbeeen is an ieies seems er ie icy.T eemine cncreey hever a in a ien case isieical an h in is exremey ic . We re cn

frne here ih he aicain f a cnce invvin vaesan snars T carry i ne ms necessriy aiciaein he feeins an mives f he aries srin fr minancever hisrica reaiy

Wha in a iven cse aears as ian an ha asieia s eenen esseniay n he sae an eee reaiy hich ne ies his sanar. I is cer ha hsesci sa hich reresen he revaiin scia an ineeca

rer i eerience as reaiy ha srcre f reinshisf hich hey re e bearers hie he rs riven in siin he resen rer i be riene ars he rs sirrinsf he scia re fr hich hey are srivin an hich is beinreaize hrh hem. The reresenaives f a iven reri abe as ian a cnceins f exisence hich m th

Fo futhe details f Pat Ideoloy and Utopia



THE UTOPIAN MENTALITY 177

pin f view can in principle never be realized According to thisusage, the contemporary connotation of the term utopian is predominantly that of an iea which is in principle unrealizable

e have consciously set apart this meaning of the term fromthe narrower denition.) Among ideas which transcend the situation there are, certainly, some which in principle can never berealized Nevertheless, men whose thoughts and eelings arebound up wth an order of existence in which they have a deniteposition will always eidence the tendency to designate as absolutely utopian all ideas which have been shown to be unrealiableonly within the ramework of the order in which they themselves

live In the following pages, whenever we speak of utopia weuse the term merely in the relative sense, meaning thereby atopia which seems to be unrealizable only from the point oview of a given social order which is already in existence

The very attempt to determine the meaning of te concept utopia " shows to what extent every denition in historicalthinking depends necessarily upon one's perspective, ie itcontains within itsel the whole system of thoght representing

the position o the thinker in question and especially the politicalevalations which lie behind this system of thought he veryway in which a concept is dened and the nance in which it isemoyed already embody to a certain degree a predgmentconcerning the outcome of the chain of ideas buit upon itIt is no accident that an oberver who consciously or unconsciosy has taken a stand in avour o the existin and prevailingsocial order should have such a broad and ndierentiatedconception o the utopian i e one which blrs te distinctionbetween absolute and reative un realizability From this posiion,it is practical impossible to transcend th limits o the sausq his reluctance to transcend the saus qu tends towrdsthe view of regarding something that is unrelizable mereyin th given order as completely unrealizable in any order, sothat by obscring these distinctions one can suppress thevaidity of te claims of the relative topia y calling everythingutopian that goes beyond the present existing order, one sets atrest the anxiety that miht rise from the relative utopis thatare realizabl in another order

At the other extreme is the anarchist, G. Landauer (Dieeln pp 7 ), who regards the existing order as oneundierentiated whole, and who, by according esteem only toreolution and topia, sees in every topia the present existing



17 EOOG AN UTOPA

orer) evi itse ust as the representatives of an existing orei not ierentiate between th varieties of utopia (enabingus to speak of a utopia-binness) so the anrchis may be accuse

of binness to the existing orer e perceive in Lanauewat is characteristic of a anarchists, namey the antithesibetween the authoritarian an the ibertarian " a contraswhich simpies everything an burs a partia ierenceswhich umps together as authoritarian everything ranging fromthe poicestate through the emocratic-repubican to the sociaistic state, whie ony narchism is regare as ibertarian Thesame tenency towars simpication is aso operative in the way

history is picture This crue ichotomy obscures the unoubtequaitative ierences in the iniviua forms of the stateSimiary, by aying the evauative emphasis on utopia an revoution, the possibiiy of notng any kin of evoutionary trenin the ream of the historica an institutiona is obscure Fromthis point of view every historica event is an everreneweeiverance from a topia (existing orer) by a utopia, whicharises out of it Ony in utopia an revoution is there true

ife, the institutiona orer is aways ony the evi resiue whichremains from ebbing utopias an revoutions Hence, the roa ofhistory eas from one topia over a utopia to the next topia, ec

The onesieness of this view of the wor an conceptuastructure is too obvious to require further eaboration tsmerit, however, is that in opposition to the conservative outook which speaks for the estabishe orer, it prevents theexisting orer from becoming absoute, in that it envisages it a

on one of the possibe topias from which emanatethose utopian eements which in their turn wi unerminethe existing orer. is thus cear that in orer to n the correctconcepion of utopia, or more moesty, the one most aequatefor our present stage of thiking, the anaysis base on thesocioogy of knowege mus be empoye to set the one-sienesses of those iniviua positions over against one anothean to eiminate them This wi make it cear precisey wherein

the particuarity of the previous oncptios consists No untithis groun has been ceare is i possibe on the basis of onesown jugment o arrive at a more incusive soution, whicovercomes the one-sienesses hat have become apparentThe conception of utopia which we have ue above sems inthis sense to be the mos incusive t trive to take accounof the ynamic character of reaity inasmuch as it assume not a



THE TOPIAN MENTAIT 179

eit s such s its oint of etue but the concetehistoic n socill etemine eit which is in constntocess of chnge (cf 8 n 1 11 footnote 1) . It ooses

futhe to ie t uitie histoic n socilieentite concetion of utoi n n to kee istinctthe etie n bsoute utoin

Al this hens in the lst nsis becuse it is ou intention not to estbish ue bstct n theoetic somesot of bit etionshi between existence n utoibt the if ossibe to o justice to the concete funess of thehistoic n soci tnsfomtion of utoi in gien eio

Futhemoe we o this becuse we not onl seek to iew cotemtie n to escibe mohoogicl this tnsfomtionof fom n the concetion of utoi but so becuse we wishto singe out the liing incie which links the eeloment ofutoi with the eeoment of n existing oe In this sensethe etionshi between utoi n the existing oe tuns outto be iectic one B this is ment tht ee ge owsto ise (in ieentl octe soci gous) those ies n ues

in which e contine in conense fo th uneize n theunfue tenencies which eesent the nees of ech gThese inteectu eements then become te exosie mteifo busting the limits of the existing oe The existing oegies bith to utois which in tun bek the bons of theexistng oe leing it fee to eeo in te iection of thenext oe of existence This iectic etionshi wse w te b the Hegein osen though in fomn inteectuistic fshion His enition m see fo theimin cliction of this iecticl sect He witss follows

§ 77 A moement in the histoic wo goes on in this w

Thought which is the iel countet of things s the eexist eeos itsef s things ought to be

§ 78 Toughts consttute the citicism of tht which is n et

is not s it shoul be Insmuch s the m bing conitionsto thei ee then boen out n hen themseles into

Droysen T. G O tl th Prcp Htr tr by Benaminndrews Boston 893 pp 5



180 IEOLOGY AN UTOPIA

accord with custom, conservatism, and obstinacy, new criticismis demanded, and thus on and on

79 That out of the aready given conditions, new thoughtsarise and out of the thoughts new conditionstis is the workof men

This formuation of diaectica rogression, of the situation,and of the contradictions to be found in the ream of thoughtshoud be regarded as nothing more than a forma outine The

rea robem ies in tracing te concrete interay of the dierentiated forms of socia eistence with the corresonding dierentiations in utoias As a resut, the robems raised become moresystematic and more incusive in so far as they reect the richnessand variety of history The most immediate robem of researchis to bring the concetua system and emirica reaity intocoser contact with one another

The observation may be made here that in genera the con

cetua framework of rogressive arties is more suitabe forsystematic studyinasmuch as their socia osition oers thegreater ossibiity for systematic thought Historica concetsemhasiing the uniueness of events, on the other hand, aremore likey to be the roduct of the conservative eements insociety At east there can be no doubt as to the correctnessof this imutation for the eoch in which the idea of historicauniueness, as over against generaiation, arose

Acordigy we may eect that the historian wi critcieour denition of utoia as too much of an arbitrary constructionecause, on the one hand, it has not conned itsef to the tyeof works which got their name from the Upa of Thomas More,and on the other because it incudes much whic is unreatedto this historica oint of dearture

Ths objection rests uon the historians assumtion that(a his soe task is the resentation of historica henomena in

a te concrete uniueness in which they resent themseves and that ) he therefore shoud work ony with descritive concets, i .e. concets which from a stematic standoint are not sorigidy dened as to revent them from doing ustice to theuid character of the henomena Therefore, events are to begroued and cassied not on the basis of a rncie of

For he causes f my Ds onsevtive Denken lo it pp 83



THE UTOPIAN MENALITY 181

smlaty, but rathe as phenomena whose elatonsp s dscoveable (through dscenbe maks) as pats of the unquehstocal stuaton. I t s clear that whoeve appoaches the

study of hstoca eaty wth such pesuppostons obstucts,by means of hs conceptua appaatus hs oad to systematcnvestgaton If t be conceded that hstoy s moe than amatte of concreteness and ndvdualty, and that t has somestuctua oganzaton and even to a cetan extent folows aws(a supposton whch must be kept open as one of the possbts),how could these factors be dscovered wth such nave concepts, whch efer only to hstoca unqueness ? Such an

hstorcally nave concept woud be, for example, that of utopa " n so fa as n ts technca hstocal use t compsedstuctures whch n the concrete ae smar to the Upa ofThomas Moe, or whch n a somewhat boade hstocal senserefer to deal commonwaths ". It s not ou ntenton todeny the utty of such ndvdually descptve concepts aslong as the objectve s the comprehenson of the ndvdualeements n hstoy We do deny, however, that ths s the ony

appoach to hsorca phenomena he hstoans cam thnthat hstoy n and fo tsef s just such a chan of unque pheno-mena does not stand as an agument aganst ou statementHow could hstoy be anythng bette when, wth the verystatement of the poblem and the fomulaton of concepts thpossblty of avng at any othe answe s aleady closed ?hen concepts whch ae not desgned to evea stuctuesae apped to hstoy how can we hope to demonstate hs

toca structues by means of them ? If ou questons do notantcpate a certan type of theoetca answe, how can wehope to eceve t ? (hs s a repetton on a hghe eve o thepocedue we had an oppotunty to observe ealer n the caseof conservatves and anachsts : the possblty of a cetanundesable answe s aleady bocked hough the manne n whchthe poblem s staed and thogh the fomulaton of conceptso be appled Cf pp 1761 78 )

Snce the queston we addess to hstoy s n ts vey naturedesgned to sove the pobem whethe thee ae not deas as ytunreazed n eaty whch tanscend a gven eaty thesephenomena may b stated as a pobemcomplex n the fom of aconcept It would be n orde, theefoe, to ase the questonwhether ts concept can be lnked to the meanng of the tem utopa " The queston permts a twofod answe n so far




s we dene the term utopi shll signify such nd suchno one cn object to our procedure becuse we dmit tht thedenition is designed only for certin purposes M Weber

sw his perfectly) When however in ddition we ink such denition with the historiclly evolved connottion of theterm it is done with the purpose f showin the elementswhich we hve emphsied in our conception of utopi re lredypresent in the utopis s they hve ppered in history On thtccount we re of the opinion tht our bstrct concepts renot just rbitrry nd wilful intellectul constructions but hvetheir roots in empiricl relity The concepts which we hve

creted eist not merely for purposes of specultion but tosist in reconstructing structurl forces which re presentin relity though not lwys obvious A constructive bstrtion is not the sme s specultion where we never get beyndthe conept nd eection bout it Constructive bstrctionis prerequisite for empiricl investigtion which if it fullsthe nticiptions implicit in the concept or more simply if itsupplies evidence for the corectness of the construct gives

to the ltter the dignity of reconstructionIn generl the ntithesis of historicl proedure nd systemticconstruction must be used nly with the utmost cution Inthe preliminry stges of the development of n ide it myindeed id somewht in clriction When in the course of thehistoricl development of this ntitesis Rnkes ides cme tothe fore good mny dierences were provsionlly clered up bycontrsting these two procedures For emple Rnke himself

ws thereby ble to clrify his dierences with Hegel If outof this contrst we mke n ultimte ntithesis nd n bsoluteopposition which crries us beyond historicl development ndthe immnent structure of the phenomen but which is legitimtend useful only s the rst step in the development of n idethe result will be tht s hppens so often we shll be guiltyof mking n bsolute out of wht is merely prticulr stgein the unfolding of n ide Here too bsolutism blocks the wy

to the synthesis of the systemtic nd historicl pprochesnd obstructs the comprehension of the totl sitution!

1 Conein the pratial daners of historial oneptualization f CShmitt s ritiism of eineke Cal Shmitt Zu Fiedriheinekesder Sttsrsn A rch fr Szlwsseschft und Szlpltk (1926) lvipp 226 It is to be reretted that the problemati issues arisin outof the ontroversy between these two typial representatives of theirespetie points of view has not been further elaborated the literature




cause te concete deemnaton of wat s utopan poceedsawas fom a cean sage of exstence t s posse tat teuopas of oda ma ecome te eates of tomoow

Uopas ae ofen on pematue tuts Les pies nes suve e es veris praures " Lamatne). Weneean dea s aeed uopan t s usua a epesentate of aepoch a as aead passed. On te ote hand te exposueof deooges as uso deas adapted to te peset odes e ok genea of epesentates of an ode of exstencewc s s pocess of emegence. It s awas he domnantgoup wc s n fu accod t te exstng ode tat dete-

mnes what s to e egaded as uopan we te ascendantgoup wc s n conct t tngs as te ae s te one tatdetemnes what s egaded as deoogca. St anote dcun denng pecse wat at a gen peod s o e egaded asdeoog and wa as utopa esuts fom e fac ta te utopanand deoogca eemens do not occu sepaate te stocapocess. e· utopas of ascendat casses ae often to a ageextent pemeated w deoogca eemets.

e utopa of te ascendent ougeose as te dea of fee-dom ". I was n pa a ea utopa e. t contaned eemesoented towads te eazato of a new soca de whcwee nsumenta n dsntegang the peous exstng odeand wc afte te eazaon dd n pt ecome tansatedno eat. Feedom n te sense of sng asunde e ondsof te statc gud and case ode n te sense of feedom oftougt and opnon n te sense of potca feedom and

feedom of e unampeed deeopment of te pesonatecame to a age extent o at east to a geate extent tann te pecedng sausound feuda soce a eaaeposst Toda we know just een tese utopas ecameeates and to wat exte te dea of feedom of tat tmecontaned not mee utopan ut aso deoogca eemens.

Weee e dea of feedom had to make concessons o econcomtant dea of equat t as settng up goas wc een contadcton to e soca ode wc t demanded and wchwas ate eazed. Te sepaaton of e deoogca eementsn te domnant ouges mentat fom ose capae of

s reards the problem of the relation between history and systematization cf. for recent statements Sombart W, conomic Theory andconomic History" conomic History Review No. 1 January 1929 echt H Wirtschftsgeschichte nd Wirtschftstheorie (Tbinen 1928)



84 DOOGY AND UTOPIA

subsequent realzaton e the truly utopan elements couldonly be made by a socal stratum that came later upon thesene to challenge the exstng order

All the hazards that we have ponted out as beng nvolvedn a specc denton of what s deologcal an what utoann the mentalty of a gven tme do ndeed make the formulatonof the problem more dcult but do not preclude ts nvestga-ton I t s only as long as we nd ourselves n the very mdstof mutualy conctng deas that t s extremely dcult todetermne what s to be regarded as truly utopan (e realzablen the future n the outlook of a rsng class and what s to be

regarded as merely the deoogy of domnant as wel as ascendantclasses ut f we look nto the past t seems possble to nda farly adequate crteron of what s to be regarded as eologcaland what as utopan Ths crteron s ther realzaton Ideaswhh later turnd out to have been only dstrted representatonsof a past or potental socal order were deologcal whe thosewhch were adequately realzed n the suceedng soal orderwere relatve utopas The actualzed realtes of the past put

an end to the conct of mere opnons about what n earlerstuaton ally transcendent deas was relatvely utopan burstngasunder the bonds of the exstng order and what was an eologywhch merely served to conceal realt The extent to whchdeas are alzed consttutes a suppl�mentary and retroactvestandad for makn dstnctons between facts whch as longas they are contemporary are bured uner the partsn conctof opnon

2. ISHuLFILMEN AN OPIAN ENLIY

Wshful hnkng has always gured n human aars \Venthe magnaton nds no satsfacton n exstng realty t seeksrefuge n wshfully constructed laes and perods Mythsfary tales otherwodly promses of relgon humanstcfantases trvel romances have been contnually changn

expressons of that whch was lackng n atul lfe They weremore nearly compementary coours n the pcture of the realtyexstng at the tme than utopas workng n opposton to thesaus quo and dsnteratng t

Outstanng research n cultural hstory 1 has shown that the

Doren A Wuchrume ud Wucheite (ectures 192-5 of theBibliothek Warbur (eipzi Berlin 1 92) pp. 158 ) This work iscited for future reference as the best uide for the treatment of the problem



HE UOPIAN MENLIY 185

foms of huma yeaigs ca e stated i tems o geeapicipes, ad that i cetai histoica peiods wishfumettakes pace though pojectio ito time whie, i othes, i

poceeds though pojectio ito space I accod with thisdieetiatio, it woud e possie to ca spatia wishes utopias,ad tempoa wishes chiiasms his deitio of cocepts,accodig to the iteests of ctua histoy, aims meey atdesciptive picipes We caot, howeve, accept the distictioetwee spatia ad tempoa wishpojectio as a decisiveciteio fo dietiatig types of ideoogies ad utopiasWe egad as utopia a situatioay tascedet ideas (ot

oy wishpojectios) which i ay way have a tasfomigeect upo the existig histoicasocia ode With this as aiitia step i ou ivestigatio, we ae ed o to a ume ofpoems

Sice i this coectio we ae pimaiy teeted i thedeveopmet of mode ife, ou st task is to discove the poiat which situatioay tascede ideas fo the st time eomeactive, i e ecome foces eadig to the tasfomatio of existig

eaity It woud e we hee to ask which of the situatioaytascedet eemets i the domiat metaity at dieettimes assumed this active fuctio. Fo i huma metatyit is ot aways the same foces, sustaces, o images whichc take o a utopia fuctio, ie the fuctio of ustigthe ods of the existig ode We wi see i what foows thatthe utopia eemet i ou cosciousess is suject to chaesi cotet ad fom he situatio that exists at ay givemomet is costaty eig shatteed y dieet situatio aytascedet factos.

his chage i sustace ad fom of the utopia does ot takepace i a eam which is idepedet of socia ife. It coude show athe, especiay i mode histoica deveopmets,that the successive foms of utopia, i thei egiigs ae iti-matey oud up with give histoica stages of deveopmet, adi each of these with paticua socia stata It happes vey ofte

fom the point of view of cultual histoy and the histoy of ideas. It asocontains an ecellent bblioaphy. In ou wok we cite meely thoseitems which ae not contained in the biblioaphical efeences of Doenswok Doen's essay may be classied as a moti histoy (somewhat inthe manne of iconoaphy on the histoy of at) Fo this pupose histeminoloy ( spatial yeanin " and tempoal yeain ") is especiallysuitable but fo ou own purpose ie the constuction of a socioloicahistoy of the stuctue of moden consciousness it is only of indirecvalue.



86 IDEOOGY ND UTOPI

that the domnant utopa rst arses as the wshfantasy of a snglenddual and does not untl later become ncorporated nto thepoltcal ams of a more ncluse group whch at each successe

stage can be socologcally determned wth more exactnessIn such cases t s customary to speak of a forerunner and of hsrole as a poneer and to attrbute ths ndduals acheement,socologcally to the group to whom he transmtted the sonand n whose behalf he thought through the deas Ths nolesthe assumpton that the x ps fac acceptance of the newew by certan strata only lays bare the mplse and the socalroots of the outlook n whch the forerunner already partcpated

unconscosly and from whch he drew the general tendencyof hs otherwse ndsputably nddual accomplshment Thebelef that the sgncance of nddual create power s to bedened s one of the most wdespread msunderstandngs of thendngs of socology On the contrary, from what should thenew be expected to orgnate f not from the noel and unquelpersonal mnd of the nddual who breaks beyond the boundof the exstng order ? It s the task of socology always to show,

howeer that the rst srrngs of what s new (een thoughthey often take on the form of opposton to the exstng orderare n fact orented towards the exstng order and that the exstngorde tself s rooted n the algnment and tenson of the forceof socal lfe urthermore, what s new n the acheementof the personally unque charsmatc nddual can onlthen be utlzed for the collecte lfe when from the ery begnnng, t s n contact wth some mportant current problem

and when from the start s meanngs are rooted genetallyn collecte purposes We must not, howeer oerestmate thesgncance of the promnence of the nddual n relaton tothe collectty as we hae bee accustomed to do eer snce theRenassance Snce that tme the contrbuton of the ndduamnd stand out relately when set oer aganst the role whch

t played n the Mddle ges or n Orental cultures, but tssgncance s not absolute Een when a seemngly solate

nddual ges form o the utopa of hs group n the naanalyss ths can rghtly be attrbuted to the group to whosecollecte mpulse hs acheement conformed

fter hang clared the relatons between the acheementof the nddual and he group we are n a poston to speakof a derentaton of utopas accordng to hsorcal epochsand soca strata and to ew hstory from ths standpont



HE UOPIAN MENALIY 87

In the sense o ou denton, an eectve utopa cannot nthe long un be the wok o an ndvdual, snce the ndvdualcannot by hmsel tea asund the hstocalsocal stuaton

Only when the utopan concepton o the ndvdual sezes uponcuents aleady pesent n socety and gvs expesson to them,when n ths om t ows back nto the outlook o the wholegoup, and s tanslate nto acton by t, only then can theexstng ode be challengd by the stvng o anothe ode oexstence. Indeed, t may be stated uthe that t s a veyessental eatue o moden hstoy that n the gadual oganzaton o collectve acton socal classes become eectve n tans

omng hstocal ealty only when the aspaton ae embodedn utopas appopate to the changng stuaton.It s only because the exsted a close coelaton between

the deent orms o the utopa and the socal stata whch weetansormng the exstng ode that the changes n modenuopan deas ae a theme o socologcal nvestgaton I wemay speak o soca and hstoca deentatons o utopandeas, then we must ask ouselvs the queston whethe the om

and substance that they have at any gven tme s not to beundestood though a concete analyss o the hstocalsocalposton n whch they aose. In othe wods, the key to thentelgblty o utopas s the stuctua stuaton o that socalstatum whch at any gven tme espouses them.

he peculates o the ndvdual oms o successvelyemegng utopas become n act most nealy ntellgble notmeely by egadng them as a unlnea laton o one om

the oth, but also by takng account o the act that theycame to exstence and mantaned themselvs as mutuallyantagonstc counteutopas he deent oms o the actveutopas have appeaed n ths hstoca successon n conectowth cetan dente socal stata stuggng o ascendancyDespte equent exceptons, ths connecton contnued to exstso that, as tme goes on, t s possbe to speak o a coexstenceo the deent orms o utopa whch at st appeaed n tempoasuccesson. e act that they exst n an ntmate connectonwth sometmes atenty and sometmes openy, mutualyantagonstc stata s eected n the om they take. he changeo otunes o the casses to whch they beong ae constantlyexpessng themseves n the concete vaatons n the om othe utopas. he undamenta act that they must orent themselves to one anothe, though conct even ony n the sens





TE UTOPIAN MENATY 189

themseves in perspective and emphasis in meanng are dstributedand apportioned to individua happenings in accordance wth theundamenta directions in which the personaity strives. It is n

nothing but this meaningu ordering o events etending arbeyond mere chronoogica orderings that the structura prncipe o historica time is to be discovered ut it is necessary to goeven arther ths orderng o meanng is in act the mostprmary eement in the coprehenson and nterpretation oevents. Just as modern psychoogy shows that the whoeGesa is prior to the parts and that our rst understandingo the parts comes through the whoe so it is wth hstorca

undestandng ere too we have he sense o hstorca tmeas a meanngu totaity which ordes events pior to theparts and through this totaity we rst truy understand thetota course o events and our pace in t Just because o thiscentra signicance o the hstorica timesense we wi emphaszeparticuary the connections which eist between each utopiaand the corresponding historica timeperspective

When we reer to certan orms and stages o the utopian

mentaty we have in mind concrete dscovere structureso mentaity as they were to be ound n vng ndivduahuman bengs. We are not thnkng here o some ureyarbtrary constructed unty (ke ant's conscousness assuch or a metaphysca entty whch is to be posited beyondthe concrete mnds o individuas (as in ege's sprt ) .Raher we mean the concretey dscoverabe structures omentaty as they are demonstrbe n ndivdua men Thereorewe wi be concerned ere wth concrete thnkng actng ndeeing and ther inner connections n concrete types o men.The pure types and stages o the utopan mnd are constructonsony in so ar as they are conceived o as ieaypes. No sngeindivdua repesents a pure embodment o any one o thehistorasocia types o mentaty here presented. Rater ineach singe concrete indivdua there were operaive certaineements o a certan type o menta structu oten mxed withother types.

When we proceed then to anayse the iea types o utopianmentates in ther historcasoca derentiatons we do notintend them as epistemooca or metaphysca construtons.They are smpy methodoogca devces. No indvdu mndas it actuay ested ever corresponded competey to the

Cf pp 52 and p 82 o the pesent book




types and their strutural interconnections to be describeEch individual mind i its concreteness however (despite allmixtures) tends to e organized in general along the structural

lines of one of these historically changing types These costructions like Ma Weer's ideal-types, serve simply for hemastery of past ad present complexities. I our case heare intended i addition for the nderstanding ot only ofpschological facts but also for the comprehension i all their purt of the structures which are historically ufoldngand operating i them

3 CHNGES IN TH CONFIGRATION OF THE TOPIANENTAIT : TS TAES IN ODERN IMES

(a he Frs F f he Upian eaiy he giasihilias f he naapiss

Te deisive turning-point in modern history was rom thepon of view of our problem the moment in wich Chiliasm "

joined forces with the active deands of the oppressed strataof society The ver idea of the daw of a millenial kingdom oearth always contained a revolutionizing tedency and the churchmade every eort to paralse this stuationally transcendenidea with all the meas at its commnd. These intermittentlyreviving doctries reappeared again in J oachim of Flores amogothers but in his case they were ot as yet thought of asrevolutionzing. In the Hussites however and the i Thomas

Mnzer 2 and the Anabaptists these ideas became ransformedto the activistic movements of specic social strata Logigs

To te beginnng of a movement at a gven point n te streamof istorical events s always aardos and sgnies a neglect of teforernners of te movement Bt te sccessfl reconstrction of wats most essential in storcal development depends pon te istoransability to gve te proper empasis to tose trnngponts wc aredecisive in te articlation of penomena Te fact tat modern socalsmoften dates ts origins from te tme of te Anabaptsts s in part evdence

tat te movement led by Tomas Mner s to be regarded as a stepin te directon of mode revoltionary movements t is obvos, ofcorse, tat we are not yet dealng ere wt classconscos proletariansSimiarly, it mst be readly granted tat Mner was a social revoltionaryfrom religios motives owever, te sociologist mst pay particlarattention to ts movement, becase n t Clasm and te social revoltonwere strctrally ntegrated _-

f te literatre conc rning

�

nz r,

menton only K. oll, " Lternd de Scwrmer (G samm lt'�?ufzr Kirchngchicht Tbngen,1927 p 20 were a wde range of ctations bearng pon a sngle



HE UOPIAN MENAI 191

which up to that time had been either unattached to a pecicgoal or concentrated upon other-worldly objective uddenlytook on a mundane complexion . hey were now felt to be

realiablehere and nowand infued ocial conduct with aingular zealhe piritualization of politic " , which may be aid to have

begun at thi turn in hitory, more or le aected all the currentof the time. he ource of piritual tenion, however, wa theemergece of the utopian mentality which originated in theoppreed trata of ociety. It i t thi point tht politicin the modern ene of the term begin, if we here undertand

by politic a more or le conciou participation of all trataof ociety in the achievement of ome mundane purpoe, acotrated with a fatalitic acceptance o even a they are, or ofcontrol from above "

he ower clae in the pot-medieval period only verygradually aumed thi motor function in the total ocial proceand only bit by bit did they arrive at an awarene of theirown ocial and political ignicance. Even though thi tagei, a already indicated till very far removed from the tageof proletarian elf-concioune " , it i neverthee thetarting point of the proce gradually leading to it. Henceorththe oppreed clae in ociety tend in a more clearly dicerniblefahion to ply a pecic role in the dynamic development ofthe total ocial proce. From thi time on we get an increaingocial dierentiation of purpoe and pychic attitude

hi by no mean implie that thi mot etreme form of thetopian mentality ha been the only determining factor inhitory ince that time. None the le it preene in the ocialrealm ha exerted an almot continual inuence even uponantithetical mentalitie Even the opponent of thi extreme

problem is admirably assembled n e reerences a ollow, we splycie e passage in oll wio reprining i in deail

For a caraceriaion o Ciliasm, c especially Bloc, . Thomsnzer ls Theologe der Revolion (Mnic, 92 An inner aniy

beween Mner and is aor as made possible a very adeqaeeposiion o essence o e penomenon o Ciliasm Tis as inpar already been correcly evalaed in Doren, op ci

Poliics mig, o corse, be dened in a nmber o ways n iscase again we sold eep in mind a saemen made earlier e deniionis always relaed o is prpose and o e poin o view o e observer.r prpose ere is e racing o e relaionsip beween e ormaiono e collecive consciosness and picl isory, and conseqenlyo deniion, wic selecs crain acs, ms be relaed o is ormlaion o e problem




form of utoan mentalty orented themseles though unwttngly and unconscously wth reference to t The utoanson aroused a contrary son The Chlastc otmsm of

the reolutonares ultmatel gae brth to the formaton ofthe conserate atttude of resgnaton and to the realstcatttude n oltcs

Ths stuaton was of great moment not onl for oltcs butalso for those srtual strngs whch had become fused wthractcal moements and whch had abandoned ther detachednd aloof oston Orgastc energes and ecstatc outburstsbegan to oerate n a worldly settng and tensons reousl

transcendng day to day le became exlose agents wthn tThe mossble ges brth to the ossble and the absolutenterferes wth the world and condtons actual eents Thsfundamental and most radcal form of the moden utoa wasfashoned out of a sngular materal I t corresonded to thesrtual fermentaton and hyscal exctement of the easantsof a stratum lng closest to the earth It was at the sametme robustly materal and hghly srtual

Nothng would be more msleadng than to try to understandthese eents from the ont of ew of the hstry of deas " Ideas " dd not dre these men to reolutonary deeds Theractual outburst was condtoned by ecstatcorgastc energesThe reatytranscendg elements n conscousness wch herewere aroused to an acte utoan functon were not deas " To see eerythng that occurred durng ths erod as the workof deas " s an unconscous dstorton roduced durng the

lberalhumantaran stage of utoan mentalty2 The hstoryof deas was the creaton of an deastruck " age whchnoluntarly renterreted the ast n the lght of ts own centralexerences It was not deas " that melled men durng hePeasant Wars to reolutonary acton Ths eruton had tsroots n much deeerlyng tal and elemental leels of thesyche

If we are to come cose to an understandng of the truesubstance of Clasm and f we are to make t accessble toscent comrehenson t s rst of all necessary to dstngusfrom Chlasm self the mages, symbols and forms n whch

1 Mner imself spoke of te " corage and strengt to realie tempossible For citations, cf oll, p 429

To be discssed in te net section Mner spoke of te " abyss of te spiri wc cold be seen only

wen forces of te sol are laid bare Cf oll, p 42, note 6



THE UTOAN MENTALTY 93

th Chiliastic mind thought For nohr ls is our xrincas valid as hr, that hat is alrad formd, and th xrssion things assum, tnd to bcom dtachd from thir origins

and to go thir on a indndntl of th motivs thatromtd thm Th ssntial fatur of Chiliasm is its tndncalas to dissociat itslf from its on imags and smbolsIt is rcisl bcaus th driving forc of this utoia dos noli in th form of its xtrnal xrssion that a vi of thhnomnon basd uon th mr histor of idas fails to doit justic Such a vi constantl thratns to miss th ssntialoint If us h mthods of th histor of idas, tnd

to ut in lac of th histor of th substanc of Chiliasm thhistor of frams of rfrnc hich hav alrad bn mtidof contnt, i th histor of mr Chiliastic idas as such1Likwis, th invstigation of th carrs of Chiliasticrvolutionaris is at to b mislading, sinc it is of th naturof Chiliastic xrinc to bb in th cours of tim and to undgoan unrmitting transformation in th cours of th rsonsxrinc Hnc, to adhr closl to th thm of invstiga

tion itslf, must sk out a mthod of rsarch hich illgiv a living vi of th matrial and hich ill rsnt it asif r xrincing it ourslvs W must constantl askourslvs hthr th Chiliastic attitud itslf is actuall rsnin th forms of thought and xrinc with hich ar dalingin a givn cas

Th onl tru, rhas th onl dirct, idntifing charactristicof Chiliastic xrinc is absolut rsntnss W alas

occu som hr and no on th satial and tmoral stagbut, from th oint of vi of Chiliastic xrinc, th ositionthat occu is onl incidntal For th ral Chiliast, thrsnt bcoms th brach through hich hat as rviouslinard bursts out suddnl, taks hold of th outr orld andtransforms it

Th mstic livs ithr in rcollction of cstas, or in longingfor it His mtahors dsrib this cstas as a schic situationhich cannot b concivd of in satial and tmoral trms as

n te conct between Mner and Lter tere s evdence of teabovementoned dvergence between emass on te sbstance offat wc can only be eerenced and te " deas wc symbolet Accordng to Mner Lter s one wo beleves eclsvely n teletter of te Scrtres For Mner sc fat s a " stolen, neperencedaps mmcry Ctatons n ll, 427



9 DOOGY AND TOPA

uio it th cosd ord of th byod t is prhps thism sttic substc hich turs ith th Chiist ito timmdiat hr d o, but ot i ordr simpy to dight i

it, but i ordr to hip it up d to mak it a part of himsfThoms Mzr, th Chiistic propt, prssd himsf sfoos or tht rso, a prophts shoud spk i thismr, Thus sit t ord, d ot, Tus sid th ord,as if it hd occurrd i th pst rthr th i t prst 2

Th prc of th mystic is pury spiritua, d if thrar som trcs of ssu xpric i his aguag it is bcaush has to prss iprssi spiritua cotact ad ca oyd is symbos i t ssu ogis of vrydy if Witth Chiist, hovr, ssu pric is prst i a itsobustss, ad is s isprab from th spirituity i hims h is from hs immdit prst t is s if through tisimmdit prst h hd rst com ito th ord d trito his o body

To quot Mzr himsf sk oy tht you ccpt th vig ord i ich iv

d brath, so tht it shoud ot com bck to m mptyTak it to your hrts, bsc you i th am of th rdbood of Christ tak a ccout of you d ish to giv you ccout o mysf. C ot do this, may b th chid oftmporl ad tr dth A hghr pdg caot giv you 3

Meister Eckeart " Noting so mc inders te sol rom knowingGod as time and space (Meister Eckeart, Schriften und Predigtened by Bttner (Jena, 92 , i, p 37 " te sol is to perceive God,

it mst stand above time and sace (bid, 38 te solis in te act o taking a leap beyond itsel, and entering into a denialo itsel and its own activites, it is trog grace (i, 20 Onte distinction between medieval mysticism and te religiosity o Mnerc oll's pertinent coment " Wereas te mystics o te Middle Agesprepared or God by articial means, by asceticism, and, so to speak,tried to orce nion wit divinity, Mner beleved tat it is God imselWo tkes te scyte to ct te weeds rom among men (C oll,p 483

2 Mner epresses imsel similarly i te ollowing " e soldand mst know tat God is witin im and tat e sold not tinko im as i e were a tosand miles away (oll, p 430, note 3

Elsewere Mner sowed is spirital and religios radicalism in isdistinction between te oneysweet and te bitter Crist e accsedLter o representing only te ormer (oll, pp 427) For interpretation, c Bloc, op cit, pp 25

3 n te ceie art o tis epoc, as represented by Grnewaldspainting, tere is to be ond, carried to a grandiose etreme, a parallelo tis intimate sion o te most robst sensalism wit te igesspiritality Becase so little is known o is lie, it is impossible todetermine weter e imsel ad connections t te Anabaptists






them the spt When ths spt ebbs and desets these movements thee emans behnd in the wold a naked massfenzand a desptualzed fu Chlasm sees the evolution as a value

n tself not as an unavodable means to a atonall set endbut as the onl ceatve pncple of the mmedate pesent asthe longedfo ealzaton of ts aspatons in ths wold Thewll to desto is a ceatve wll" sad Bakunn because of theSatan wthn hm the Satan of whom he loved to speak aswokng though contagon That he was not fundamentallnteested in the ealzation of a atonall thoughtout woldis betaed b his statement : I do not beleve n consttutons

o n laws The best consttuton would leave me dssatsedWe need somethng deent Stom and vitalt and a newlawless and consequentl fee wold"

Wheneve the ecstatc spt weaes of boadened pespectvesand mage we get a eappeaance of the cocete pomse ofa bette wold although t s n no wa meant to be taken qutelteall Fo ths mentalt pomses of a bette wold emovedin tme and space ae lke uncashable chequesthe onl

functon is to x that pont n the wold beond events of whch we have spoken and fom whch he who s expectantlawatng the poptous moment can be assued of detachment fom that whch s meel n the pocess of becomng Not bengat one wth whateve events tanspe in the evl " heeand now he awats onl the ctcal junctue of events and thatmoment when the exteal concatenaton of ccumstancescoincdes wth the ecstatc stlessness of hs soul

Consequentl in obseng the stuctue and couse of development of the Chlastic mentalt t s qute unmpotant (althoughfo the hsto of the vaatons in m, t ma be sgncantthat n place of a tempoal utopa we get a spatal one and thatin the Age of Reason and Enlghtenment the closed sstemof atonal deducton comes to pemeate the utopan outlookIn a cetan sense the tonal axomtc pont of depatuethe closed sstem of deductv pocedue and the nteallbalanced equlbum of motves compsed n the bod of axomsae qute as capable of nsung that nne coheence and solatonfom the wold as ae the utopan deams2

Lteratre on Baknn s cted below We sall later sow ttte anarcsm o te Baknan varety comes closest n or opnon tcontnn te Clastc otook n t modern world

C Freyer " Das Problem der Utope Deutsche Rundschu98 vol 83 pp 3345 Also Grsberers book to be cted detalbelow.



HE UOPIAN MENALIY 19 7

uteme te emteness fm space and time f watis meel atinal cect and vald is in a cetain senseme likel t lead t te utside ealm bend expeience tan

culd be ped f tug tese utpian deams wic aeaden wit te cpeal cntent f te wld as it isNting is me emved fm actual events tan te clsed

atinal sstem Unde cetain cicumstances nting cntainsme iatinal dive tan a full self-cntained intelectualisticwldview Neveteless in eve fmal atinal sstem teeis te dange tat te iliastic-ecstatic element will ebb awabeind te intellectual fa<ade Nt eve atinal utpia

teefe is tantamunt t iliastic fait and nt eve atinalutpia in tis sense epesents a detacment and alienatinm te wld e abstact natue te atinal utpiacntadicts te intense emtinal dive f a sensuall altiliastic fait in te cmplete and immediate peent uste atinal utpian mentalit altug ften b f te iliastic mentalit ma inadvetentl becme its pime antagnistust as te ibeal-umanitaian utpia tened me and me

t tu against iliasm

b) The Sen Fm he Upian enaliy The Libeal-humaniaian Iea

e utpia f libeal umanitaianism t ase ut f tecnict wit te existing de In its caacteistic fm itals establises a cect " atinal cncepn t be set against evil ealit is cunte-cnceptin is nt used weveas a bue-pint in accdance wit wic at an given pintn time te wld is t be ecnstucted Rate it seves meeas a H measuing d " b means f wic te cuse f cnceteevents ma be teeticall evaluated e utpia f te libealumanitaian mentalit is te idea " is weve is ntte static platnic idea f te Geek taditin wic was acncete acetpe a pima mdel f tings but ee te idea

is ate cnceived f as a fm gal pected int te innitefutue wse functin it is t act as a mee egulative device inmundane aais

Sme fute distinctins need weve t be made Weeas in ance f instance te situatin matued int a pliticalattack te intellectualistic utpia tk n a atinal fm witdecisivel sap cntus \Vee it was nt pssible t fllw

Abot te Fren onept o dea , we read n Grmms DetschesWtech

at an earler perod Frenc sage o te seventeent



198 DELGY AND PA

i this path as i Germa the utopia was itroverted adassumed a sub ective toe Here the road to progress was otsought i exteral deeds or i revolutios, but exclusivel i

the ier costitutio of ma ad its trasformatios.hiliastic metalit severs all relatioship with those phases ofhistorical existece which are i dail process of becomig iour midst. t teds at ever momet to tur ito hostilittowards the world, its culture, ad all its works ad earthlachievemets, ad to regard them as ol premature graticatiosof a more fudametal strivig which ca ol be adequatesatised i Kairos he fudametal attitude of the liberal

is characterized b a positive acceptace of cuture ad thegivig of a ethical toe to huma aairs. He is most i hiselemet i the role of critic rathr tha that of creative destroerHe has ot broke his cotact with the presetthe here adow About ever evet there is a atmosphere of ispirigdeas ad spiritual goals to be achieved

For hiliasm the spirit is a force which suuses ad expressestself through us. For humaitaria iberalism it is that othr

realm ,2 which, whe absorbed i our moral cosciece ispires usdeas ad ot bare ecstas, guided the activit of that epochimmediatel before ad ater the Frech Revolutio which gaveitself over to the recostructio of the world his moderhumaitaria idea radiated frm the political realm ito allspheres of cultural life cumiatig a i the idealistic philosoph i a attempt to achieve the highest attaiable stageof selfcosciousess he most fertile period i the histor ofode philosoph coicides with the birth ad expasioo his moder idea ad whe it begis agai to be limited bower bouds i the political sphere this particular tred ihilosoph appropiate to the liberalhumaitaria outlookis to distegrate.

cenury ge he word he rrie mening of menl represenion hough, or concep of somehig (Lir 2 ) I is in his sense

h we nd he word " ie uner decisively French inuece mongGermn wriers of he rs hlf of he eigheenh ceury ; nd for ime he word is een wrien wih he French ccen.

[In Gree myhology Kiros is he God of Opporuniyhe geniusof he ecisie momen. The Chrisiized noion of his is gien husn Pul Tillichs The Religius Situtin rnsled by . R. NiebuhrNew York, 932 p. 3839 : " Kros is fullled ime he momen of imewhich is inde by eeriy. Bu Kros is no perfecio or compleion ime. Trnslors noe]

2 Cf. Freyer loc ci, p. 323




The fate of idealistic philosophy was too closely boundup with the social position of its otagonists fo us o negleco point out in this connecion a least the most impotant stage

in this elationship As egads its social function modenphilosophy aose to ovethow he clicaltheological view of hewold I was st of all adopted by the two paties which weeat that te in ascendancythe absolue monachy and hebougeoisie Not until late did i become exclusively the weaponof the bougeoisie whee it came to epesent at one and the sameime cultue and politics The monachy when i becameeactionay took efuge in heocatic ideas Even he poletaia

emancipated itself fom the intellectualistic famewok o idealisphilosophy which t had peviously held in common with thebougeoisie now its conscious advesay

Mode libeal thouht which caies on a dual suggleis of a eculia extue higly elevated a ceation of he imaginaion This idealis menality avoids boh he visionay conceptioof eality involved in he hiliastic appeal o God and alsohe consevative and often naowminded domination ove

hings and men involved in he eath and imebound notionof he wold Socially this intellectualistic outlook had itsbasis in a middle satum in he bougeoisie and in he intellectual class This outlook in accodance wih he suctualelationship of the goups epesening i pusued a dynamicmiddle couse beween the vitality ecstasy and vindictivenessof opessed stata and the immediate concetenss of a feudaluling class whose aspiations wee in comlete conguence wih

he then existing ealiyBougeois libealism was muc oo peoccuied with noms

concen itself with the actual siuaion as i eally existed Hence necssaily consuced fo iself its own ideal wold Elevaedand deached and a he same ime sublime i los all sensefo maeial things as well as evey eal elaionship with natueIn his conex of meaning naue fo he mos pa signiedeasonableness a stae of things egulated by the eenal stanadf igh an wong Even the a of he geneation then dominaneeced he noions of its philosophyhe eteal he unconditioned and a wod withou body and individualizaion

Hee as in mos ohe peiods of hisoy at cultue andphilosophy ae nothing bu the expession of e cental uop

C Pinder Ds roble der Generton n der Kunsteshhte Euro$Berlin 1926), pp 67 69



200 IDEOLOGY AND OIA

o the age a haped by ontemporary oial and politial oreJt a lak o depth and olor haraterize the art orreponding to thi theory o a imilar lak i apparent in the

ontent o thi liberalhmanitarian idea he abene o olororrepon to the emptine o ontent o all the ideal dominantat the height o thi mode o thoght ltre in the narrowerene reedom peronality are only rame or a ontentwhih one might ay ha been prpoely let ndeterminedAlready in erder Leers n Humaniy and thereore in theearly tage o the ideal o hmaniy " thee i no denitetatement o wherein the ideal onit at one time it i reaon

and j tie whih appear a the goal ; at another it i the well being o man that he regard a worth triving orhi overemphai on orm in philoophy a well a in

other eld orrepond to thi middle poition and to the lako onretene o all it idea he abene o depth in theplati art and the dominane o the prely linear orrepondto the manner o eperiening hitorial time a nlinear progreand evoltion hi oneption o nilinear progre i eentiall

derived rom two eparate ore.One ore aroe in wetern apitalit development he

borgeoi ideal o reaon et p a the goal ontrated with theeiting tate o aair and it wa neeary to brie the gapbetween the imperetion o thing a they orred in a tateo natre and the itate o reaon by mean o the onept oprogre hi reoniliation o norm with the eiting tateo thing eeded throgh the belie that reality move ontinally toward an ever loer approimation to the rationalhogh thi idea o ontinoly loer aproimation wa atrt vage and indeterminate it i given a relatively onretead ai orm by the Girondit Condoret Condoret aCnow 1 ha rightly analyed rom a oiologial viewpointinorporated the diillioning eperiene o the middle trataater the all o the Girondit into the onept o hitory heldby thee trata he ltimate aim o a tate o peretion wanot renoned bt the revoltion wa onidered only a amere tranitional tage he idea o progre plaed diltiein it own ath by diovering the neeary tep and tranitionaltage involved in the proe o development whih wa tillbelieved to be nilinear Wherea ormerly everything tht wa

Cunow , Di ]sch Gscichs- Gsllschfs- un Ssho(, 1920) i, p. 158




rovisional was, from e oin o view of reason, ismisse aserror or reuice, in onorce we n a leas a concessionof relaive vaii o hese enaive saes whic recee a sae

of erfecion The rejuices revailin in an iven eochwere reconize as unavoiable As ars of he hisoricalicure of he erio he were assimiae ino he iea ofroress, which, as ime wen on, became more iereniaeino saes an erios

Anoher source of e iea of roress is o be foun in GermanIn Lessins Erziehung es enshengeshlehs he emereniea of evouion ha accorin o he views of von er Gol

an Gerlich, a secularize ieisic characer. If, in aiono his erivaion, one consiers a Pieism ranslane fromHollan o German, orinall conaine cerain Baiselemens, hen he reliious iea of evelomen ma be uner

soo as an ebbin awa of he hiliasic imulseas a rocessin which abiin faih Harren) becomes, in he German milieua waiin an aniciaion , an he hiliasic imesensemeres imerceibl ino an evouionar one

From Arn Coccejus, Sener, Zinzenorf, e line leas oBenel Lessins ieisic conemorar, wo alrea sokeof Gos hisorica sewarshi an of coinuous an uniformroress from he beinnin o he en of he wor I was fromim ha Lessin is suose o have aken over he iea of heinnie erfecabili of he human secie, wich he ensecuarize an blene wih he beief in reason an henasse on in his form as a heriae o German iealism

In whaever manner his concein o roress ma havearisen, wheer as a coninuous ransformaio of he reiiousmenai or as a counermovemen on he ar of raionalismhere is area conaine in i in conras wih he Chiliasicmenali, an increasin concern wih he concree here annow of he onoin rocess

Te fullmen of hiliasic execaons ma occur a anmomen Now wih he liberalhumaniarian iea he uoianelemen receives a enie locaion in he hisorical rocess

on der Goltz Die theologishe Bedeutung J. A. Bengels und seinerhler ahbch f dutsch Tholog Gotha 1861), ol. i pp 460506 Gerih Fr. Kommunsmus als Lh vom tausndhgn Rcnhen 1920). This book written with propagandisti intent is in manyaspets oversimplied and superial but many basi ideas as thatited above seem to be righty omprehended C. the appendix.) Dorenop. it) has aready made an adequate estimate o he alue o this book.



202 IDELG AND UTPIA

it is the minting point of histori eoution In ontrstth the erier oneption o topi hih s sudden tre upon the ord ompete from the outside " , this

signies, in the ong run, retie toning don of the notionof sudden histori hnge Henfoth, een the topinie sees the ord moing in the diretion of reition ofits ims, of topi Frm nothr nge s e, utopinismeomes inresing ound up th the proess of eomingThe ide, hih oud e ompete reied on in some distnttime, in the ourse of the ntinous deeopment of the esenteomes norm, hih, ppied to detis, ets grdu improe-

ment Whoeer ritiies detis eomes ound p thter rtiism ith the ord s it is Prtiiption in the mstimmedite trends of presentd utur deeoment, theintense fith in instittionism nd in the formtie poer fpoitis nd eonomis hrterie the heirs to trdtionho re not interested mere in song, t ho nt to repthe hrest no

But the poitis of this sendnt soi strtum st did not

ome to tu grips th the re proem of soie, nd in theepohs of ier ntgonism tords the stte it sti did notnderstnd the histori signine of ht the dominntstrt ped sote ue upon, nme the signine ofpoer nd of ned ioene Hoeer strt this otoohih ress theoreti upon utre in the nrroer sense ndphiosoph nd prti pon eonomis nd poitis, mpper to e hen ieed from the stndpoint of the onsertie

it is neertheess, in so fr s it is oneed th mndne hs-tor eents er mh more onrete thn the histientit th its dethment from histor This greterroimit to the histori is etred the ft tht thehistori timesense, s reie smptom of the strutref mentit is mh more denite thn in the hiistimentit The hiisti mentit hs, s e s no sensefr the proess of eoming it s sensitie on to the rupt

mment, the present pregnnt th mening The te omentit hih remins on the hiisti ee neither nosnor reognieseen hen its opponents he e sorethis point f eeither rod tht eds to go or proessf deeopmentit nos on the tide nd e of time Reo-tionr nrhism, for instne, in hih the hiisti mentitis presere in its prest nd most genine form regrds modern



THE UTOPIAN MENTALITY imes, since he decine of he Midde Ages, as a singe evouion I is pa of he fac and he concep of evoluion ha, ikea convaescen feve, i comes beween wo spes of sickness

I woud no exis a al if i wee no peceded faige andfoowed b exhauion Thus, even hough his ouookleas much fom is opponens and akes on a one ime aconsevaive cas, and a anohe a sociais, i emeges evennow a decisive momens

The Chiliasi absolue expeience of he now ", whichpecludes an possibii of expeiencing deveopmen does,howeve, seve he sole funcion of povidigS wih a ualiaive

dieeniaion of ime Thee ae, accoding o his view, iesha ae pegnan wih meaning and imes ha ae devoid ofmeaning In his fac ies an impoan appoach o he hisoicophiosophica dieeniaion of hisoical evens Is signicancecan be esimaed on afte i has been made cea ha evenan empiica consideaion of hiso is impossibe wihou anhisoico-phioophica dieeniaion of ime (ofen laen andhece impecepibe in is eecs And even hough a

gance i ma seem impobable, he above-menioned saemp a a uaiaive aangemen of hisoica mes doesaise fom Chiliasic aoofness and ecsaic expeience Thenomaive-ibea menai aso conains his uaiaivdieeniaion of hisoica evns, and addion holds incemp as an evi eali evehing ha has become a paof he pas o is pa of h pesen I defes he acua eaizaion of hese noms ino he emoe fuue and, a he sme imeunike he Chilias who anicipaes is ealiaion a some ecsaicpon beond hiso, i sees i as aising ou of he pocess ofbecoming in he hee and now, ou of he evens of ou evda ife om his has devoped, we have seen, h picalinea concepion of evouion and he elaive diec conncionbewen a fome anscendena and meaningfu goa andpesen acua exisence

The libea idea is adeuae inelligibe on as a counepa o he ecsaic aiude of he Chilas which ofn hidesbehind a aionalis faade and which hisoical and sociaoes a coninua, poenia hea o ibealism I is a bac agains ha saum of socie whose powe comes fom isinheied posiion in he exising od, and which is abe omase he hee and now a s unconscious and ae hough

1 Landaer op. it p 9 1



24 IDEOLOGY AND TOPIA

aional alulaion Hee e ee o dieen uoia anae e ole uue of onioune ielf and an eee diegene beeen o ioial old and e o oe

onding fundamenal dieen oial aa oe oulooke embodCiliam ad i eiod of exiene in e old of e deaing

iddle Age a eiod of emendou diinegaion Eeinga in oni i eeing ele I a e old of nobleaiian onmen ounemen agabond and meenaieall aing again ea oe I a a old in ueaal andune in i e deee imle of e uman ii oug

exenal exeion In i oni e ideologie did noallize quie leal and i i no ala ea o deeminedeniel e oial oiion o i ea of em belongA Enge leal a i a e Peaan Reol a edued o imle and le ambiguou em e iiual andinelleual ilool of e Refomaion1 I beome moeaaen no a e Ciliai exeiene

i aaei

of e loe aa of oie ndeling i i a enal uue

eulia o oeed eaan ouemen an iniien Lumpen-leaia fanaial oional eae e

Engels Fr De detsche Bekieg ed by Mehrng Ber 1920 pp 40

Holl (op ct. p. 435 clams to see a agument aganst a socologcanerpreaon the fact that Mnzers deas whch accordng to MaxWebers general typoogy ( Wtschft d Gesellschf : Gdiss deSozilkoomik Pt I I pp. 267 § 7 are o be correlaed wth theower classes were also acceped by he " tellecuals of the perod

e g. Seb Franck Karlsad Schwekenfed etc. . If oe s gong osmpfy he problem of socology to such a degree as he has done ts no woder tha one ay rejects ts coclusons Max Weber awaysnssed hat hs genera ypoogy was created order to characterzedealtypca tendences and not mmedatey percevable unque costelatons bd. p 10 The socoogy whch seeks to aalyse hstorcalynque costellatons must proceed n a especay cautous manerhen t s conceed wh deermnng socoogcally the posto of thentelectuals. It s necessary at ths pot to consder the foowquesons the statement of he probem :

() The queston of ther socoogcal ambvaee s ths ot already

a parcular socologcal trat whe oe consders that t s ot charactersc of al strata of socey ? .(b) At what partcular pon n tme are the representatves of te

ntellecuas drven no the one camp or another (c) I what manner are the deas that the teectuals derve from

other camps moded n the course of ther assmato It s oftepossble o trace shfs n soca poston through te " age of refracto wth whch deas are take over.Thus Holl hmself pp. 435 459 460 presents very terestg

documenary corroboraon of the correctness of the socology whch



THE UTOPAN ENTALIT 205

A og ime iervee ui e pperce of e e formof uopi ewie e oci wor uergoe compeerformio Te kig ecme oci e yeom

oeie ize " (Freyer) Nor w e ex form o uopie expreio of e owe rum i e oci orer rer iw e mie rum w icipig ief roug cociou ef-cuivi wic regre eic ieecucuure i pricip ef-juicio (gi e oiiy) uwiigy ife e e of experiece from ecico eucio pe

However rc e ier ie my pper o ve ee

rom e poi of view of e ii or from e cocreepproc of e coervive i everee gve ife o oe ofe mo impor pero of moer iory I rcewic w oy gruy ucovere y e criicim of erig ef w ever fe y e orii expo of eie Perp re w preciey i i ieermieewic ef ope uc vriey o poiiiie wicimue e py fre youfu qui

uggeive imuig mopre wic eve e geHege epie i ur o coervim fe we i e y of i ife e rece e peerig impc of e gree of e revouiory perio I cor wi e omre

e opposes. He imself sows tat wen te educated took over Mnzersviews tey were really unable to elborate tem any furter and teynever contributed anyting fundamentally new to te doctrine Teydrew more upon books and upon te writings of te German mysticsparicularly te Theolog detsh but also upon Augustine tan uponteir own immediate inner experience Tey did not bring even tesligtest enricment of language. Tey distorted te singularly mysticaln decisive points and made an innocuous amalgm of te teacingsof te medieval mystics and Mnzers doctrine of te cross. (All teseare direct suppor for te sociological teory referred to above conceingte determinability of te intellectual " angle of refraction wic existswen te ideas of one stratum are taken over by anoter)

Holl furer tells us ow te intellectuals among oters troug teirabovementioned leaders witdrew more and more as te movementprogressed and became more radical ; ow among oters Franck in

is Chronk condemned te Peasant War even more srply tan uterimself ; ow following tis alienation from Mnzer is Weltnshngunderwent a radical transformation ow after te alienation fromMnzer tis " intellectual Weltnshng took on misantropic traits ;ow it lost its social features ; and ow in place of te Ciliasticintransigence tere emerged te more tolerant almost syncretistic ideaof te " invisible Curc (ibid pp. 9 .)

Here too tere is muc tat can be understood sociologically as longas one asks te appropriate questions and utilizes te conceptual apparatusarising from tese





HE TOPIAN MENTALITY 27

oblem Oy the outeattack o oosig asses athei teey to beak thuh th limits o the eistig oeauses te osevative metality to questio the basis o its

ow omiace, a eessaily bigs about amog theosevatives histocalhilosohial eetios coeig themselves hus thee aises a oututoia whh sees as meas o seloietatio a eece

I the soally aseat lasses ha ot ealty ase thesoblems a i tey ha ot give them utteae i theiesetive couteieologies, the teey o osevaism tobecome osious o itsel woul hav emaie latet a

the osevative outlook woul have otiue o a level oucosious behaviou But the ieologal attak o a soiallyasceat gou eesetig a ew eoh oes, i at bigabout a awaeess o the attitues a ieas whih assetthemselves oy i lie a i atio Goae o by oosigtheoies, osevative metality isoves its a oly x poaco1 It is o aiet that wheeas all ogessve gousea the iea as omig beoe the ee, o the osevtie

Hegel the iea o a histoial eality beomes isibl olysubsequetl whe the wol has leay assume a eie om Oly oe wo moe oeig the esie toteah the wol what it ought to be Fo suh a uose,hilosohy at least, always omes too late Philosohy as thethought o the wol oes ot aea util eality has omleteis omative oess a mae itsel eay Histoy thusooboats the teahigs o the oetio that oly i hmatuity o ealiy oes the ieal aea as the outeatto the eal, aehes the eal wol i its substae, a shaesit ito a itletual kigom he hilosohy ats its

We must aso consder the deoogy o absoutsm n ths connectonathough we cannot dea wth t n deta I t too shows an outookrgnay orented towards the mastery o a estuaton acqurng thtendency to reect n a rather codbooded way on the technque domnatonn the manner o what s caed Machaveansm Onyater (mosty when compeed by ts opponents) does the need arse or

a more nteectua and eaborate justcaton or occupyng a postono power For the corroboraton o ths more genera proposton wedraw on a sentence o Menecke n whch ths process s bserved :

Thus arose the dea o the modern state whch aspres not mereyto be a potca state (Mchtstt), but aso a cutura state and thebare restrcton o the rison d tt to the mere probems o the mmedatemantenance o power whch argey occuped the attenton thetheoretcans o the seventeenth century was overcome Ths reerspartcuary to the age o Frederck the Great Menecke Fr Die Ideede Sttsrson in der neueren Geschichte (Mnchen Bern 1925) p 353




ge i ge oe om o lie h become ol b me oge i co be ejuee bu ol ow The owl oMie e i igh ol whe he he o igh e

gheig he coeie meli he c owl o Mie oe iee begi i igh ol wih he ppochig wiligh i oigil om coeie meli w we he

meioe o cocee wih ie w i libel oppoewho o o pe oce i io hi e o coic The peculichceiic o iellecul eelopme eem o lie pecieli he c h he mo ece goi ice he empo he om o he ble eil hee i lile uh i he

o-clle pogeie ie h ol he ew h he popeco uhe exiece h ll ele ie o gull Rhehe ole ie b he ewe mu coiuoul omiel mu ccommoe iel o he leel o he moece oppoe Th a pee hoe who he bee opeigwih elier moe o hough whe cooe wih ociologiclgume mu lo he ecoue o hee me meho he ame me he begiig o he ieeeh ceu

he libel-ielleculi moe o hough compelle hecoeie o iepe hemele b ielleculi me i ieei o obee h he oigil coeie

ocil clae whih elie h cquie bili hough cloee o he l (Me . Mwiz i o uccee i heheoeicl iepeio o hei ow poiio h heicoe o he coeaie ie becme he wo o bo oieologi who che hemele o he coeie.

The ccomplihme i hi iecio o he coeieomic paicull Hegel coie i hei ielleculai o he meaig o coeie exiece Wih hi poi o epue he poie iellecul iepeio o iue ow he wol which w le implicii cul couc bu which h o e become expliciHece i he ce o he coeie wh coepo ohe da i i ubce omehig quie iee om h

libe ie wa Hegel ge chieeme o e up gihe libeal iea coeie couepa o i he ee oicill cocoig iue moe o behioubu he b iig ale pee moe o expeiece o iellecul leel b emphizig he iicie

The fous nl pgph in Hegel's pefe o his Phosohy oRgh Tnsle b J W De Lonon, 1896), p xxx



THE UTOPIAN MENTALIT 209

caractristics tat mark it o rom t libral atitud toward world

T consrvativs lookd upon t libral ida which

caractrizd th priod o t Enlightnmnt as somtingvaporous and lacking in concrtnss And it was rom thsangl tat ty lvlld tir attack against it and dprciatdit Hgl saw in it noting mor tan a mr opinion "a bar imaga pur pssibility bhind wic on taks rug,savs onsl, and scaps rom t dmands o t hour

As opposd to this mr opinion this bar sbjctivimag, t consrvativs concivd o t ida as rootd in and

xprssing itsl concrtly in t living rality o t r andnow Maning and rality, norm and xistnc, ar not sparatr bcaus t utopian th concrtizd ida , is in a vitalns prsnt in tis world Wat in libralism is mrly a ormalnorm, in consrvatism acquirs concrt contnt in th prvailingaws o t stat In t objctications o cultur, in art andn scinc, spirituality unolds itsl, and th ia xprssstsl n tanibl ulnss

W av alrady obsrvd tat, in t libral utopia, in tumanitarian ida as contrasd with Chiliastic cstasy, thris a rlativ approximation to t r and now In consrvatism w nd th procss o approximation to t rand no compltd Th utopia in this cas is, ro th vrybginning mbddd in xisting rality

o tis, obviously tr corrsponds th act that rality,t / / r and now , is no longr xprincd as an / / vil

rality but as th mbodmnt o t ighst valus and manngsAltoug it is tru tat th utopia, or th ida, as bcom

compltly congruous with concrtly xsting rality, i hasbn assimilatd into it this mod o xprincat last at ighst point in th crativ priod o this currntnvrlss dos not lad to an liminaton o tnsions and to annr and passiv accptanc o t situation as it is A crtainamount o tnsion btwn ida and xistnc ariss rom thact tat not ry lmnt o tis xistnc mbodis maning,and that it is always ncssary to distinguish btwn what isssntial and what is non-ssntial, and that t prsnt continualyconronts us with nw asks and problms whic av not ytbn mastrd In ordr to arriv at som norm or orintationw should not dpnd on subjctiv impulss, but must callupon thos orcs and idas which av bcom objctid in




us nd in our pst, upon the spirit which, up to now, hs opertedthrough us to crete these, our works But this ide, this spiiths not been rtionlly conjured u nd hs not been rbitrily

chosen s th bes ong number of ossibilities. It is ithein us, s silently working force " (Sviny) , subjectivelyperceivd, or s entelechy whic hs nfolded itself in thecolective retions o the community of te folk, the ntonor the stte s n inner form which, for the most pr, ispercivble orphologiclly The morphologicl perspective,direced towrds nuge, rt, nd the stte, deveos fromtht point on. At bout the sme time tht the liberl ide set

the existing order into motion nd stimulted constructivespecultion, Goethe turned from this ctivistic pproch tocontemltionto morphology He set out to use intuitiveppercepton s n instrument of science. The pproch othe historicl school is in some wys nlogous to tht of GoetheThey follow up the emntion of e des through the observtion of lnguge custom, nd lw, etc., not by bstrctgenerliztons but rther by sympthetic ntuition nd morpho

logicl description.In this cse so, the ide whch ssumes centrl positionn politicl experience (ie the form of utop corresponding tothis socil position) helped in shping tht segment of intellectullife which s bound up with politics In ll the vieties othese qusts for the e inner form " the sme conservtivettitude f deteminteness persists nd, when projected outwrdnds expression lso in te emphsis on historicl determinteness.

According to this view nd from the stndpoint of this ttitudetows the world mn is by no mens bsolutely free Notll thns n geerl nd ech thing in prticulr re possiblet every moment nd in every historicl community Theinner form o historicl individulity exsing t ny given timebe it tht of n nividul personlity or of folk spirit, nd theexternl cnditins together with the pst tht lies behind tdetermne te shpe of thngs tht re to be I t is for this

reson tht the istoricl congurtion existing t ny iventime cnnot be rticily constructed, but grows like plntfrom its sed1

1 " The cnsttutns f states cannt be nvented ; the ceverestcacuatn ts matter s as futie as tta gnrance There s nsubsttute fr the sprt f a pepe and the strength and rder arsingtherefrm, and t s nt t be fund even n the brghtest mnds r n



THE UTOPIAN MNTALITY Evn th consrvativ orm o th utopia, th notion o a

id mbddd and xprssd in rality, is in th last analysisintlligibl only in t light o its struggls with th othr

coxistnt orms o utopia Its immdiat antagonist is tlibral ida which has bn anslatd ino rationalistic trmsWhras in th lattr, th ormativ, th should isaccntuatd xprinc, consrvatism th mphass shitsto xisting rality, th is Th act o th mr xistnc a thing ndows it with a highr valu, b it as in th cas fHgl, bcaus o th highr raionality mbodid in t, or asin th cas o Stahl, bcaus o h ystiying and ascinatng

cts o its vry irrationality hr is somthing marvllosabout xprincing somthing o which it may b said t it is ! 't This is your athr, this is your rind, nd through thm yohav arivd at this position t Why prcisly this ? J t Why you ust th prson you ar ? his ncomprhnsibility onissin th act that xistnc can nvr b ully subsumd in thught,and that xistnc is not a logical ncssity but has its asisin a highr autonomous powr 1 Hr th prgnant antagonism

btwn th ida mbodid and xprssd in rality, on t nhand, and that which mrly xists, on th othr (drivd rth halcyon days o consrvatism), thrans to transorm itlinto a complt congrunc, and consrativ quitism tnds ustiy, by irrational mans, vryting that xists at all

Th tim-sns o this mo o xprinc and thought iscompltly opposd to tat o libralism Whras or libralismth utur was vrything and th past noting, th cosvatv

mod o xprincing tm ound th bst corroboration o itssns o dtrminatnss in discovring th signicanc o thpast, in th discovry o tim as th crator o valu Duratindid not xist at all or th Chiliastic mntality,2 and xisor libalism only in so a as hcorth it givs birth to progrssBut or consrvtsm vrything that xists has a positi ndnominal valu mrly bcaus it has com into xistnc slowy

te greatest genuses. (ller Adam r Knig Fririch un iNtur Wr un Bstimmung r prussischn Monrchi (Berln 80)p. 49 .) Ts dea derved from romantcsm becomes te leadng teme ofte ole conservatve tradton.

Stal Fr. J. Di Phiosophi s Rchts p. 2722 nzer sas furter " Te ntellectuals and scolars do not kow

te Hol Scrptures sould be accepted or rejected but onl tatte come don from te remote past . . te Jes te Turks and alloter peoples also ave suc aps mtatve as of gvng support toter belefs . (Holl p 432 note 2



212 IDEOLOY AND UTOPIA

nd duly Consquntly not onl s ttnton tund toth pst n th ttmpt md to scu t om oblvon butth psntnss nd mmdcy o th hol pst bcoms n

ctul pnc. In ths v hstoy cn no lon b thouhto s m unln tnson o tm no dos t consstn mly jonn on to th ln hch lds om th psntto th utu tht hch ld om th pst to th psnt Thconcpton o tm h n quston hs n mny thddmnson hch t dvs om th ct tht th pst spncd s vtully psnt Th l o th contmpoysprt s cycl o sts ch on th on hnd stll hv

synchonous costnc nd only om noth v pps squnc n tm tht hs pssd Th pncs hchth sprt sms to hv bhnd t st lso n th dpths ots psnt bn (Hl 1

Th Chstc prnc hd ts locus outsd th lm otm but on thos occsons hn t bok thouh nto thtmporl lm t hllod th chnc momnt Lblprnc stblshs conncton btn stnc nd utop

n shftn th d s mnnul ol nto th utu nd thouhporss llon th pomss o th utop t lst n ctnspcts dully to b lzd n ou on mdst Consvtvpnc ms th spt hch t on tm cm upon usom byond nd to hch v prsson th ht ldys llon tht to bcom objctv to pnd n l dmnsonsnd thb ndon vy vnt th n mmnnt ntnscvlu

Hege Vorlesungen ber de Phlosohe der Geschchte eipzigReclam 907) cf. pp 23-5. urther references may be found in myDs konservve Denken p. 9 f. where I attempted for the rst timeto understand the forms of the historica timesense in the light ofthe structure of the political consciousness existing at any given timeor further references cf. the following :

Stahl seeks to characterize the feeling for time and ife of SchellingGoethe and Savigny i the following words : " In these writers it is as inevery stage and nuance of life : it seems as if what is had always beenso. But then we turn back and nd that what is has developed. But

it is not so obvious to us where and how the transition from one stageto another occurred In the course of the same invisible growth thesituations and surrounding circumstances emerge and change ust asin our own lifesituations and careers so here too the feeling of eternaland necessary existence and at the same time that of temporal emergenceand change comes over us

This endless growth this living process of becoming also dominatesSchellings outlook and his system represents an unabating struggle toepress it Savign in his own domain is marked by the same characteristic (De Phlosophe des Rechts i pp. 39



THE UTOPIA ETALITY 23

The cosevative mode of epeiece apat fom its stuggleith the libeal idea had to age its o paticla a iththe Chiliastic outloo hich t ha alays egaded as a ie

eemy. The same Chliastic epeiece hich at the time ofthe Aabaptists bega to play a active pat i the old hadaothe fate aaitig it omehat dieet om thos aeadymetoed We have aleady see thee alteative tedecies Chastic epeece. Eithe i emais uchaged ad pesistsi its oigial euptve fom ofte boud up ith the mostfudametaly dveget ideologiesas fo istace i etemistaachismo it subsides ad disappeas o becomes sub

limated ito a idea. It follos aothe path depatigfom those metioed above he t maitais its supe-tempoal ecstatic tedecy by tuig iad heeupoit o loge daes to vetue foth ito the old ad losesits cotact th oldly happeigs. Compelled by etealcicumstaces the Chiliasticecstatic mode of epeiece iGemay folloed to a vey lage etet this path of ad-tuig. The Pietistic udecuets hich may be ace

ove log peiods Gemaic couties epeses such aadtuig of hat as oce Chiliastic ecstasy.

Eve he it is tued iad ecstatic epeiece epesetsa dage to the eistig ode fo it is costatly ude temptatioto epess itself outadly ad oly pologed disciplie adepessio tasfom it ito uietism Othodoy theefoeaged costat a agaist Pietism ad it etee ito aope uio ith it oly he the evolutioay oslaught

ecessitated the summoig of all the available foces fo thespitualatio of the ulig poes. Ude eeal pessuead because of the sociologcally itelligble stuctual situatiosChiliastic epeiece though this vey iadtuig atuallyudegoes a chage i chaacte. Hee as elsehee thestctua itepeetatio of socally eteal ad of iteal factos may be folloed out i deta Wheeasoigaly Chiliastic epeiece maifested a obus ad copoealve he epessed t became athe seetly iocuous advapoous t became ateed do to mee ethusiasm adhe ecstatc elemet came to lie oce moe though a getlysoohg fo oly i the Piestic t epeiece o aaeg

What is most impotat hoeve fo the coectios eish to poit out is that though the loss of cotact ith theold i actual pocess of becomig this cotact he see




fom the· oint of view of the whole take lace in the oliticaland not the ivate hee thi attitude develo an inneuncetainty In lace of the ontical tone of Chiliai ohecy

come uncetain vacillation Pietiti indeciin in the face ofation he hitocal chool " in Gemany ith it quietimad it lack of tanad can be aequately undetood onlywhen t continuity with Pietim ha ben taken into accountEveything which in an active eon exee itelf ontaneoulyand i taken fo ganted i hee detachd fom it context andmade into a oblem. he deciion " become an indeendenthae of action which i oveladen with oblem and thi

concetual eaation of the act fom the deciion only inceaeuncetainty inead of elimnating it he inne illumintionfunihed by Pietim oe no olution to mot of the obemof eveyday life and if uddenly it become neceay to actin the hitoical oce one eek to inteet the event ofhitoy a if they wee indication of the of God At thiin et in the movemnt towad the eligiou inteetationf hitoy though which it wa hoed to eliminate the inne

indeciion in olitical activity But intead of nding the outionto he oblem of ight conduct and intead of hitoy fuihingdiie guidance thi inne uncetainty wa ojected into thewod

It � imotant fo the activit conevative mode of exeienceto ubue thi fom of utoia alo and to hamonize the latentvial enegie eent thee with it own iit What neeto be contlled hee i the conce of inne feedom " which

contantly theaten to tun into anachim it had once befoetued into a evolt againt he chuch Hee alo the conevativeidea embedded in eality ha a ubduing inuence on the utoiaeoue by the inne enemie Accoding to the dominanttheoy of conevatim nne feedom" in it undenedwodly objective mu ubodinate itelf to the moal codewhich ha aleady been dened Intead of inne feedom " w e have obj ective feedom " to which the fome mut adjutitelf Metahyically thi may e nteeted a a etabilizedhamony between intenally ubjected and exteally objectiedfeedom hat thi uent of the movement which i chaacteized by intoective Pietiti atitude confom to the above

1 Som o t mpotant aspcts o ts tdncy av n w wokdout y my studnt Rquadt P hnnes ller und der FrhhsrsusMncn 1929)



THE UTOIAN MENTALITY 21

iepeio is o be eplied oly b y s fl helplessss ihe fce of woldly poblems. O h ccou i yields he eiso he domice of he lsic coseie goup eihe by

suedeig eiely o by eiig o some obscue coe. Eeody hee e chcoseie goups who wish o heohg of he powe poliics of he Bismcki epoch d whosee i he iwduig diecio of h cue whih eisf i opposio o Bsmck he uly luble elemes ofhe diio

Th ourth orm o th Utoa talit : Th Soialist-

Communist Utoia

Eve he socilscommuis mode of hough d epeecewhich s egds s oigis my be eed s uiy isbes udesood i is uopi sucue by obsig i s i istcked om hee sdes

O he oe hd socilism hd fuhe o diclze he libeluopi he ide d o he ohe i hd o ede imoe

o i gie cse o ocome compeely he ie oposiioof chism i is mos eeme fom Is coseiegois is cosideed oly secodily jus s i poliiclife oe geelly poceeds moe shply gis he closely eledoppoe h gis dis oe becuse he edecy ismuch gee o glide oe io his view d cosequelyespecil wchfuless mus be eecised gis his ieempio. Commuism fo emple ghs moe eegeiclly

gis Revisioism h gis coseism. This helps uso udesd why socilscommuis heoy is i posiioo le much fom cosevism.

The upi eleme socilsm due o his mysidedsiuo d he e sge of is oigi pess us ceI epeses o meely compomise bu lso ew ceiobsed upo ie syhesis of he ous foms of uopiwhich hve ise hiheo d which hve suggled gis

oe ohe i socieySocilism is oe wih he libel uopi i he sese h

boh believe h he elm of feedom d equliy wlcome i

C or eample the last secto o v arts essa Weltaschaulche otve m altkosevatve Deke eutsche Staat und deutschePateien in Festschift F Meinecke um 60 Geutstag dageach(che Bel 1922)




exsten ny n the remte ftre t sasm haraterstay paes ths ftre at a mh mre speay determnedpnt n tme namey the perd f the breakdwn aptast

tre Ths sdarty f sasm wth the bera dea n tsentatn twards a a ated n the tre s t be expanedby ther mmn ppstn t nseratsms mmedate anddret aeptane and armatn f the estn rder Thefarreahn ndenteness and sprtaty f the remte arespnds as t the sast and bera reetn Chiatextemn and ther mmn rentn that atent estateneres mst be sbmated thrh tra deas

t n s far as the estn s ne f the penetratn f thdea nt the en press and the rada deepment the dea the sast mentaty des nt eperene t n thsptay sbmated m. We are faed here wth the dean the r f a ne sbstane amst ke a n ransmwhh has dente ndtns f exstene the knwede fwhh may beme the am sent nestatn In thsntext deas are nt dreams and desres manary mperates

wated dwn frm sme abste sphere ; they hae rather anrete e ther wn and a dente ntn n the ttapress They de awa when they beme tmded and theyan be reazed when the sa press attans t a enstrtra statn Wtht sh reeane t reaty heybeme merey bsatn dees "

When ne ts t the bera ne dsers frm a perspetete derent frm the ne empyed by the nseate th

prey fma abstrat harater f hs dea. The merepnn the mere mae the dea whh reazes tsef nyn ne's sbete atttde s renzed here t as inadeateand s sbeted t attak frm anther ne than that henserate ppstn It s nt sent t hae a dntentn n the abstrat and t pstate n the far ftre

Ths asserto does ot apply to socalsm tl we come to theeteeth etry The topa socalsm of the eghteeth cetry

Elghtemet a perod whe the Physiocrats were terpretg hstory the lght of the dea of progress had ts topa located the pastcorrespodg to the petty borgeos reactoary metalty of ts bearersSocologcally ths ght to the past has ts roots part the perssteceof certa remats of the old " commo lad holdg system, whchto some extet kept alve the memory of commst stttos the past oceg ths relatoshp may detals are to be fod rsberger . De topisce Soialiss des 18 Jandets in Fankeic nd sene pilosopiscen nd ateiellen Gndlagen : Zceolksiscaftlice Foscngen, eft 1 . cf. esp pp 94



HE UON MENAY 21

elize elm of feeom he elemens o which e no subeco conol is necessy he o become wae of he elonions ( his cse economic n social) une which such

a ishfullmen cn all become opeive he o whichleas fom he pesen o his isn gol mus lso beinvesige in oe o ienify hose foces in he conempoypocess whose immnen ynamic chace une ou iecionles sep by sep owas he ealize ie While consevismepecie he libeal ie s a mee opinion socialism in isnlysis of ieology woke ou coheen ciicl mehohich ws in eec n emp o nnihile he ngoniss

opi by showing h hey h hei oos in he eisingsiuion

Hencefoh a espee suggle kes place aiming hefunamenl isinegion of he avesays belif Ech ofhe foms of uopian menliy which we hve eae husf uns agains he es of ech belief i is emne ha icoespon wih ealiy an in ech cse eenly consiuefom of eisence is pesene o he vesay as ealiy " The economic an socil sucue of sociey becomes absolueealiy fo he socialis becomes he beae of ha culualoliy which he consevaives ha aleay peceive as uniyThe consevaive concepion of folk spii Vksges) ws es signican emp o unesan he appaenly isolefacs of inellecul n psychic life as emnaions fom singlecene of ceaive enegy

Fo he libeals as well as fo he consevives his ivingfoce was somehing spiiul n he socialis menaliy on hecony hee emeges ou of he ageol niy o oppessesa fo meilisic oienion gloicaion of he meialspecs of eisence which ee fomely epeience meelya negive n obsucive os.

Even in he onological evluaion of he facos which consiue he wl which is lwys he mos chaaceisic cieion

of ny sucue of consciousness hieachy of vlues whichis he evese of h employe by ohe moes of houghgaually chieves ominnce The / maeial " coniions whichwee peviously ege meely as evil obsacles in he pah ofhe ie e hee hyposize ino he moo aco in wolais in he fom o an economic eeminism which is eine-pee in maeilisic ems

The uoia which chieves he closes elionship o he



218 IDEOLOGY AND TOIA

hisoricasocia siaio of his word, maifess is approimaio o o b ocaig is goa more ad more whi heramewor o hisor, b b eevaig ad spiraizig he

socia ad ecooic srcre which is imediae accessibeEsseia wha happes here is a peciar assimiaio of hecoservaive sese of deermism io he progressive opiawhich srivs o remae he word The coservaive, de ohis cosiosss of beig deermied, goried he as dspieor eve becase of is deermiaive cio, ad a he sameime, oce ad for , gave a deqae idicaio of he siicace of he as for hisorica deveopme For he sociaiss,

however, i is he socia srcre which becomes he mosieia force i he hisorica mome, ad is formavepowers (i a gored form) are regarded as he deermiafacors of he whoe deveopme

The ove pheomeo which we mee wih here, he feeig ofdeermiaeess, is qie compaibe, howevr, wih a opiaocaed i he fre Whi coservaive meai aracoeced he feeig of deermiaeess wih he armaioof he prese, sociasm merges a progressive socia force wihhe checs which revoioar acio aomaica mposespo isef whe i perceives he deermiig forces i hisor

These wo facors, which a rs are immediae bod pwih each oher, diverge i he corse of ime o form wo opposigb ma ieracig facios whi he sociascommismoveme Grops which have rece gaied power ad which,b paricipag i ad sharg resposibi for he eisigorder, become wedded o higs s he are, come o eer areardig iece hrogh heir esposa of order evoioarchage O he oher had hose sraa which as e have ovesed ieres i higs as he are, become he bearers of hecommis (ad aso he sdicais heor which emphasizeshe overwhemig imporace o revoio

Before he spi, however, which correspods o a aer sage

i he process, hs progressive meai rs of a had oesabish isef i he ace of he opposiio of oher pariesTwo obsaces o be overcome were he sese of hisoricaideermiaeess ivoved i hiiasm, which oo a moderorm rada aarchism, ad hs same bidess o hedeermiig forces of hisor which goes wh he sese oideermiaeess of he lbera idea

I he hisor of moder hiiasic eperiece, he coic




betwee Marx ad Bakui was decisive1 It was i the course othis coict that Chiliastic utopaism came to a ed

The more a group preparig to assume power strives to become

a party the less it will tolerate a movemet which i a secariaad eruptive ashio aims i some udetermied mometto take the otresses o history by sorm Here too the diappearace o a udametal attitudeat least i the orm owhich we have spokeis closely coected with the dsitegrtio o the social ad eoomic reality which costitutes itsbackgroud (as Brupbacher has show Bakuis advaceguard the aarchists o the Jura Federatio disitegrated whe

the domestic system o watch mauacture i which they wereegaged ad which made possible their sectaria attitude wassupplated by the actory system o productio I the place othe uorgaized oscillatig experiece o the ecstatic utopiacame the well-orgaized Marxia revolutioary movemetHere agai we see that the maer i which a group coceivedo time displays most clearly the type o utopia i cosoacewith which its cosciousess is orgaized Time is experiecedhere as a series o strategical poits

This disitegatio o the aarchist ecstatic utopia was abrupad brutal but it was dictated with a atal ecessity by thehistcal process itsel A outlook o passioate deth disappeared rom the oregroud o the political scee ad the seseo determiism came to hold sway over a elarged sphere

Liberal thought is related to aarchist thought i that itoo had a sese o idetermiism eve though (as we have seethrough the idea o progress it achieved relative eaess to thecocrete hstorical process The liberals sese o idetermismwas based o aith i a immediate relatioship to a absolutesphere o ethical imperativesto the ia itsel This sphere oethical imperatives did ot derive its validity rom history evertheless or the liberal the idea could become a drivig ocei it It is ot the historical process which produces ideas bu

it is oly the discovery o he ideas he spreadig o them ad Coning Bakunin f th writings of Nttau Riarda Huh and

Fr Brupbahr Th work of th attr Mrx und Bunin BrinWilmrsdorf 1922, ors a onis xposition of man important probmsTh olltd works of Bakunin hav bn brought out in Grman b thpubishing hous Dr Sndikaist Cf. furthr Bakunins onfssionto Czar Niholas I disovrd in h srt s of th hif of th thirdstion of th hanllr of th lat Czar trans b K Krstn Brin 1926

Brupbahr op it pp 60 204 .




enlightenent about the which ake of the histoicaoces. A eitable Coenican eolution occue when abegan to ega not eely hiself not eely an but also the

existence the aliity an the inuence of these ieas as coitione factos an the eeloent of ieas as boun u withexistence as integal to the histoicosocial ocess. I t wasiotant fo socialis st of all not to cobat this absolutistentality aong its oonents but athe to establish in itsown ca the new attitue in oosition to the still oinantiealis. Quite ealy theefoe thee took lace this tuingaway fo the utoias of the t big bougeoisie the best analysis

of which is still to be foun in Engels.St. Sion Fouie an Owen wee still eaing thei utoiasin the ole ntellectualist style although they aleay boe theiess of socialistic ieas. hei situation on the agin of society exesse itself in iscoeies which boaene socialan econoic esecties ; in thei etho howee theyetaine the ineterinate outlook chaacteistic of the Enlightenent. Socialis is fo all of the the exession of absolute

tuth eason an justice an nee only be iscoee in oeto conque the worl though its own owe. " 1 Hee too oneiea ha to be anquishe an accoingly the sense of histoicaleteinateness islace the othe coeting fo of utoia.Socialist entality in a fa oe funaental sense than thelibeal iea eesents a eeition of utoia in tes of aity.It is only at the n of the ocess that the iea eains n itsohetic neteinateness an ineniteness but the oa whichleas fo things as the ae to the ealization of the iea isaleay clealy stake out histoically an socially.

Hee aain thee is a ieence in the anne of exeiencinhistoical ie : wheeas te libeal conceie of futue tie as aiect an staight line leaing to a goal thee now aises aistinction between the nea an the eote a istinction thebeginnings of which wee aleay to be foun in Conocet anwhich is of signicance fo thought as we as action. Coseatis ha aleay ieentiate the ast in such a annebut since its utoia was teing oe an oe towas acolete haony with the stage of eality aleay eache at thetie the futue eaie coletely unieentiate fo theconseate. Only though the uio of a sense of etenate

Eels Fr Die Enticlung des Salsmus vn de Utpie uWissenschat 4th edt, Berl 1894



THE UTOPIAN ENTALITY 221

e ad a livig viio of the futue w it poible to createa hitoca timeee o moe tha oe dimeio. But thimore comple pepective of hitoical time which coevatim

had already created fo the pat here a completely dierettuctureIt i ot aloe though the vitual peete of every pat

evet that every peet epeiece embodie a third dimeiowhich poit back to the pat but it i alo becue the future ibeig prepaed i it. It i ot oly the pat but the future a welwhich ha vitul eitece i the preet A weighig of eachof thefacto eitig i the peet ad a iight ito the

tedecie latet i thee force ca be obtaied olyf the preeti udetood i te light of it cocete fullmet i the future.!

Wheea the libeal coceptio of the futue wa completeyfomal hee we ae dealig with a proce of gradual cocretiatio Although thi completio of the peet by the future ito begi with impoed by the will ad by wihful image, oethe le thi trivig towad a goa ct a a heuitically electivefactor both eearch d i ctio Accodig to thi poitof view the future i alway tetig itelf i the peet. Atthe ame time the ide which wa at rt oly a vguepophecy i cotatly beig coected ad edeed more cocretea the preet live o ito the future. The ocialit iea "i it iteractio with actual " evet opeate ot a a purelyformal ad tracedet piciple which regulate the evet fromthe outide but ather a a tedecy " withi the mai of

thi reality which cotiuouly correct itelf with eferece tothi cotet. The cocrete ivetigatio of the iterdepedeceof the etie age of evet fom ecoomic to pychic aditellectual mut brig togethe iolaed obervatio ito afuctioal uity agait the bckgroud of a developig whole.

Thereby ou view of hitoy obtai a ever more cocrete corroboraion of he above anasis and an amos exac mahe

maical corroboraion of our heor concerning he social and poiicalldiereniaed mode of experiencing hisorical ime is provided b hefolowing excerp from an aricle b he Communis . Rvai The pesen rea exiss onl b virue of he fac ha he pas and hefuure exis, he presen is he form of he unnecessar pas and of heunreal fuure Tacics are he fuure appearing as presen ( DasProblem der Takik, in Kommunisms Zeishrif de Kommunisishennernionle 20 ii p 676. The virual presenness of he fuurein he presen is cearl expressed herein sands in complee coraso he ciaion from Hegel on page 2 2 shud also be comparedwih he oher maerials cied hroughou he ex concerning he sociadiereniaion of he hisorica imesense (pp 20203 2 2 2 228




ieretiate but at te same time more eibe frameworkWe eamie every evet wit a view to iscoverig wat itmeas a wat is ositio is i te tota eveometa

structureTo be sure, te area of free coice becomes more restricte

treby ; more etermiats are iscovere for ot oy is teast a etermiig factor, but te ecoomic a socia situatioof te reset aso coitios te ossibe evet Te ivigurose ere o ogr cosists i activity o te bass ofraom imuses towar some arbitraiy cose ere a ow,but raer ig attetio uo a favourabe oit of attack

i e structura woe witi wic we eist I becomes tetask of te oitica eaer eiberatey to reiforce tose forceste yamics of wic seem to move i te iretio esire byim, a to tur i is ow irectio or at east to reerimotet tose wic seem to b to is isavatage Histoicaeeriece becomes tereby a truy strategic a Eveytigi istory may ow be eeriece as a iteectuay avoitio ay cotroabe eomeo

I tis case too te oit of view formuate rmariy ite oitica area eetrates a cutura ife : out of te ietigatio ito te socia etermiatio of istory arises scioogy,a it i its tur grauay becomes a key sciece wose outookermeates te secia istorica scieces wic ave arrive ata simiar stage of eveomet A coece a asuracequaie by te feeig of etermiateess, gives rise at te sametime to a creative sceticism a a isciie la A sciaki of reaism ermeates te ream of art Te ideaism ofte bourgeois iistie of te mie ieteet cetury asvaise a as og as a rouctive tesio betwee te ieaa eistece ersists trasceet vaues wic are cefortcoceived of as ebode i actua eistece wi be sogt ite ea a te immeiate

4. TOP N THE CONTEMPORRY TUTON

t te reset momet te robem as assume its owuique form Te istorica rocess itsef sows us a grauaescet ad a coser aroimatio to rea ife of a utoia tatat oe time cometey trascee istory As it comes coserto istorica reaity, is form uergoes fuctioa as we assubstatia cages Wat was origiay i absoute oositio





22 DEOOGY AND UTOPIA

he lbera, he socalist, and the conservave deas are mereldierent stages, and ndeed counterforms he pocess whchmoves contnuall farther awa from Chiam and approxmate

more closel to he evens transprng n his world.Al of these counterforms of he Chlastc uopa develop inclose connecon wth he fae of those socal strata whchorignall espouse them. The are, as we have seen, areadmoderated forms of he orgnal Chiliastc ecstas bu inthe course of further development the dscard hese lastuopan vesges and unwtngl approach more closel o aconservative attitude. appears o be a generall valid law

of he sructure of intellectual development hat when newgroups gain entr nto an alread estabished suaion the donot ake over without further ado he deologies whch havealread been elaborated for ths situaton, but rather theadapt he deas whch he brng wth hem hough therradiions o he new stuaon Thus lberalsm and socalsm,as the entered a situaon more conducve to conservatsm,did intermttentl take over the ideas whch conservats oered

hem as a model, bu on he whole peferred to adap the orginaldeoogies ha he brough wth them o he new suatonWhen these strata had come to occup the social position preiousl hed b the conservave, the quite sponaneousldeveloped a feeling for life and modes of though whch werestructurall relaed o conservatism The nitial insght ofthe conservative no he structure of historcal deermnismhe emphasis, and, wherever possible, the overemphasis of heslentlworkn forces, he continuous absorpon of he utopianelement no everda lfe appeared also n he thnking of thesesrata, sometmes n the fom of a new and sponaneous creaton,ometmes as a reinerpretaton of older conservative paterns

Thus we note hat, condtoned b he social process, theredevelops a relatve departure from he utopa at man pontsand n various forms Ths process, whch has alread a dnamcqualit of ts on, s acceleraed even further n ts tempo andintensit b he fct tha dierent coexstent forms of utopanmenal are desrong one another n recprocal conct Sucha reciprocal conct of he varous forms of he uopa does notecessaril lead o the annihilation of uopiansm tsef, for strugglen and b tself onl heightens the utopian nensit The modernform of recprocal conict s nevertheless pecuar n hat theesruction of ones adversar does no ake place on utopian




level, a fac which i mo clealy pecepible i he way hociali have goe abou umakig e ideologie of heiaagoi 1 We do o hold up o he adveay ha he i

wohippig fae god ahe we deoy he ieiy of hiidea by howig ha i i hioicaly ad ocially deemiedSociali houh, which hiheo ha umaked all i

adveaie' uopia a ideologie, eve aied he poblem ofdeemiaee abou i ow poiio I eve applied himehod o ielf ad eve checked i ow deie o be abolueI i evehele ieviable ha hee oo he uopia elemediappea wih a iceae i he eelig of deemiaee

Thu we appoach a iuaio i which he uopia elemehough i may divee fom, ha compleely (i poliic,a lea) aihilaed ielf If oe aemp o follow houghedecie which ae aleady i exiece, ad o pojec hem io he fuue, Gofied elle' pophecy The ulimaeiumh of feedom will be bae " 2begi o aume, fo ua lea a omiou meaig

Sympom of hi { baee " ae evealed i may coempoay pheomea, ad ca be clealy udeood a adiaio of he ocial ad poliical iuaio io he moe emoephee of culual ife Ideed, he moe acivel a acedapay collaboae i a paliameay coaliio, ad he oe igive up i oigial uopia impule ad wih i i boadpepecive, he moe i powe o afom ociey i likelyo be abobed by i iee i cocee ad iolaed deailQuie paallel o he chage ha may be obeved i he policaealm u a chage i he cieic oulook which cofom opoliica demad, ie wha a oce meely a fomal cemead abac, oal view, ed o diolve io he iveigaio ofpecc ad dicee poblem The uopia ivig owad a goaad he cloely elaed capaciy fo a boad pepecive diiegae i he paliameay advioy coucil ad i heade-uio moveme io a mee body of diecio fo mae

ig a va umbe of cocee deail wih a view o akig apoliical ad wih efeece o hem Likwie i he ealmof eeach, wha wa fomely a coepodigly uied adyemaized Wanschauung become, i he aemp o deal

The hange the meaning of the onept ideology whih we attemptedto pesent in Pat II is meely a phase of this moe geneal poes(pp 53

2 De Feiheit letzte Sieg wid toke sein




with individul problms mrly guiding prspctiv and ahuristic principl But sinc all th mutually conicting formsof utopia pass through th sam lif-cycl thy bcom in th

ralm of scinc as in th ralm of parliamntary practiclss and lss mutually conicting articls of faith and mor nd

mor compting partis or possibl hpothss for rsrchWhras in an ag of libral idals philosophy bst rcdth social and inllctual situation to-day th intal conditionof th social and intllctul situations is rctd most clarlyin th divrs forms of socolog

Th sociological viw of classs accdng to powr undrgos

transformation along particlar lins Ths sociological thorislik our contmporry vryday concption of th world mbodyth conicting " possibl points of viw which ar nothingbut th gradual transormations of arlir utopias What ispculiar o this situation is that in this comptitiv strugglfor th corrct social prspctiv a ths conicting approachsand oints of viw do not by any mans " discrdit 1 1 thmslvs ;i do not show thmslvs to b futil or incorrct Rathr it is

shown wth incrasing clarity that it is ossibl o think productivly from any point of viw although th dgr of fruitulnssattainabl varis from position to position Each of ths pointsof viw rvals t intrrlationships in th total comlx ofvnts from a dirnt angl and thus th suspicion grows thatth historical procss is somting mor inclusiv than a thxisting individual standpoints and that our basis of thoughtin its prsnt stat of tomiation dos not achiv a comprhnsiv viw of vnts. h mass of facts and points of viw isfar gratr than cn b accommodtd by th prsnt stat ofour thortical appartus and systmtizing capacity

But this throws a nw light upon th ncssity of bing continuously prprd for a synthsis in a world which is attainingon of th high points of its xistnc Wht had prviously grownup in random ashion from th particular intllctual nds ofrstrictd social circls nd classs suddnly bcoms prcptiblas a whol and th profusion of vnts nd ids producs rathrblurrd pictur

It is not out of waknss that a popl of mtur stg ocial and historical dvlopmnt submits to th dirntpossibilitis of viwing th world nd attmpts to nd for ths thortical framwork which will comprhnd thm all Thisubmission riss rthr from th insight tht vry formr



UOPIAN MNALIY 22

nteectu certinty hs reste upon prti oins o eme bsoute It is chrcteristic o the presen ie h heimits o these prti points o view shou hve ecoe obvious

At this mtue vnce stge o eveopment the otperspective tens to ispper in proportion to h ispperneo the utopi n the eteme et n right goups in oeie eieve tht there is niy in the eeoment processIn the ormer we hve the neorism o ukcs wth hisproound importnt work n in the tter e universiso Spn I wou be superuous ths time to emnstrteth ierences in the sociogic points o ve o hese wo

etremes by reerring to the dierences in their conepions ootity We re no intereste in competness his connec-ion bu rther i provision etermintion o he phenomenwhich re symptomtic o the present situton

Unike those mentione bove who regrd the ctegory otoiy s n ontoogicmetphysi entity roetch useit s working hypothesis in reserch He empoye i somewht eperiment shion s n orering prinipe or n

pproch to the mss o t n resorting o ierent ineso ttck on the mteris, he sought to uncover he eementswhich t ny one time mke it unity Are Weber seeks toreconstruct the whoe o pst historic epoch rther s congurtion unity by mens o wh cn eintuitivey observe His metho stns in decie contrs ortionist ogmtism which reies upon euction htroetsch n Are Weer s emocrts stn etween thewo etremes o Lukcs n Spnn is reecte in their respectiveent structures Athough hey ccet the conception ototity the ormer vois ny metphysic n ontoogicssumption when speking o it n th tter rejects thertionistic ttitue usuy connecte with i s use yrics

In contrs to those who re ssocite with Mrism o theconsrvtivehistoric rition in heir oncept tottynother eemen in the mie group ttempts o isregrentirey the probe o totity in orer on the sis o hisrenuncition to e be to concentrte its ttntion more uyon he weth o iniviu proems henever he utopisppers history ceses to e rocess eing o titeen he rme o reerence ccoring o which we evues vnishes n we re et wth series o eves eu





HE UOPIAN MENALIY 229

temselves in opposition to the status uo signie the solutionof the problem of class relationsmore geerally a scienticianosis of the present epoch ; to the American on the contrary

it meant the solution of the immeiate technical problems ofsocial life his helps to explain why in the European formulation of sociological problems there is always aske te uneasyquestion about what the future has in store an similarly itthrows light on the closely relate rive for a total perspective ;likewise it is possible to explain on the basis of this ierencethe type of thought involv in the American formulation of theproblem as represente by the foowing How can I o this ?

How can I solve this concrete iiviual problem ? An in allthese questions we sense the optimistic unertone I nee notworry about the whole the whol will tak care of itself

In Europe however the complete isappearance of al realitytranscening octrinesutopian as well as ieologicaltookplace not merely through the fact that all these notions wereshown to be relative to the social-economic situation but alsoby other means he sphere of ultimate reality reste in the

ecoomic an social sphere for it was to this that Marxism in thelast analysis reate al ieas an values ; it was stl historicallyan intellectuall ierentate i e it still containe somefragment of histrical perspective (ue largely to its Hegelianerivation) Historical materialism was materialist only inname ; the economic sphere was in the last analysis in spiteof occasional enial of this fact a structural interrelationshipof mental attitues he existent economic system was preciselya system i e something whic ariss in the sphere of themin (the obective mi as Hegel unerstoo it) he processwhih rst starte by unermining the valiity of spiritualelements in history proceee further to isturb tat sphereof the min an reuce all happenings to functions of humanrives which were completely etache from historical anspiritual elemets his too mae possible a generalizing

theory ; the reality-transcening elements ieologies utopiasetcwere ow no longer relative to social groupsituations butto rivesto eternal forms in the structure of human implses(Pareto Freu etc) hs generalizing theory of rives wasalreay aumbrate in the English social philosophy an socialpsychology of the seventeenth an eighteenth centuries husfor example Hume in his Enqury oncr·ng uman Unranng says



2 IDEOOGY AND TOPIA

i niall anowlg a i a ga nifomi among aion of mn in all naion an ag ana man na main ill am in i inil an

oion T am moi alwa ou am aionT am n alwa follow fom am a Ambiionaai lflo ni fini gnoi ubli ii : aion mi in iou g an iibog oi a bn fom bginning of wolan ill a ou of all aion an ni wia bn ob among manin 1

Ti o of oml ion of all iiual

lmn oian a wll a iologial a i aalllin mo n n of mo lif an in i ooning nni in alm o a Mu w no ga iaaan of umaniaianim fom a mgn ofa ma of fan (achlichkit) in ual lif a anaiu an ion of naualimul in om all no b in a momi of inainggion of iologial an oian lmn fom

mnali of aa wi a oming o omina niuaion ? Mu no gaual uion of olii o onomiowa wi i a la a inibl nn oniou ion of a an of noion of ioialim onio bing i of lual ial b in a a iaaan of fom of uoianimfom oliial ana a wll ?

H a ain nn o a on wol i in fowaan ai fo wi all ia a bn ii an alloia a bn o Ti oai aiu wi inow awning i in lag mau o b wlom a onlinmn fo ma of n iuaion a anfomaion of oianim ino in a uion of luing iologi wi a inongn wi aliof ou n iaion I wol qui i a alloun

wi ou gnaion oul obabl no long aqui o ning a of a gnaion nwl bo ino wolo b abl o li in abol ongun wi alii ofa wol l wiou an annn lmn iin fom of a uoia o of an iolog A o n ag

1 Hum Enues concenng the Human Undestandng and concenngthe Pncles o oals d by SlbyBigg 2d d Oord 1927)p 83



THE UTPIAN ENTALITY 231

f selfcnsciusness his is perhaps he nly frm f acualexisence ha is pssible in a wrld which is n lnger in hemaking I is pssible ha he bes ha ur ehical principles

have er is " genuineness and " frankness in place fhe ld ideals " Genuineness (chhkagor) and frankness seem be nhing mre han he precin f he general" maerffacness r realism f ur ime in he reaf ehics Perhaps a wrld ha is n lnger n he making canard his Bu have we reached he sage where we candispense wih srivings ? Wuld n his eliminain f ensin mean he eliminain als f pliical aiviy scienic

zealin fac f he very cnen f life iself ?Thus if we are n res cnen wih his " maerffacness we mus arry ur ques farher and ask wheher hereare n besides hse scial sraa wh by heir saised aiudeprme his decreased pschlgical ensin her frcesacive in he scial realm ? If he quesin is pu in his mannerhwever he answer mus be as fllws

The apparen absence f ensin in he presenday wrld is

being undermined frm w sides n he ne side are hse sraawhse aspirains are n ye fuled and wh are srivingwards cmmunism and scialism Fr hese he uniy f upiapin f view and acin is aken fr graned as lng as hey areusiders in relain he wrld as i nw exiss Their presencein sciey implies he uninerruped exisence f a leas nefrm f upia and hus a cerain exen w always causehe cuner-upias rekindle and are up again a leaswhenever his exreme le wing ges in acin Wheher hiswill acually happen depends largely n he srucural frm fhe develpmenal prcess which cnfrns us a pesen Ifhrugh peaceful evluin we are able a laer sage reach a smewha superir frm f ndusrialism which willbe sucienly elasic and which w give he lwer sraa adegree f relaive wellbeing hen hey will underg he ypef ransfrmain which has already been evidenced by he classesin pwer (Frm his pin f view i makes n dierence wheherhis superir frm f scial rganizain f indusrialism hrughhe arrival a a psiin f pwer n he par f he lwer sraaw evenuae in a apialism which is sucienl elasic insure heir relaive ellbeing r whehe his capialism wlrs be ransfrmed n cmmunism I his laer sage inndusrial develpmen can be aained nly hrugh revluin




hen he opin nd ideologicl elemens in hogh wl rep once more ih resh igor on ll sides Howeer hismy be i is in he socil power o his wing o he opposiion

o he eising order h here is o be ond one o he deermin-ns pon which he e o reliyrnscending concepsdepends

B e re orm o he opin menliy nd o inellec-liy does no deend only on he icissides o his eremesocil srm In ddiion o his sociologicl cor here isye noher which shold be reckoned wih in is connecionnmely disinc socil nd nellecl middle srm which

lhogh i bers denie relion o inellecl ciiyhs no been considered in or preos nlysis Hihero llclsses he inclded in ddiion o hose who clly repre-sened heir direc ineress srm more orened owrdswh migh be clled he relm o he spiri ociologicllyhey cold be clled inellecls b or or presenprpose we ms be more precise We re no reerring here ohose who ber he owrd insigni o edcion b o hose

ew mong hem who consciosly or nconsciosly re ineresedin somehing else hn sccess in he compeiie scheme hdisplces he presen one No mer how soberly one looks one cnno deny h his smll grop hs nerly lwyseised heir posiion presened no problem s long s heirinelecl nd spiril ineress were congros wih hoseo he lss h ws srggling or socil spremcy Theyperienced nd knew he world rom he sme opin perspec-

ie s h o he grop or socil srm wih whose inereshey idenied hemseles This pplies s well o ThomsMnzer s o he borgeois ghers o he French Reoliono Hegel s well s o Krl Mr

Their siion lwys becomes esionble howeer whenh rop wih which hey ideniy hemseles rries posiion o power d when s resl o his inmen opower he opi is relesed rom poliics nd conseenlyhe srm which ws idenied ih h grop on he bsiso his oi is lso se ree

The inellecls will lso be relesed rom hese socil bondss soon s e mos oppressed srm o sociey comes o shren he dominion o he socil order Only he socilly nchednellecls will be een more hn now in incrsing proporionseried rom soil sr rher hn merely rom he





34 DEOOG ND UOP

mmnn f he es Smlry n he el f phlsphmny nnem hnkers lke Kerkegr n he qes rfh sr ll he nree hsrl elemens n relgn

n re lmely ren bre es exsene s sh " Sh reml f he Chls elemen frm he ms lre n pls mgh presere he pry f he esspr b l lee he rl h menng r lfeThs eml ll n he en be fl fr Chls essys el sne s e he lrey seen hen s nrn ges p s n h he mmee nree rl ens beme genle n nns r else lse self n

pre sefen s neble h fer sh n nyss e shl sk rseles h he fre hls n he ly f hs qesnlys bre he sre f hsrl nersnng pre she sk f prphes n eery prphey f neessy sfrmshsry n pely eermne sysem eprng s herebyf he pssbly f he n esn s frher reslhe mplse egh n ree referene he nsnly

emergng sphee f ne pssbles es yhe nly frm n hh he fre presens self s s h

f pssbly hle he mpere he shl " ells shh f hese pssbes e shl hse s regrsknlege he fren s fr s e re n nerne hhe prely rgnze n rnlze pr f presens selfs n mpenerble mem n nyelng ll n hen remps see hrgh re replse e rs beme re f

he neessy f lfly hsng r rse n n lse nnen h he nee fr n mpere ( p) re snr Only hen e kn h re he neress n mperes nle re e n psn nqre n he pssblesf he presen sn n hs gn r rs nsgh nhsry ere nly e se hy nerren hsryn exs exep n s fr s s ge by neres nprpsefl srng Of he nng enenes n heme rlhe pn rens n he ne hn srgglnggns mpln eneny ep he presen n he herhn s l el n ne hh ne lynqer r he rse f hsrl rely hh l eermne sll les n he fre We l hnge he hle f seymrr f eeryby l gree The rel bsle s heery nl s bn ssem f esblshe reln



THE UTOPIAN MENTALIT 35

hip which to a large extent hamper hi will Bu t thee etablihed eationhip n the lat anali et agai uponuncontrolled deciion of indiidual The tak therefore i to

remoe that ource of dicult uneiling the hidden motieehind the indiidual' deciion thu putting him in a poitionreall to chooe Then and onl then would hi deciion rayie wth him

All that we hae aid o fa in thi ook i meant to helpthe indiidual to dicloe thee hidden motie and to reealthe implication of hi choice. For our own more retrictedanaltical purpoe howeer which we ma deignate a a

ociological hito of mode of thought it ecame clea thatthe mot impotant change in the ntellectual tructue of theepoch we hae een dealing ith are to e undetood in thelight of the tranformation of the utopian element It i poibletherefore that in the futue in a world in which thee i nee

Hee, too, n such ultmatel decse questons as these, the mostfundamental deences n possble modes of expeencng ealt aeealed The anachst, Landaue, ma agan be quoted to epeset

one exteme What do ou undestand then b the hd obecte facts of humahsto ? Cetanl not the sol, houses, machnes, aload tacks, telegaphwes, and such lke If, howee, ou a efeng theeb to tadton,custom, and complexes of elatons, whch ae the objects of pous eeence,such as the state and smla oganzatons, condtons, and stuatons,then t s no longe possble to dsmss them b sang the ae onlappeaances he possblt and the necesst of the socal pocess ast uctuates fom stablt, to deca, and then to econstucton s basedon th fact that thee s no ogansm that has go up that stands abothe nddual, but athe a complex elatonshp of easo, loe, and

authot Thus agan and agan thee comes a tme n th hsto ofa socal stuctue, whch s a stuctue onl as long as ndduals nousht wth the talt, when those lng sh awa fom t as a stangghost fom the past, and ceate ew goupngs nstead Thus I hawthdawn m loe, eason, obedence, and m wll fom that whchI call the stat That I am able to do ths depnds o m wl Thatou ae not able to do ths does not alte the decse fact that thspatcula nablt s nsepaabl bound up wth ou own pesonaltand not wth the natu of the state (Fom a lette of Gusta Landaueto agaete Susann, epnted n Lndur G s in Lbnsgng inBrifn edted b atn Bube (929, ol p 22

At the othe exteme, cf the followng ctaton fom Hegel Snce the phases of the ethcal sstem ae the concepton of feedomthe a the substance of unesal essence of ndduals I elatoto t, ndduals ae meel accdental ethe the nddual exstso ot s a matte of ndeenc to the obje etcal ode whchalone s steadfast It s the powe b whch the lfe of ndduals s ruledIt has been epesented b natons as eteal justc, o as detes whoae absolute, n contast wth whom th stng of ndduals s aempt game, lke the tossg of th sea Hegel, Philosophy o ightas b J W Dd Lodo 189 p 15 145, addto



236 IELGY AN UPIA

athi ew, i wic all i ie a each momet i aepetitio o the pa, thee ca eit a coitio i whictougt ill be uttel evoi o all ieological a uopia

elemet But te complete elimiatio o ealit-taceigelemet om ou wold woul lea u to a matte-o-acte which ultimately woul mea the eca o te huma willHeei lie the mot eetial ieece betwee thee two tpeo eality-taceece : wheea the eclie o ieology epeet a cii oly o cetai tata, ad the objectivit whichcome om the umakig o ieologie alway take the omo el-claicatio o ociety a a whole, the complete i

appeaace o the utopia elemet om huma thought aactio would mea that huma atue a uma evelopmetwould take o a totall ew chaacte he iappeaace outopia big about a tatic tate o aai i whic ma himelbecome o moe tha a thig We woul be ace te the geatet paao imagable, amel, tha ma, wo aachieve te highet egee o atioal mate o eitece,let wthout a ideal, become a mee ceatue o impule

hu, ate a log totuou, but eoic evelopmet, ut athe ighet tage o awaee, whe io i ceaig o bebli ate ad i becomig moe a moe ma ow ceatiowit te eliquime o utopia, ma woul loe hi wll ohape io a teewit hi abiliy to udeta i



V E SOCOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE

HE AURE AND OPE O HE OOOG O

KOLEDGE

(a) Dnition an Subivisions o th Soioog o Knowlg

he ociolog of knowledge i one of the ounget bncheof ociolog theo it eek to nle the eltionhibetween knowledge nd exitence hitoicl-ociologicleech it eek to tce the fom which thi eltionhih tken in the intellectl develoment of mnkind.

It oe in the eot to deelo it own oe eld ofech thoe multile inteconnection which hd becomeent in th cii of mode thought, nd eecil the ocil

tie between theoie nd mode of thought . On the one hnd,it im t dicoveing wokble citei fo detemining theinteeltion between thought nd ction On the othe hnd,b thinking th oblem out fom beginning to end in dicl,unejudiced mnne, it hoe to develo theo, oiteto the contemo itution, concening the ignicnce ofthe notheoeticl condtioning fcto in knowledge

Onl in thi w cn we hoe to ovecome the vgue, illcoideed, nd teile fom of eltivim with egd tocietic knowledge which i inceingl evlent to-dThi dicouging condition wll continue to exit long cience doe not dequtel del with the fcto conditioningeve oduct of thought which it mot ecent develomenthve mde clel viible In view of thi, the ociolog ofknowledge h et itelf the tk of olving the oblem of theocil conditioning of knowledge b boldl ecognizing theeeltion nd dwng them into the hoizon of cience itelfnd uing them check on the concluion of ou eech.In o f the nticition concening the inuence of the ocilbckgound hve emined vgue, inect, nd exggeted, theociolog of knowledge im t educing th concluion deivedto thei mot tenble tuth nd theeb to come cloe tomethodologicl te ove the oblem involved

2 37




b The Soology o nowldge an th Thory o dolo

The socology of knolde is clsely relaed o bu ncreaingly

disnguishale from he heory of deoloy hich has alsoemerged ad developd n our on ime. The sudy of deologieshas made i s ask o unmask he more or less conscous dcepions and disguiss of human neres grou paricularly hoseof polical pares. The socology of koledge s concerneno so much ih dsorions due o a deiberae eo o deceveas h he varyng ays n hch objecs presen hemselveso he subjec accordng o he dierences n ocal sengs.

Thus, menal rucues are nevably direly formed ndieren socal and hsorcal seings.In accordance ih his disicion e ill leave o he heory

of deology only he rs forms of he ncorrec and he unrue,hle onesidedness of observaion, hich s no due o more orless conscous inen ll be separad from he heory of ideologyand raed as he proper subjecmaer of he sociology ofknoledge In he oldr heory of dology, no disincion as

ade beeen hese o ypes of false observaion and saemenToday, hoever is advsable o separae ore sharply heseo ypes, boh of hich ere formerly descrbed as ideolges.Hence e speak of a partcula and of a ttal concepon ofdeology Under he rs e nclude all hose uerances he falsiy of hich s due o an nenional or unnenonal,conscous, semconscous, or unconscous, deluding of onesself or of ohers, akng place on a psychologcal level andsrucually resemblng les

We speak of hs concepio of deology as partular bcause alays refers only o specc asserions hich may be regardeas concealmens, falscaions, or lies hou aacking henegry of he ttal mental structure of he asserng subecThe socology of knoledge, on he oher hand, akes as problem precsely hs menal srucure n ts ttalty, as appearn dieren currens of hough and hisorcalscal groupsThe scology of koledge does no crcize hough on helevel of he asserons hemselves, hch may nvolve deceponsand disguses, bu eanes he on he srucural or noologicallevel, hch ves as no necessarly beng he same fo an, u rahr as allog he sae obec o ake on erenforms and aspecs n he course of socal developen ncesuspicion of falscaion is no ncluded n he oal concepion



THE SOIOOGY OF KNOWEDGE 23

of deology he se of th tem deology the socology okowledge has o moal o decatoy tet I t ots aheto a eseach test whch leads to the asg of the qesto

whe ad whe socal stes come to exess themseles he sce of asseos ad what sese the fome cocetelydeteme e la. I he ealm of he socolo of kowledgewe sha he as fa as ossble aod the se of he tem deoogy " becse of s moal cooao d shall steadseak of the esece of a thke y ths tem mea he sbject's whole mode of coceg thgs a detemedby hs hsocal ad socal setg.

2 HE T IISIONS OF TH OIOOGY OF KNOWLEDG

. TH THEORY OF THE SOIL DETERMTIO OF OWLEDG

The socology of kowledge s o the oe had a theoyad o he othe had a hstocalocologcal method oeseach As theoy t may take two foms I the st lace s a ely emcal estgao thogh descto adscal aalyss of the ways whch socal elatoshs fact ece thoght. Ths may ass the secod laceo a estemologcal qy coceed wh the beag ohs eelaosh o the oblem of aldty It s motatto oce that these two tyes of qy ae ot ecessalycoected ad oe ca accet the emcal esls wthotdawg the estemologcal coclsos

The Purely Emical Asec o he Invesgaon o he SoclDeermnaion o Knowlege I accod wh ths classcatoad dsegadg the estemologcal mlcatos as fa asossble we eset the socology of kowledge as a theoyof the soca o estetal detemato of ctal thkg Itwold be ell to beg by elag hat s met by thwde tm estetal detemato of kowledge Sensverbunehe es sses As a cocete fact t may

be best aoache by meas of a llstato Te estetdetemao of thoght may be egaded as a demostatedfact those ealms of thoght whc we ca show a at

ee we do no men by " deeminion mehnil ueeeequene : we leve he mening of " deeminion open nd onlyempiil invesigion will how u how i i he oelion beweenlifesiion nd hoghpoes o wh ope exi fo ion inhe oelton [he emn expession Senserbundenes Wssens oneys meng whih leve he ex ne of he deeminim open



20 DEOLOGY AD UTOPA

th oc of knowng do not actuay dvo hitoicayin accodanc with immannt aw that it do not foow onyfom th natu of thing o fom u ogica oibiiti

and that it i not divn by an inn diactic . On thcontay th mnc and th cytaization of actua thought inncd in many dciiv oint by xta-thotica factoo th mot div ot Th may b cad in cotaditinctionto uy thotica facto xitntia facto. Thi xitntiadtmnation of tought wil ao hav to b gadd a a factb) if th inunc of th xitntia facto on th conctcontnt of knowg i of mo than m iha impotanc

if thy a vant not ony to th gni of ida but pntatinto thi fom and contnt and if futhmo thy dciivydtmin th co and th intnity of ou xpinc andobvation i. that which w fomy fd to a h ctiv of th ubjct

cial Prcesses nuencing he Prcess KnwegeConiding now th t t of citia fo dtmining thxitntia connction of knowdg i.. th o actuay ayd

by xta-thotica facto in th hitoy of thought w ndthat th mo cnt invtigtion undtakn in th iitof th ocioogicay ointd hitoy of thought upy anincaing amount of ooboativ vidnc. Fo vn todayth fact m to b pfcty ca that th od mthod ofinctua hitoy which wa ointd towad th a ririconcton that chang in ida w to b undtood on thv of ida (immannt intctua hitoy) bockd cognitionof th ntation of th ocia oc into th intctua h.With th gowin vidnc of th aw in thi a prir aumtion,an incaing numb of conct ca mak it vidnt thata vy fomuation of a obm i mad oib ony by avou actua human xpinc which invov uch a pobm b) in ction fom th mutiicity of dta th i invovdan act of wi on th pat of th know and c foc aiingout of iving xinc a ignicant in th diction whichth tatmnt of th obm foow.

n connction with th invtigation it wi bcom moand mo a that th iving foc and actua attitud whichundi th thotica on a by no man my of anindividua natu i thy do not av thi oiin in th tpac in th individua bcoming awa of hi intt in thcou of hi thinkng. Rath thy ai out of th coctiv



THE SOCIOLOGY O KNOEDGE 21

prposes of a grop which nderie he hogh of he individaand in he prescribed oook of which he mere pricipaesIn his connecion i becomes more cear ha a age par of

hinking and knowing canno be corec ndersood as ongas is connecion wh exisence or wih he socia impicaionsof hman ife are no aken ino accon

wod be imossbe o is a he maniod socia processeswhich in he above sense condiion and hape or heoriesand we sha herefore conne orseves o a few eampes (aneven in hese cases we sha have o eave he deaied proof ohe insances cied in he index and bibiograph

We ma regard compeiion as sch a represenaive case inwhich exra-heoreica processs aec he emergence and hedrecion of he deveomen of knowedge Compeiion conrosno mere economic acivi hrogh he mechanism of hemarke no mere he corse of poiica an socia evensb frnishes aso he moor impse behind diverse inerreaions of he word which when heir socia backgrond isncoverd revea emseves as he ineeca expressions of

conicing grops srgging for powerAs we see hese socia backgronds emerge and become

recognizabe as he invisibe forces ndering knowedge wereaize ha hoghs and ideas are no he res of he isoaedinspiraion of grea genises ndering even he profondinsigh of he genis are he coecive hisorica experiencesof a grop which he individa akes for graned b whichshod nder no condiions be hposaized as grop mind " On coser inspecion i is o be seen ha hee is no mere onecompex of coecive experience wih one excsive endencas he heor of he fok-spiri mainained The word is knownhrogh man dieren orienaions becase here are mansimanos and ma conradicor rends of hogh(b no means of eqa vae srgging agains one anoherwih heir dieren inerpreaions of common experience

The ce o his conic herefore is no o be fond in h objec in ise (if i were i wod be impossibe o ndersandwh he objec shod appear in so man dieren refracionsb in he ver dieren expecaions prposes and impsesarising o of experience If hen for or expanaion we arehrown back pon he pa and conerpa of dieren impse

or concree emples cf he hors pper ie Beeng eronrrenz im Geiee es Geisigen op ct



IDEOLOGY AND UTOPIA

wihin he soci sphere, more exc nlysis will show hhe cuse f his conic beween concree ipulss is no obe looked fr in heoy iself, bu in hes vid pposing

impulss, which in u re rooed in he whole mix ofcollcive ineess. These seemingly I pue horicl "clevges my, in he ligh of sociologl nlysis (whchunoves h hidden inemedie seps been he originlimpulses o obseve nd he puely heoil nlusion) ,be edud f he mos p, o moe fundml philosopldienes. Bu he ler, in un, e invisibly guided by hengonism nd cmpeiion beween concee, oning

gups. nin only one f he mny oher possibl bss of

collive eisne, ou f whih dieen inpins ofhe wld nd diren fos f knowledg my is, w mypin o he le plyed by he relionship bewen dinlysiud genions. his fco nuens in vey ny sesh pinipls f sleion, orgnizion, nd polizin fhoies nd pins of view peviling in givn siy

givn mon his is givn e dild nin n heuh's essy nild t Ds Poblm der neinn .1F he knowldge derived from our sudies on piionnd gneions, we hve concludd h wh, fo he pinof viw of imnen inlleul hisoy, pps o be he inn dilic in he devlpmn of ides, beoms, fomhe sndpoin of he soilogy of knowledge, he rhyhmicmovemn in he hisory of ides s eced by compiion nd

he suession f generions.n nsiding he elinship beeen fors of hugh n

fos of sociy, we shll ll M Webes 2 obevion hhe ins in syseizion is in lge p ibuble o shlsic bkgound, h he ineres in sysemic hough is h le of juisic nd sienic shls f hough,nd h he oigin of his ognizing fm of hough lis inhe cninuiy of pdgogicl insiuions. We should lso

menion his poin Mx Schels 3 signicn emp oesblish he relionship beeen vrious fos of hugh nd

Kle Vieelahshee Soiologie 1928) o iii Cf ax Webe Wischa ud Gesellscha o cit aiculaly he

sectio o the sociology of law3 Cf especially his woks Die Wssesome ud die Gesellscha

Leiig 1926 ad Die Fome des Wisses ud de Bildug, i Bo 192



HE SOIOOG OF KNOEDGE 43

ceran ypes grups n whch ane hey can rse an eeabrae.

Ths mus suce ncae wha s mean y he crrean

beween ypes knwege an eas n he ne hanan he sca grups an prcesses whch ey arecharacers

Esstial tratio of th oal rocss ito th rspiv of hough Are he exsen acrs n he scaprcss mry perphera sgncance are hey e regaremery as cnnng he rgn r acua eepmen eas(.e. are hey merey genec reeanc) r hey penrae

n he perspece cncree parcuar asserns ?hs s h nex quesn we sha y answer. The hsrcaan sca gness an ea wu ny be rreean sumae ay he ema an sca cnns semergence ha n eec n s nen an . I hs werehe cas any w prs n he hsry human knwegewu ny e sngushe rm n anher y heac ha n h earer per ceran hngs wre s unknwn

an ceran errrs s exse whch hrugh ar knwge were cmpeey crrece. Ths smpe ranshp eweenan eare ncmpe an a aer cmee per knegmay a are exen e apprpre r he exac scences(ahugh nee ay he nn he saby hecaegrca sruure he eac scences s cmpare wh hegc cassca physcs cnseray shaken) . Fr he hsry he cuura scences hweer he earer sages are n ques smpy supersee y he aer sages an s n s easyemnsrabe ha eay errrs hae susequeny een crrece.Eery epch has s unamenay new apprach an scharacersc pn ew an cnsequeny sees he same bjec rm a new perspece.

Hence he hess ha he hrcsca prcess s essenasgncance r ms he mans knwege receessppr rm he ac ha w can see rm ms he cncreeasserns human bengs when an where hey arse wenan where hey were rmuae. he hsry ar has arycncusey shwn ha ar rms may e eney aeaccrng her sye snce each rm s psse ny unergen hsrca cnns an reeas he characers_ha epch. ha s rue ar as hs mutats mutadisg r knwege Jus as n ar we can ae paruar rms




o he groud of heir deie associaio wih a ariculareriod of hisor so i he case of kowledge we ca deecwih icreasig exacess he ersecve due o a ar

icular hisorical seig Furher, b he use of ure aalsisof hough-srucure, we ca deermie whe ad where he worldreseed iself i such, ad ol such a ligh o he subjecha made he asserio, ad he aalsis ma frequel becarred o he oi where he more clusive quesio ma beaswered, why he word reseed isef i recisel such amaer

Whereas he asserio (o cie he simles case) ha wcewo equals four gives o clue as o whe, where, ad b whom was formulaed, s alwas ossible i he case of a work he social sceces o sa wheher i was isired b he hisorcal school , or osvism or Marxism , ad fromwha sage he develome of each of hese daes Iasserios of his sor, we ma seak of a lraio of hesocia osiio o he vesigaor o he resus of his sud

ad of he uaioal-relavi Stuatonsgebunenhet or he relaiosh of hese asserios o he uderlg reali Persecve his sese sigies he maer which

oe views a objec, wha oe erceves , ad how oecosrues i hi kig Persecve, herefore, is somehigmore ha a merel formal deermiaio of hikig I refersalso o qualiaive elemes i he srucure of hough, elemeswhich mus ecessaril be overlooked b a urel formal logic

I is recisel hese facors which are resosible for he facha wo ersos, eve f he al he same formal-logicalrue, eg he law of coradicio or he formula of he sllogism,i a idecal maer, ma udge he sae obec ver dierel

Of he ras b whch he ersecive of a assero abe characerized, ad of he creria which aid us o aribuei o a give eoch or siuaio, we will adduce ol a few

examles aalsis of he meaig of he coces beig used he heomeo of he ouer-coce he absece of ceraicoces he srucure of he caegorical aaraus domimodels of hough level of absracio ad he oologha is resuosed I wha follows, we ied o show, bmeas of a few examles, he alcabili of hese ideifigrais ad creria i he aalss of ersecve A he sameime, will be show how far he sal osiio of he observer

aecs hs oulook



HE SOIOLOGY OF KNOLEDGE 245

e will begi with the fact that the sae wo, o the saecocet ost cases, eas e ieet thigs whe useb ieetl situate esos

\¥he, i the eal eas of the ieteeth cetu, a olstleGea coseatie soe of feeo " he eat theebthe ight of each estate to le accoig to ts iileges(libetis) . If he beloge to the oaticcoseatie aPotestat oeet he uestoo b it ie feeo " ,ie the ight of each iiiual to lie accoig to his owiiiual esoalit Both of these gous thought i tesof the qualave co cepo of freo " because the uestoo

feeo to ea the ight to aitai eithe thei histoicalo the ie, iiiual istictieess.\Vhe a libeal of the sae eio use the te feeo ,

he was thiig of feeo fro ecisel those iileges whichto the olstle coseatie aeae to be the e basis of all feeo The libeal cocetio was, the, a equalaacocepo of freeo , i the case of which beig fee " eatthat all e hae the sae fuaetal ights at thei isosal.

he libeal cocetio of feeo was that of a gou whichsought to oethow the eteal, legal, oequaliaia socialoe. he coseatie iea of feeo, o the othe ha,was that of a statu wich i ot wish to see a chages the eteal oe of this, hoig that eets woul cotiuei thei taitioal uiqueess ; i oe to suot thigs sthe wee, the also ha to iet the issues coceig feeofo the eteal olitical eal to the ie oolitical eal.

hat the libeal saw ol oe, a the coseatie ol aothesie of the cocet a of the oble was cleal a eotabl coecte with thei esetie ositios i the sociala olitical stucue.1 I bief, ee i the foulatio ofcocets, the ale of isio is guie b the obsee's iteestsThought, ael, is iecte i acoace with what a aticulasocial gou eects. hus, out of the ossible ata of eeiece,ee cocet cobies with itself ol that which, thelight of the iestigatos iteests, it is essetia to gas ato icooate Hece, fo eale, the oseatie coetof Volksges was ost obabl foulate a a coutecoceti oostio to the ogessie cocet of the sii of theage " (Zeges he aalss of the ocets i a gie octua

Cf th authors " as kosrvatv k Archiv fr Sozialwissenschaf und Sozialpoliik, vo 7 pp 90



46 IDEOLOGY D UOPIA

schee sef prdes he ms ec prch he perspecef disincivly sued sr.

Te bsence f cerin cnceps ndices very fen n nl

he bsence f cerin pis f iew bu ls e bsence denie re cme grips wih cerin lfe-prblems.Tus fr emple he relively le ppernce in hisy fhe cncep scil JJ is evdence fr e fc e quesnsiplied n e cncep sci " d never been psied befrend likewise eie de f eperience signied by ecncep scil JJ did n eist befre.

B n ny d he cnceps i eir cncree cnens diverge

m ne ner n ccrdnce wih diering scil psiinsbu he bsic cegries f ug m likewise dier fr empe ely nineeen cenury Gern cservism

(we drw ms f ur illusrins frm is eph becuse hs been suded mre rughly frm silgicl pn fview n ny er) nd cnemprry cnservis frh mer en use plgicl cegries wic d nbre up e cncree ly f e d f eperience bu

seek rer preserve i in ll is uniqueness. As ppsed e mplgicl pprc e nlyicl pprc crcerisic f e pries f e le brke dwn every cncree lyin rder ive sller mre generl unis wic migen be recmbined rug e cegry f cusliy rfuncinl inegrn. Here i becmes ur sk n nly indice e fc peple in dieren scil psiins hinkdierenly bu mke inelligible e cuses fr eir dieren

rdering f e meil f eperiences by dieren cegries.The gups riened he lef inend mke seing newu f e wrld s i is given nd herefre ey dive eirglnce frm ings s ey re ey bece bsrc nd mizehe given suin in is cmpnen eleens in rder recmbine hem new. Only ppers cngurivel rrplgiclly wic we re prepred ccep wiu furerd nd wich fundmenly we d n wis cnge.

Sil furher by mens f e cngurive cncepin i sinended sbilize precisey hse eens wich re sillin u nd e se ie invke sncn fr w eissbecuse i is s i is. All his mkes quie cler wh eeneen bsrc cegries nd princples f rgnizin wichre seeigly fr remved frm he pliicl sruggle veeir rigin n e e -hereicl prgic nur f e



THE OOLOGY OF KOWLEDGE 24

hma mid, ad i he moe pood dephs o he psycead o cosiosess. Hece o speak hee of coscios deepioi e sese of ceaig ideologis is o of he qesio.

he ex faco which may seve o caaceize epespecive o hogh is he so-called hogh-model i.e. emodel ha is mpliily i he mid of a peso whe he poceedso eec abo a obec.

is well kow fo iace ha oce he ypoloy ofobjecs i he aal scieces was fomlaed ad he caegoiesad mehos o hoh deived fom ese ypes became modelsi was heeoh hoped o solve all he poblems he ohe

ealms o exisece, icldig he social by ha ehod. (Thisedecy is epeseed by he mechaisic-aomisic coepioo social pheomea

is sigica o obseve ha whe his happeed as iall simila ases o a he saa of sociey oieed hemselves pimaily o his sigle model of hogh. The ladedobiliy, he displaced classes, ad he peasay wee o headom dig his hisoical peiod. The ew chaae o clal

developme ad he asceda oms o oieaio owadshe wold beloged o a mode o life ohe ha hei · ow. Theoms o he aseda wold-pespecive modelled o hepiiples o aal sciee came po hese classes as if omhe oside As he ieplay o social oces bogh ohegops, eeseig he above-meioed lasses ad expessighei lie-siaio io he oeo of hisoy he opposigmodels o hogh, as, o isace, he " rgnmc ad he

" prsnlst " wee played o agais e " fcioalmechaisic ype o hogh. Ths al, fo isace wosood a he apex o his developme, was aleady able oesablish coecios bewee hogh-models ad poliicaces1

Behid evey deie qesio d aswe is mplicily oexplicily o be fod a model of how fil hikig ca becaied o. f oe wee o ace i deal i each idividal case

he oigi ad he adis o disio a ceai ogh-mode,oe wold discove e pecli iy i has o he sociposiio of give gops ad e mae o epeig hewold. By ese gops we mea o meely classes, as a dogmac

The hstor o theores o the state especa as eed Oppeeer F Sy d Sil o e Saa s a reasreo trate atera




type o Marxim woul have it, but alo geeratio, tatugroup ect occupatioal group, chool, etc. Ule carefulattetio i pai to highly ieretiate ocial groupig of

thi ort a to the correpoig ieretiatio i cocept,categorie a thought-moel ie. ule the problem of therelatio betwee uper a ub-tructure i ree, it woulbe impoible to emotrate that correpoig to the wealthof type of owlege a perpective which have appearei the coure of hitory there are imilar ieretiatioi the ubtructure of ociety. Of coure we o ot ite toey that of a the abovemetioe ocia grupig a uit

cla traticatio i the mot igicat, ice i the alaalyi all the other oca group arie from a are traformea part of the more baic coitio of prouctio a omiatio Noe the le the ivetigator who i the face of thevariety of type of thought attempt to place them correctlyca o loger be cotet with the uieretiate cla cocept,but mut reco with the exitig ocial uit a factor thatcoitio ocia poitio, aie from thoe of cla.

Aother characteritic of the perpective i to be fouby ivetigatig the level of abtractio, beyo whicha give theory oe ot progre, or the egree to which it reittheoretical, ytematic formulatio.

t i ever a acciet whe a certai theory, wholly or ipart, fa to evelop beyo a give tage of relative abtractea oer reitace to further teecie towar beomigmore cocrete, either by frowig upo thi teecy towar

coretee or eclarig it to be irrelevat. Here too, the ocialpotio of the thier i igicat.Preciely i the cae of Marxim a the relatio it bear to

the ig of the ociology of owege ca it be how hwa iterrelatiohip ca ofte be formulate oly i that formof ccretee which i peculiar to that particular tapoit.t ca be how i the cae f Marxim that a oberverwhoe view i bou up with a give ocial poitio will by

himelf ever uccee i iglig out the more geeral atheoretical apect hich are implicit i the cocrete obervtiothat he mae t might have bee expecte, for itace, thatlog ago Marxim woul have formulate a more theoretical waythe fuametal ig of the ociology of owlege coceigthe relatioip betwee hma thought a the coitio ofxitece i gnral epecially ice t icovery of the theory



THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNWLEDGE 249

of ideology also iplied a leas e beinnngs of e sociologyof knowledge Ta is iplicaion cold nee b bogo and eoeically elaboaed, and a bes only cae

patially ino iew, was de, owee, o e fac at, in econcee insance, is elaionsip was peceied only in eog of e opponen. I was pobably de, feoe,o a sbonscios elcance o ink o e iplicaions of aconceely folated insig o a poin wee e eoeicalolations aen in i wold be clea enog o ae a disqieing eec on one's own posiion Ts we see ow enaowed focs wic a gien position iposes and te diingiplses wic goe is insigs tend o obsc e genealand eoeical folation of ese iews and o esic ecapaciy fo abstacion Tee is a endency o abide by epaticla iew ta is iediaely obainable, and o peente qesion fo being aised as o wee e fac aknowledge is bond p wi eistence is no ineen in ean og-stce as sc. In addiion o is, eendency in Maxis o sy away fo a geneal, sociologicalfolaion ay feqenly be aced o a siila liiaionwic a gien poin of iew iposes on a eod o inking.Fo insance, one is no een allowed o aise e qesion wee ipesonalizaion (Vringchung as elaboaed by Maxand Lkcs, is a oe o less geneal penoenon of consciosness,o wete capialisic ipesonalizaion is eely one paiclafo of i. Weeas is oeepasis on conceeness and

isocis aises o of a paicla social locaion, e opposieendency, naely e ediae ig ino e iges ealsof absaction and foalizaion, ay, as Maxis as iglepasized, lead o an obscing of te concee siaion andis niqe caace Tis cold be deonsaed once oe ine case of foal sociology

_ We d o no ws n any way o call ino qesion e legiiacyof foal sociolog as one possible ype of sociology. Wen,

owee, in e face of e endency o inode fe conceeness ino e folaion of sociological pobles, i ses itselfp as e only sociology, i is nconsciosly gided by otiessiila o ose wic peened is istoical foenne, ebogeois-libeal ode of og, fo ee geing beyondan absac and genealizing ode of obseaion in is eoy.I sies away fo dealing isoically, conceely andindiidally wi e pobles of sociey fo fea a is ow




inner nonim or inne he nonim o pilimiel mih beome viible In hi i reemble he ruilboureoi iuion o he problem o reeom in whih he

problem uully w n i poie only heoreilly nbrly An even when i i o poie he queion oreeom i lwy one o poliil rher hn o il rihine i he ler phere were oniere he or o properyn l poiion in heir relion o reeom n equliywoul inevibly ome o lih

To ummrize : he pproh o problem he level on whihhe problem hppen o be ormule he e o brion

n he e o onreene h one hope o in re lln in he me wy boun up wih oil exiene

I woul be pproprie nlly o el wih he unerlyinubrum in moe o houh ih heir preuppoeonoloie n heir oil iereniion I i preiely beuehe onoloil ubrum i unmenlly inin orhinin n pereivin h we nno e equely inlimie pe wih he problem rie hereby n we reer

hereore o more elbore remen o be oun elewhere.A hi poin le i ue o y h however uie heeire o moe philoophy my be o wor ou I bionoloy i i nerou o pproh ee probem nelyihou r in ino oun he reul uee by heoioloy o nowee For i we pprohe hi problemnvely he lmo inevible reul woul be h ine oobinin enuine bi onoloy we woul beome he viimo n rbirry ienl onology whih he hioril proehppen o me vible o u

Thee reeion mu ue n hi onneion o lrihe noion h he oniion o exene e no merelyhe hioril ene o ie bu oniue n eeni pro he prou o houh n me hemele el in heironen n orm The exmpe we he u e hou

ry he peuir rure n he nion he oiogyo noeeT Sa Appoa Caatst o Sooogy Ko

g Two peron rryin on iuion in he me univereo oureoeponn o he me hiori<loi oniionn n mu o o e iereny rom wo peron

Cf he uor' " D onerie Denen oc ci. pp 489 .n eeci 94) n pp 8 8 14 of hi oume



THE SCILGY F KNWLEDGE 51

idenied ih dieren soi posiions. These o ypes odisusson ie. beeen soy nd neeuy homoeneouspripns nd beeen soiy nd ineeuy heero

eneous priipns re o be ery disinushed I i noden h he dsnion beeen hese o ypes odsussion is epiiy reonized s probem in n e ieours. Sheer ed our onemporry perod he epoho euizion Zitaltr ds Asglichs, hih i ppied oour probems mens h ours s ord in hih soroupns hh hd hhero ved more or ess isoed romone noher eh min ise nd is on ord o houh

bsoue re no in one orm or noher merin ino one noher. No ony rien nd iden no ony he vriousnions o he es bu so he vrious soi sr o hesenions hih previousy hd been more or ess seoninednd ny he dieren oupon roups ihin hese srnd he ineeu roups in his mos hihy diereniedord hese re no hron ou o he sesuien ompen se o n hemseves or rned nd re ored

o minn hmseves nd heir ides n he e o he onsuho hese heeroneous roups

u ho do hey rry on hs srue ? s r s neeunonsms re onerned hey usuy do so ih bu eeepions by l in ps one noher ; i.e houh heyre more or ess re h he person ih hom ey redisussn he mer represens noher roup nd h i isey h his men sruure s hoe is oen uie dierenhen onree hin is bein dsussed hey spe s i heirdierenes ere onned o he se uesion issue roundhh her presen dsreemen rysized. They overoohe h her nonis ders rom hem in his hoe !ouoo nd no merey in his opinion bou he poin underdsusson.

This indies h here re so ypes o ineeu iner

ourse beeen heeroeneous persons. In he rs he derenesin he o men sruure rein obsurey in he brondin so r s he on beeen he priipns is oneed.Consiousness or boh is ryszed bou he onree issueFor eh o he priipns he obje hs more r edieren menin beuse i ros ou o he hoe o herespeive rmes o reerene s resu o hih he menino he obje in he perpeive o e oher erson remn




east n pat, sce. Hence takng past ne anthe " san netae phenmenn f the age f eqazatn

On the the han, the egent patcpants may as e

appace wth the ntentn f sng each theetca pntf cntact as an ccasn f emng msnestanngs yascetanng the sce f the eences. Ths w ng tte ayng pespstns whch ae mpe n the twespecte pespectes as cnseqences f the tw eentsca statns. In sch cases, the scgst f knwegees nt face hs antagnst n the sa manne, accng twhch the thes agments ae eat with ecty. He seeks

athe t nestan hm y enng the tta pespecte anseeng t as a fnctn f a cetan sca ps.

he scgst f knwege has een accse, ecause fths pcee, f ang the ea agmnt, f nt cncennghmsef wth the actua sectmatte ne scssn, t,nstea, f gng ehn the mmeate suect f eate tthe tta ass f thght f the asset n e t eea tas meey ne ass f thght amng many an as n me

than a pata pespecte Gng ehn the assetns f theppnents an segang the acta gments s egtmaten cetn cases, namey, wheee, ecase f the asence fa cmmn ass f thgh, thee s n cmmn pem. Thescgy f knwege seeks t ecme the takng pastne anthe f the as antagnsts y takng as ts epcttheme f nestgatn te nceng f the ses f the patasageements whch w nee cme t the attentn f thesptants ecase f the peccpatn wth the sectmattethat s the mmeate sse f the eate. It s spes temak that the scgst f knwege s ste n tacngthe agments t the ey ass f thght an the pst fsptants ny f an n s fa as an acta spaty estsetween the pespectes f the scssn estng n a fnamenta msnesang. As ng as scssn pcees fm

the same ass f thght, an wthn the same nese fscse, t s nnecessay. Neeessy appe, t may ecma means f sesteppng the scssn.

h A cqistion of Prsiv as a Prontion for th oologyof Knowlg. F the sn f a peasant wh has gwn pwthn the naw cnnes f hs age an spens hs whefe n the pace f hs th the me f thnkng an speakngchaactestc f that age s smethng that takes ente



THE SOCIOLOY O KNOWLEDE 53

fr gr Bu r h cur l wh g h ci p himlf grull ci lif, h rurl m f livig hikig c b mhig b k fr gr H

h w cri chm frm i, h iiguih w,prhp qui cciul, bw rurl urb m f hugh i I hi iici li h rbgiig f h pprch which h cilg f kwlgk vlp i full il Th which wihi giv grupi ccp blu ppr h uir cii bh grup iui rcgz pril (i hi c, rurl ' ' ) Thi p f kwlg prupp mr hprpciv

Thi ch prpciv c b gi i h flwig w (a) mmbr f grup l hi cil pii (b cig highr cl, migri, c ; ( h bi f xic f whl grup hif i rli i riil m iiui wihi h m ci w r mr cillmi m f irpri cm i cic , icriicizig hr, rr hr rpr blih prpciv wih rfrc ch hr A rul, ch prpciv, hrugh which h uli f hcrig m f hugh r icvr, cm wihi hrg f pibili fr ll h ir pii, lr g b h rcgiz m f hikig W hvlr iic h cil gi f h cilg f kwlg r prmrilup h l mi pibili

Rlatosm Wh h lr b i hul hrllv ub wh i m wh h prcur f hcilg f kwg i ig rlil Whh urbiz p b, wh chrcriz cri pliicl,philphicl, r cil pii b fu mg hi riv ruic , h lgr icu h pii hmgu pricip, h i, b lig irc wih h pcicc f wh i i Rhr h rl hm cri

m f irprig h wrl which, i u, i ulimlrl cri cil rucur which ciu i iuiThi i ic f h I rlil prcur W hlll lr wih h fc h wh ri r r i hiw i i impli h h r fl Th cilg fkwlg g b wh, i m uch cru w hi,

good eample s urnshed by Karl Renner, n D Rchtnttutd Prvtrch (J. C B Mohr Tbngen, 1929)





HE SOIOLOGY O KNOWLEDGE 2

assrtions that th sociologist o knowldg maks, whicrprsnts our own point o iw It dirs rom t rst wi that it shows that th mr actual dmonstration and

idnticaion o th social position o th assrtor as t tlls usnothing about th truthalu o his assrtion It implis onlth suspicion that tis assrtion might rprsnt mrl a patiaw As or against th scond altrnati it maintains thatit would b incorrct to rgard th sociolog o knowldg asgiing no mor than a dscription o th actual conditions undrwhich an assrtion ariss (actual-gnsis) Er complt andthorough sociological analsis o knowldg dlimits, in contntas wl as structur, th iw to b analsd In othr words,it attmpts not mrl to stablish th xistnc o th rlationship, but at th sam tim to particulaiz its scop and thxtnt o its alidit Th implications o this will b st orthin gratr dtail

What th sociolog o knowldg intnds to do b its analsiswas airl clal brought out in th xampl w citd o thpasant bo Th discor and idnticaion o his arlirmod o thougt as rural ", as contrastd with I urban ",alrad inols th insight that th dirnt prspcts arnot mrl particular in that th prsuppos dirnt rangso ision and dirnt sctors o th total ralit but also inthat th inrsts and th powrs o prcption o th dirntprspctis ar conditiond b th social situations in whichth aros and to which th ar rlant

Alrad upon tis ll th rlational procss tnds to bcoma particularizng pross, or on dos not mrl rlat thassrtion to a standpoint but, n doing so, rstricts its claimto alidit which at rst was absolut to a narrowr scop

A ull dlopd sociolog o knowldg ollows t samapproach which w ha llustratd abo in th cas o thpasant bo, xcpt that it ollows a dlibrat mthod ithth aid o a consistntl laboratd anasis o th pr

spcti particularization acquirs a guiding instrumnt anda st o critria or trating problms o imputation Thrang and dgr o comprhnsion o ach o ths sralpoints o iw bcoms masurabl and dlimit abl throughthir catgorical apparatus and th arit o manings whic

ach prsnts Th orintation towards crtain manings andalus which inhrs in a gin social position (th outookan atitud conditiond b th colcti purposs o a group),



2 IDOOGY AND UOIA

and he concee easons fo he dieen pespecives whichhe same siuaion pesens o he dieen posiions in i husbecome even moe deeminable, inelligible, and subjec o

mehodical sud ough he pefecion of he sociolog ofknowledge.Wih he gowing mehodological enemens in he sociolog

of knowledge, he deeminaion of he paiculai of a pespecive becomes a culual and inellecual index of he posiionof he gop in quesion B paiculaizing, he sociolog ofknowledge goes a sep fahe han he oiginal deeminaionof he facs o which mee elaionism limis iself. ve

analical sep undeaken in he spii of he sociolog ofknowledge arives a a poin whee he sociolog of knowledgebecomes moe han a sociological descipion of he facs whichell us how ceain views have been deived fom a ceain mlu.Rahe i eaches a poin whee i also becomes a ciique bedening he scope and he limis of he pespecive impliciin given asseions. The analses chaaceisic of he sociologof knowledge ae, in his sense, b no means ielevan fo hedeeminaion of he uh of a saemen bu hese analses,on he ohe hand, do no b hemselves full eveal he uhbecause he mee delimiaion of he pespecives i b no meansa subsiue fo he immediae and diec discussion beweenhe divegen poins of view o fo he diec examinaion ofhe facs. The funcion of he ndings of he sociolog of knowledge lies somewhee in a fashion hiheo no cleal undesood,beween ielevance o he esablishmen of uh on he onehand, and enie adequac fo deemining uh on he oheThis can be shown b a caeful analsis of he oiginal inenionof he single saemens of sociolog of knowledge and b henaue of is nings. An analsis based on he sociolog ofknowledge is a s pepaao sep leading o diec discussion,in an age which is awae of he heeogenei of is ineessand he disuni of is basis of hough, and which seeks o

aain his uni on a highe levelB. HE EISEMOLOIAL OSEQUEES OF HE SOIOLOY

OF OWLEDE

In he opening paagaph of his chape we mainained hai was possible o pesen he sociolog of knowledge as an

For further detais cf the treatment of the reationship of theoryand practice pra Part ll where we hae endeaoured to carry outsuch a socioogica anaysis of the perspectie



HE GY KNWEDGE 2

empirical thery f the actual relatins f knwledge t thescial situatin withut raising any epistemlgical prblems.n this assumptin all epistemlgical prblems have been

avided r put int the backgrund. This reserve n ur partis pssible and this articial islatin f a purely abstractedset f prblems is even desirable as lng as ur gal is merelythe disinterested analysis f given cncrete relatinships withut distrtin thrugh theretical precnceptins. But ncethe fndamental relatinships between scial situatins andcrrespnding aspects are reliably established ne canntbut devte neself t the frank disclsure f the valuatins

fllwing frm them. Anyne wh has a sense fr the intercnnectin f prblems which inevitably arise ut f the interpretatin f empirical data and wh at the same time is nblinded by the intrcacy f specializatin in mde learningwhich very ten prevents a direct attack n prblems musthave nticed that the facts presented under the sectin f Particularizatin 11 are in their very nature hard t acceptas mere facts. They transcend bare fact and call fr further

epistemlgical reectin. n the ne hand we have the merefact that when hrugh the scilgy f knwledge a relatinship is pinted ut beteen an assertin and a situatin thereis cntained in the very intent f this prcedure the tendenct " partiularize 11 its validity. Phenmenlgically ne maytake cgnizance f this fact wthut disputing the clam tvalidity implied in it . But n he ther hand the further factthat the psitin f the bserver des inuence the results

f thught and the fact (intentinally dealt wth by us in greatdetail that the partial validity f a given perspective is fairlyeactly determinable must sner r later lead us t raise theuestin as t the signicance f this prblem fr epistemlgy.

ur pint is nt therefre that the scilgy f knwledgewill by its very nature supplant epistemlgical and nlgicalinquiry but rather that it has made certain discveries whichhave mre than a mere factual relevance and whic canntbe adequately dealt with until sme f the cnceptins andpreudices f cntemprary epistemlgy have been revised.n the fact then that we always attribute nly partial validityt particular assertins we nd that new element whichcmpels us t revise the fundamental presuppsitins f presentday epistemlgy. We are dealing here wth a case n whichthe pure determinatin f a fact (the fact f the partiality f a



258 DEOLOGY AND UOPA

esetive whih is demonstable in onete assetions) mabeome elevant fo deteminng the valdit of a oosition ndin whih the natu of the genesis of an assetion ma beome

elevant to its tuth (wo in Gnsis inngnsis Z{ sinvrmag his, to sa the least, funishes an obtale to heonstution of a shee of valdit whih the iteia of tuthae indeendent of oigins

nde the dominant esuositions of esentda hilosohi will be iossible to utilze this new insight fo eistemologbeause moden theo of knowledge is based on the suositionthat bae fatnding has no elevane to validit Unde the

santions of tis tile of faith, eve enihment of knowledgeaising out of onete eseah, whihseen fom a ide ointof viewdaes to oen u moe fundamental onsideations, isstigmatized with the hase soiologism One it is deidedand elevated into the ealm of the a pror that nothing anome out of the wold of emiial fats whih has elevanefo the validit of assetions, we beome blind to the obsevationthat this prior itself oiginall was a ematue hostatizationof a fatual inteelationshi whih was deived fom a atiulae of assetion and was fomulated ovehastil into aneistemologial axiom. ith the eae of mind that omesom the a priori emise that eistemolog is indeendentof the emiial seial sienes, the mind is one and foall losed o the insight whih a boadened emiiism mightbng. he esult is that one fails to see that this theoof self-suien, this gestue of self-esevation sevesno othe uose than that of a bulwak fo a etain te ofaademi eistemolog whih, in its last stages, is attemtingto eseve itself fom he ollase whih might esult fom amoe develoed emiiism. he holdes of the olde view ovelook the at that the ae theeb eetuating not eistemologas suh and eseving it fom evsion at the hands of theindividual sienes, but athe meel one sei kid of

eistemolog, he uniqueness of whh onsists onl in thefat that it one was at wa ith an ealie stage of a moenaowl oneived emiiism t then stabilized the onetion of knowledge whih was deived fom meel oneatiula segment of ealit and eesented meel one o theman ossible vaieties of knowledge.

n ode to disove whee the soiolog of knowledge malead us, we must one moe go into the oblem of the alleged



TE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE 259

primacy of epistemoogy over the special scieces avigopeed the probem by a critical examiatio we shal e ia positio to formuate at least sketchiy a positive presetatio

of the epistemoog already impicit i the very probem of thesociology of kowedge First we must adduce those argumetswhich udermie or at least call ito questio the absoluteautoomy ad primacy of epistemology as over agaist thespecial scieces

Epilgy an h cial cinc There is a twofoldreatioship betwee epistemoogy ad the specia sciecesThe former accordig to its costructive caims is fudmetalto al the special scieces sice it supplies the basic usticatiosor the types of kowledge ad the coceptios of truth adcorrectess which these others rely upo i their cocrete methodsof procedure ad aects their digs This however does otalter the fact that every theory of kowledge is itsef iuecedby the form which sciece takes at the time ad from which aloeit ca obtai its coceptio of the ature of kowedge Ipricipe o doubt it caims to be the basis of a sciece buti fact it is determied by the coditio of sciece at ay givetime The probem is thus made the more dicult by the facthat the very pricipes i the ight of which kowedge is tobe criticized are themseve foud to be socialy ad historicallycoditioed ece thei appicatio appears to be imited togive historica periods ad the particuar types of kowedgethe prevaet

Oce these iterreatioships are ceary recogized the theelief is o loger teabe that epistemoogy ad oology becauseof their ustiabe caim to foudatioa fuctios must deveopautoomousy ad idepedetly of the progress of the speciascieces ad are ot subect to basic modicatios by theseCosequety we are forced to recogize that a whoesomedevelopmet of epistemoogy ad oology is possible oy ifwe coceive of their relatioship to the specia scieces i the

foowig sese New forms of kowedge i the lat aalysis grow out of thecoditis of coective ife ad do ot deped for their emergeceupo the prior demostratio by a theory of kowledge thatthey are possibe they do ot theefore eed to be rst egitimized by a epstemoogy The reatioship is actualy quitethe reverse the developmet of theories of scietic kowledgetakes pace i the preoccupatio with empirical data ad the



6 OOGY AN UTOPA

fortunes of the forer a with those of the latte Theeolutions in ethodolog and episteolog are alwas sequelsand repercussions of the reolutions in the iediate epirical

procedures for getting knowledge Onl through constantrecourse to the procedure of the special epirical sciences canthe episteological foundations be ade sucientl exibleand extended so that the wll not onl sanction the clais ofthe older fors of knowledge (their original purpose but wilalso suppor the newer fors This peculiar situation is characteristic of all theoretical, philosophic disciplines. ts structureis ost clearl perceiable in the philosoph of law which

pesues to be the judge and critic of positie law, but whichis actuall, in ost cases, no ore than a pst facto forulatioand justication of the principles of positie lw

n saing this, no denial is ade of the iportance ofepisteolog or philosoph as such The basic inquires whichthe undertake are indispensable, and indeed, if one attackedepisteolog and philosoph on theoretical grounds, one couldnot aoid dealing with theoretical principles oneself Such a

theoetical attack would, of course, precisel to the extent thatit penetrates into fundaental issues, be in itself a philosophicalconcern o eer factual for of knowledge belongs a theoreticalfoundation This basic function of theor, which is to be undestood in a structural sense, ust neer be isapplied b usingits character to gie an a pii certaint to paticular ndingsf isused in this anner it would frustrate the progess ofscience and would lead to the displaceent b a pii cetaintiesof iews deriing fro epirical obserations. The eros andthe partialit in the theoretical bases of science ust continuallbe reised in the light of the new deelopents in the iediatescientic actiities theseles The light that is thrown bnew factual knowledge upon the theoretical foundation ustnot be allowed to b obscued b the obstacles to thought whichtheor a

possibl� r ct.

Through the particularizing procedureof the sociolog of Iowl dg ,

we discoe that the olde episteolog is a corelate of a paricular ode of thought This is oneexaple of the possibilit of extending our eld of ision ballowing newl discoered epirical eidence to throw newlight upon ou theoretical foundations We are thus iplicitlcalled upon to nd an episteological foundation appropiateto these ore aied odes of thought Moreoe we are requiedto nd if possible a theoretical basis under which can be su



THE SCILp F KNWLEDGE 261

se ll he oes of hogh which i he corse of hisorywe hve scceee i esblishig We c ow eiehow fr i is re h he hihero oi episeologies

oologies fish oly oe priclr foio for sigleype of kowlege

TE EMNSTRTIN F TE RTI TURE F

RDITIN PISTEMGY

a Th Orinaion Toward Natural Sin a a Modl o

Though The priclriy of he heory of kowlege holigswy o-y is ow clerly eosrble by he fc h herl scieces hve bee selece s he iel o which ll kowlege shol sire I is oly becse rl sciece especillyi is qible phses is lrgely echble fro he hisoriclsocil perspecive of he ivesigor h he iel of reowlege ws so cosre h ll eps o i ypeof kowlege iig he coprehesio of qliy re

cosiere s ehos of iferior vle For qliy coiselees ore or less ierwie wih he Wlahauungof he kowig sbec A oe whe hisoriclsocilforces plce oher ypes of kowlege i he cere of he re s ecessry o revise he oler preises which h bee ifo eclsively les o lrge ee forle for heersig sicio f he rl scieces ss K oce li he foios for oe episeology by

skig bo he lrey eise rl scieces I How rehey possible ? so oy we s sk he se qesiococeig he ype of kowlege which seeks qlive esig which es les o ec he whole sbecWe s sk frher how i wh sese c we rrive rh by es of his ype of hogh

b h Rlationhip btwn Critria o Trut and th SocialHiorical Situation We re fce here wih eve oreeeply ooe coecio bewee episeology i is cocreehisorcl vrieies he correspoig I eiseil siio The heory of kwlege kes over fro he cocree coiiosof kowlege of perio ( hereby of sociey o erelys iel of wh fcl kowlege shol be lso heop cocepio of rh i geerl s for isce i hefo of opi cosrcio of sphere of rh s sch



262 IDEOOGY ND UTOPI

The ossible utoias and wishimages of an eoch as concetions of the not-et-eal ae oiented about what ha aleadbeen ealized in this eoch (and ae not theefoe chance ndetemined hantasies o the esults of insiation Similal theutoian atten of coectness the idea of tuth aises out ofthe concete modes of obtaining knowledge evailing at a giventime Thus the concet of tuth has not emained constantthough all time but has been involved in the ocess of histoicalchange The exact hsiognom of the concet of tuth at agiven time is not a chance henomenon. Rathe is thee a clueto the constuction of the concetion of tuth of that time

in the eesentative modes of thougt and thei stuctue fomwhich a concetion is built u as to the natue of tuth in genealWe see theefoe not meel that the notion of knowledge

in geneal is deendent uon the concetel evailing fom ofnowledge and the modes of knowing exessed theein andacceted as ideal but also that the concet of tuth itself iseendent uon the alead existing tes of knowledge Thuson the basis of these intermediate stages thee exists a funda

ental although not eadil aaent nexus between eistemolog the ominant forms of knowing an the geneal socialintellectual situation of a time In this manne the sociologof nowledge at a given oint though its analsis b meansof the aticulaizing method also enetates into the ealm ofeist$molog whee it esolves the ossible conict amongthe vaious eistemologies b conceiving of each as the theoeticalsubstuctue aoiate meel to a given fom of knowledge

The nal solution of the oblem so esents itself that onlafte the uxtaosition of the dieent modes of knowledgeand thei esective eistemologies can a moe fundamentaland inclusive eistemolog be constucted

4 E SITIVE LE F TE ILGY F KNWLEDGE

Once we ealize that although eistemolog is the basis oall the emiical sciences it can onl deive its inciles

om the data sulied b them and once we ealize futhethe extent to which eistemolog has hitheto been ofoundlinuenced b the ideal of the exact sciences then it is clealou dut to inquie how te oblem will be aected hen othesciences ae taken into consideation This suggests the ollonaguments

visio o th hsis that th Gsis o a Propositio is r



THE SOCIOLOGY OF NOWLEDGE 26

al icumstancs Ilvant t its ut The bru d bsoluedulism beee vidi d « eisece beee meig " d eisece "bee essece " d fc "is s hs ofe bee oied ou oe of he ioms of he ideisic " eisemolog d oolog reviig o-d I isregrded s imregbe d is he mos immedie obscleo he ubised uiizio of he digs of he sociolog ofkoedge

Ideed if he e of koedge rereseed b he emle2 X 2 = 4 is subeced o emiio he he correcess ofhis hesis is fir ell demosred I is rue of his e

of koledge h is geesis does o eer io he resuls ofhough From his i is o shor se o cosruc shereof ruh i isef i such mer h i becomes comleelideede of he koig subjec Moreover his heor ofhe serbili of he ruh-coe of seme from hcodiios of is origi hd gre vlue i he sruggle gisschologism for ol ih he id of his heor s i ossibleo sere he ko from he c of koig. The observio

h he geesis of ide mus be ke sere from is meiglies so i he domi of elor scholog I iso becuse i his relm i could be demosred i cericses h he schologicl rocesses hich roduce meigre irrelev o heir vlidi, h his seme slegiimel icorored io he ruhs of oolog deisemolog Beee for isce, he ls of he mechismo ssociio d he judgme rrived b his ssociiv

mechism, here eiss g hich mkes i lusible h geesis of h kid does o coribue hig o heevuio of meig There re hoever es of geesishich re o void of meg, he eculiriies of hich hveui o ever bee lsed Thus for emle, he relioshi beee eiseil osiio d he corresodig oiof vie m be cosidered s geeic oe, bu i sese dierefrom h used reviousl I his cse oo, he quesio of geesis

is ivolved sice here c be o doub h e re here deligih he codiios of emergece d eisece of sserioIf e sek of he « osiio behid oi of vie e hvi mid comle of codiios of emergece d eisecehich deermie he ure d develome of sserioBu e ould be fsel chrcerizig h eiseil siuioof he sse or if e fie o ke io ccou is meig for



64 IDEOLOG AND UOPIA

he vay of the assero A osto the soa srrearres wth t as we have see he robabty hat he whooes t w thk a erta way I sges esee orete

wth referee to erta meags (innausgerihtetes ein)Soa osto aot be esrbe terms whh are evoof soa meags as for eame by mere hrooogaesato 79 as a hrooga ate s whoy meagessAs hstora esgato however ths ate refers to a se ofmeagf soa evets whh themseves emarate therage of a erta tye oeerees ots atttes ahoghts. Hstorasoa osto a oy be aeqatey

haratere by meagf esgatos (as for stae byh esgatos as bera osto roetara otosof estee et ) Soa estee s ths a area of begor a shere of estee of whh orhoo otoogy whreoges oy the absoe asm betwee beg evo of meag o the oe ha a meag o the other ha akeso aot! A geess of hs sor o be haratere byag t a meagf geess (inngenesis) as otraste

wth a fatageess (Faktizittsgenesis) If a moe ofhs sort ha bee ket m statg the reatosh betweebeg a meag the alty of beg a vaty woot have bee assme as absote estemoogy a ooogyIstea there wo have bee a seres of graatos betweethese two oes whh sh termeate ases a begveste wth meag a beg orete to meag wo have fo a ae a bee ororate to the

fameta oetohe et task of estemoogy or oo s to overome

ts arta atre by ororatg to tsef the mttyof reatoshs betwee estee a vaty (ein und Geltung)as sovere by the sooogy of kowege a to gve attetoo the tyes of kowege oeratg a rego of beg whhs f of meag a whh aets the trthvae of heassertos hereby estemoogy s ot sate by the

sooogy of kowege bt a ew k of estomoogy s alefor whh wi reko wth the fats brogh to gh by hesooogy of kowege

Further Cnsequenes f the ilgy f Knwledge fr Epistem-lgy Havg see hat most of the aoms of he reva

C t y prvouly rrrd to Idologch ud ozologctrprto tgr bld loc ct



THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE 265

oology ad epstemology hae bee tae oe fom the quatable atual sceces ad ae, so to spea, mee etesos ofthe tedeces sgulaly chaactestc of ths fom of owledge,

t becomes clea that the oologcal poblem must be efomulatedwth efeece to the coute-model of moe o less estetallydetemed aetes of owledge We ted ow a fewwods to state the ew fomulato of the poblem whch sdeemed ecessay oce we hae ecogzed the patal chaacteof the olde oology

h D£covry of th A ctvtc lmnt n Knowdg That the t dealstc cocepto of owledge owg s egaded

mostly as a puely theoetcal act the sese of pue pecepto, has ts ogs, addto to the aboe-metoed oetato towad mathematcal models the fact that thebacgoud of ths epstemology thee les the phlosophcadeal of the cotemplate lfe We caot coce ouseleshee wth the hstoy of ths deal o the mae whch thepuely cotemplate cocepto of owledge st peetatedto epstemology Ths wold eque eamato of the

pehstoy of scetc logc ad of the deelopmet of thephlosophe fom the see, fom whom the fome too oethe deal of the mystc so ) It suces fo us to potout that ths geat esteem fo the cotemplately peceed sot the outcome of the pue obseato of the act of thgad owg but spgs fom a heachy of alues based oa ceta phlosophy of lfe Te dealstc phlosophy, whchepesets ths tadto ssted that owledge was pue oly

whe t was puely theoetcal Idealstc phlosophy was otupset by the dscoey that the type of owledge epesetedby pue theoy was oly a small segmet of huma owledgethat dto thee ca be owledge whee me, whlethg, ae also actg, ad ally, that ceta elds oledge aes oly whe ad so fa as t tself s acto, e whe acto s pemeated by th e teto of the md, the sese that the cocepts ad the total appaatus of thoughtae domated by d eect ths ast oetato Notupose n to' epto but pupose n peceptotself eeals the qualtate chess of the wold cetaelds Also the pheomeologcally demostable fact that these elds the actst geess peetates to the stuctue ofthe pespecte ad s ot sepaable fom t could ot detethe olde oology d epstemology ethe fom oeloog




this type of knowledge which is integrated with action or froseeing in it only an ipure for of knowledge (It is interesting to note that the connotations of the designation ipureknowledge ses to point to a agical origin of the ter. Theproble henceforth consists not in rejecting this type of knowledge fro the very beginning but in considering the annerin which the concept of knowing ust be reforulated so thatknowledge can be had even where purposeful action is involved.This reforulation of the noological proble is not intended toopen the gates to propaganda and value-judgents in thesciences. On the contrary when we speak of the fundaentalintent of the ind inni anii which is inherent in everyfor of knowledge and which aects the perspective we referto the irreducible residue of the purposeful eleent in knolegewhich reains even when al conscious and explicit evaluationsand biases have been eliinated It is selfevident that science(in so far as it is free fro evaluation) is ot a propagandisticdevice and does not exist for the purpose of counicatingevaluations but rather or the deterination of facts. Wha

the sociology of knowledge seeks to reveal is erely thatafter knowledge has been freed fro the eleents of propagandaand evaluation it still contains an activist eleent which fothe ost part has not becoe explicit and which cannot beeliinated but which at best can and should be raised intothe sphere of the controllable

h Essniay spciisic En in Cain yps fKnwg The second point of which we ust take cognizance

is that in certain areas of historical-social knowledge it shouldbe regarded as right and inevitable tat a given nding shouldcontain the traces of the position of the knower. The problelies not in trying to hide these perspectives or in apologizingfor the but in inquiring into the question of how granted theseperspectives knowledge and obj ectivity are still possible It isnot a source of error that in the visual picture of an object inspace we can in the nature of the case get only a perspectivistic

view The proble is not how we ight arrive at a nonperspectivistic picture but how by juxtaposing the variouspoints of view each perspective ay be recognized as suchand thereby a new level of obj ectivity attained. Thuswe coe to the point where the false ideal of a detachedipersonal point of view ust be replaced by the idealof an essentially huan oint f vew whch is thin the



THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOLEDGE 27

lmts o a human perspectve constantly strvng to enlargetsel.

he Prble f the phere f ruth s uch. In examnngthe phlosophy o le whch urnshes the background or thedealstc epstemology and noology t became clear that thedeal o a realm o truth as such (whch so to speak pre-exstsndependently o the hstorcal-psychologcal act o thought,and n whch every concrete act o knowng merely partcpatess the last oshoot o the dualstc worldvew whch alongsdeo our world o concrete mmedate events created a secondworld by addng another dmenson o beng

The postng o a sphere o truth whch s vald n tsel (anoshoot o the doctrne o deas s ntended to do the same orthe act o knowng as te noton o the beyond or thetranscendental dd or dualstc metaphyscs n the realm oontology namely to postulate a sphere o perecton whchdoes not bear the scars o ts orgns and measured by whchall events and processes are shown to be nte and ncomplete.Furthermore just as n ths etreme sprtualstc metaphyscs

the qualty o beng human was conceved as merelybeng human whch had been strpped o everythng vtalcorporeal hstorcal or socalso an attempt was made toset orth a concepton o knowledge n whch these humanelements would be submerged. It s necessary to rase thequeston tme and agan whether we can magne the concepto knowng wthout takng account o the whole complex otrats by whch man s characterzed and how wthout these

presuppostons we can even thnk o the concept o knowng,to say nothng o actually engagng n the act o knowngIn the realm o ontology, n mdern tmes ths dualstc ve

(whch orgnated or the purpose o provng the nadequacyo ths " world was urthermore gradually broken down nthe course o emprcal research. In noology and epstemology,however t s stll a orce. But snce here the basc presuppostonsn the eld o the theory o scence are not qute so transparent

t was beleved that ths deal o a superhuman supertemporalsphere o valdty was not a possble constructon arsng outo ones world-vew but an essental datum and prerequsteor the nterpretaton o the phenomenon o thnkng ". Ourdscusson here s ntended to show that rom the pont o veo the phenomenology o thought, there s no necessty to regardknowledge as though t were a ntruson rom the sphere o




acual haeigs io a shee of uh i iself uch acosucio a bes is of a heusic alue fo such moes ofhough as ae eesee by he eamle 2 X 2 = 4 Ou

eecios aim o he coay o show ha he oblem ofkowig ecomes moe ielligible if we hol sicly o he aaesee by he eal facual hikig ha we cay o i hiswol (which is he oly ki of hikig kow o us a whichis ieee of his ieal shee a if we acce he heomeo of kowig as he ac of a liig beig. I ohe woshe sociology of kowlege egas he cogiie ac i coeciowih he moels o which i asies i is eiseial as well as is

meaigful ualiy o as isigh io eeal uhs aisigfom a uely heoeical coemlaie uge o as some so ofaiciaio i hese uhs (as chele sill hough) bu asa isume fo ealig wih lifesiuaios a he isosalof a ceai ki of ial beig ue ceai coiios of lifeAll hese hee facos he aue a sucue of he ocessof ealig wih lifesiuaios he subecs ow makeu (ihis biological as well as hisoicalsocial asecs a he

eculiaiy of he coiios of lie esecially he lace aosiio of he hikeall hese iuece he esuls of houghBu hey also coiio he ieal of uh which his liig beigis able o cosuc fom he oucs of hough.

The coceio of kowlege as a iellecual ac which isoly he comlee whe i o loge beas he aces of ishuma eiaio has as we hae aleay iicae is geaesheuisic alue i hose ealms whee as i he eamle2 X 2 = 4,

he aboemeioe chaaceisics ca heomeologicallywih geae o less usicaio be show acually o eisI is misleaig howee a es o obscue fuamealheomea i hose boae ealms of he kowable whee ifhe huma hisoical eleme is oelooke he esuls of houghae comleely eaue

Oly he heomeological eiece eie fom he eismoels of hough may be use as a agume fo o agaisceai oces iole i kowlege. Disguise moiesaisig ou of a ceai oulook o he wol hae o beaigo he mae Thee is o easo fo eaiig ou oologyhe isai fo cooeal sesual emoal yamic a socialhigs chaaceisic of he ye of huma beig esuose ihe iealisic hlosohy A he ese mome hee aeofoig each ohe wo yes of kowlee whic e



THE SOIOLOGY OF KNOLEDGE 269

eesentative signicance, and coesondingl thee ae twoossibilities of noological and eistemological elanations onowledge Fo the moment it would be well to ee these two

aoaches seaate and to mae the dieences between themstand out athe than to minimize them Onl in the ocessof tial and eo wll it become clea which o these bases ofinteetation is the moe sound and whethe we get fathe ifas has been done hitheto, we tae the situationall detachedte of nowledge as ou oint of deatue and teat thesituationall conditioned as seconda and unimotant ocontaiwise, whethe we egad the situationall detached te

of nowledge as a magina and secial case o the situationallconditionedI we wee to inquie into the ossible diections of eistemolog

if it followed the lastmentioned model of thought and ecognizedthe inheent situational detemination o cetain tes ofnowledge and made it the basis fo its uthe eections, weshould be confonted with two ossible alteatives The scientist,in this case has te tas, st of all, of maing elicit theossibilities of the futhe imlications o his oblem and tooint out all the eventualities that ae liel to come into hisange o vision He should content himsel with asseting onlwhat, in his esent stage o enetation into the oblem, hecan honestl detemine The function o the thine is not toonounce judgment at an cost when a new oblem staises, but athe, in ful a aess of the fact that eseachis still nde wa, to state onl that which has become deniteleceivable Thee ae two alteatives that he ma folowonce he has aived at this stage

Th Two Dictions in Epistmology One of the two diectionstaen b eistemolog emhasizes the evalence of situationaldetemination, maintaining that in the couse o the ogesso social nowledge this element is ineadicable, and tattheeoe, even ones own oint o view ma alwas be eected

to be eculia to ones osition This would equie evisionof the theoetical basis of nowledge b setting u the thesisof the inheentl elational stuctue of human nowledge(just as the essentiall esectivistic natue of visuall eceivedobjects is admitted without question

This solution does not iml enunciation of the ostulate oobjectivit and the ossibilit o aiving at decisions in factualdisutes no does it involve an accetance of illusionism



270 IDEOOGY AND OPIA

accoring to which everything is an aearance an nothingcan be ecie. It oes imly rather that this obectivity anthis cometence to arrive at ecisions can be attaine only through

inirect means. It is not intene to assert that obects o notexist or that reliance uon observation is useless an futilebut rather that the answers we get to the questions we ut tothe subectmatter are in certain cass in the nature of thingsossible only within the limits of the observers ersectivehe result even here is not relativism in the sense of one assertionbeing as goo as another Relationism a we use it states thatevery assertion can only e ces tsmnlywhe-· . ikdwhh ra oftersictrteee e ei«ie"of' oeribteweor-aslu e-truth·; " . " . , -

· e cse of sitationally conitione thought ob ectivitycomes to mean something quite new an ierent : ( there isrst of all the fact that in so far as ierent observers areimmerse in the same system they will on the basis of theientity of their concetua an categorical aaratus anthrough the common universe of iscurse thereby create,arrive at similar results an be in a osition to eraicate asan error everything that eviates from this unanimity an rently there is a recognition of the fact that when observershave ierent ersectives obectivity is atainable only i amore rounabout fashion In such a case what has been correctlybut ierently erceive by the two ersectives must beunerstoo in the light of the ierencs in structure of thesevarie moes of ercetion An eort must be mae to n aformula for translating the results f one into those of the otheran to iscover a common enominator for these varyinersectivistic insights Once such a common enominator hasbeen foun it is ossible to searate the necessary ierencesof the two view from the arbitrarily conceive an mistaken

elements which hre too shoul be consiere as errors.The controversy conceing visually erceive obects whichin the nature of the case can be viewe only in ersective) isnot settle by setting u a non-ersectivist view which isimossible) . It is settle rather by uerstaning in the lightof oes own ositionally etermine vision why the obectaeare ierently to one in a ierent osition ikewisein our el also obectivity is brought about by the translatin



THE SOIOLOGY O KNOWLEDGE 71

of one ersectie into the terms f nother It is nturl ththere we must sk which of the rious oints of iew is the bestAnd for this too there is criterion. As in the cse of isul

ersectie where certin ositions he the dntge ofreeling the decisie fetres of the obect so here re-eminenceis gien to tht ersectie which gies eidence of the gretestcomrehensieness nd the gretest fruitfulness in deling witemiricl mterils.

The theory of knowledge cn lso ursue second courseby emhsizing the following fcts : The imetu to reserchin the sociology of knowledge my be so guided tht it will notbsolutize the concet of situtionl determintion " rtherit my be directed in such fshion tht recisely by discoeringthe element of situtionl determintion in the iews t hnd rst ste will be tken towrds the solution of the rolemof situtionl determintion itself As soon s I identify iewwhich sets itself u s bsolute s reresenting merely gienngle of ision I neutrlize its rtil nture in cetin senseMost of our erlier discussin of this roblem moed quitesontneously in the direction of the neutrliztion of situtionldetermintion by ttemting to rise boe it . The ide of thecontinuously brodening bsis of knowledge the ide of thecontinuous etension of the self nd of the integrtion of rioussocil ntge oints into the rocess of knowledgeobsertionswhich re ll bsed on emiricl fctsnd the ide of nllembrcing ontology which is to be sought forll moe in

this direction. This tendency in intellectul nd socil historis closely connected with the rocesses of grou contct ndinternetrtion In its rst stge this tendency neutrlizesthe rious conicting oints of iew (i.e deries them oftheir bsolute chrcter) in its second stge it cetes out ofthis neutrliztion more comrehensie nd sericeble bsisof ision. It is interesting to note tht the construction of broder bse is bound u with higher degree of bstrctness

nd tends in n incresing degree to formlize the henomenwith which we re concerned This formlizing tendenc consistsin relegting to subordinte osition the nlysis of the concrete qulittie ssertions which led in gien direction ndsubstituting in lce of the qulittie nd congurtie descrition of henomen urely functionl iew modelled fter urely mechnicl ttern This theory of incresing bstrctness will be designted s the theory of the socil genesis o



272 DEY ND UP

abstractin ccrding t this scilgical derivatin f abstractin (which is clearly bservable in the emergence f thescilgical pint f view itself) the trend twards a higher stage

f abstractin is a crrelate f the amalgamatin f scial grupsThe crrbratin f this cntentin is fund in the fact thatthe capacity fr abstractin amng individuals and grupsgrws in the measure that they are parts f hetergeneusgrups and rganizatins in mre inclusive clective unitscapable f absrbing lcal r therwise particular grups Butthis tendency twards abstractin n a higher level is still naccrd with the thery f the situatinal determinatin f

thught fr the reasn that the subect that engages in thisthinking is by n means an abslutely autnmus mind initself but is rather a subect which is ever mre inclusiveand which neutralizes the earlier particular and cncrete pintsf view

ll the categries ustiably frmulated by frmal scilgyare prducts f this neutralizing and frmalizing peratin.The lgical cnclusin f this apprach is that in the end

sees nly a frmal mechanism n peratin Thus t cite aillustratin frm frmal scilgy dminatin is a categrywhich can nly be abstracted frm the cncrete psitins the persns invlved (ie the dminatr and the dminated)because it cntents itself with emphasizing the structural interrelatinship (the mechanism s t speak) f the behaviurnvlved in the prcess f interactin This it des by peratingwith cncepts like sub- and superrdinatin frce bedience

subectibilty etc The qualitative cntent f dminatin inthe cncrete (which wuld immediately present dminatin

in an histrical setting) is nt accessible thrgh this frmulaand culd be adequately prtrayed nly if the dminated aswell as the dminatr were t tell what their experiences actuallywere in the situatins in which they live Fr nt even thefrmal denitins that we discver at in thin air ; they ariserather ut f the cncrete prblems f a situatin t thispint the ntin arises which f curse needs detailed vericatinthat the prblem f perspectivism cnces primarily the qualitative aspect f a phenmenn Because hwever the cntentf scialintellectual phenmena is primarily meaningful andbecause meaning is perceived in acts f understanding andinterpretatin we may say that the prblem f perspectivismn the scily f knwledge refers rst f all t wha s



HE IOLY O KNOLEDE 273

undestandable n social phenmena ut in ths we ae by nomean denoting a naowly cicumscbed ealm he most elementay acts in the social sphee supass in complexity the puely

omal elations and they can only be undestood in eeingto qualitative contents and meanings In shot the poblem ointepetation is a undamental one.

Even whee omalization has gone athest and hee eae conceed with mee elations so to speak thee is stilla minimum o evience o the investigatos geneal diection inteest which could not be entiely eliminated Fo examplewhen Max Webe in classiying types o conduct distinguished

beteen puposeulational and taditional conduct hewas still expessing the situation o a geneation in which onegoup had discoveed and given evaluative emphasis to theationalistic tendencies in capitalism while anothe demonstablyimpelled by political motives discoveed the signicance otadition and emphasized it as ove against the ome Theinteest in the pblem o a typology o conduct itse aisesout o this paticula social situation. And when we nd that

pecisely these types o cnduct wee singled out and omalizedin pecisely this diection e must seek te souce o this tendencytoads abstaction in the concete social situation o the epochhich as peoccupied with the phenomenon o conduct asseen om this angle. I aothe age had attempted a omalsystematization o the types o cnduct it would no doubthave aived at quite anothe typology In anothe histoicalsituation dieent abstactions would have been ound andsingled out om the total complex o events In ou judgmentthe sociology o knowledge by vitue o its pemises does notneed to deny the existence o possibity o omalized andabstact thought. It need show only that in this espect tothought is not independent I existence o it is not a supesocial supe-human subject which is expessing itsel n assuch categoies in this typology. athe the neutalizations o thequalitative dieences in the vaying points o view aising ncetain denite situations esult in a scheme o oientationhich allows nly cetain omal and stuctual componentso the phenomena to emege into the oegound o expeienceand thught. In a udimentay om this pocess is aleadybsevable in the ules o etiquette and social intecuse whichase spontaneously in the contact between dieent goupsThee too the moe eeting the contacts the less conce



274 IDEOLOG AD PIA

here is wih he qualiaie udersadi of he muual relaio-shi which is formalized o such a ee ha i becomes a formal socioloical caeory " idicai so o seak oly

he secic role of he relaioshi The oher ary is reardedmerey as a ambassador " sraer or rai coducor "I social iercourse we reac o he oher oly wih refereceo hse characerisics I oher words he formalizaioi such cases is iself a eressio of cerai social siuaiosad he direcio which formalizaio akes (wheher we ickou as we do i he case of he ambassador " his fucioas a oliical rereseaie or wheher as we do i he case

of he sraer " sile ou his ehic rais) is deedeo he social siuaio which eers ee houh i a diluedform io he caeories ha w use I a similar ei eobseraio may be made ha i jurisrudece formalized lawakes he lace of iformal jusice which arises ou of cocreeissues ad rereses a qualiaie judme deried from hesiuaio ad eressi he sese of rih of a commuiyheeer a echae ecoomy reaches he oi where is

ery eisece deds o kowi i adace wha he lawwill be Heceforh i is less imora o do full jusice oeach case i is absolue uiqueess ha o be able more admore correcly o classify ad subsume each case uder reesblished formalized caeories

As already idicaed we are o ye i a osiio oday odecide he quesio as which of he wo boemeioedaleaies he ure of he emirical daa will force a scieic

heory of kowled o follow I eiher case howeer we willhae o recko wih siuaioal deermiaio as a iherefacor i kowlede as well as wi he heory of relaioisad he heor of h chai basis of houh. I eihercase we mus rejec he oio ha here is a I shere of ruhi iself as a isrie ad ujusiable hyohesis I isisrucie o oe ha he aural scieces seem o e i ayresecs i a close aaloous siuaio esecially if we useas our bais for comariso he ierreaio of heir rselih ha has bee so skilfully reseed by W eshalAccordi o his ie oce i was discoered ha our co-eioal sadards for measureme such as clocks ec. adhe eeryday lauae associaed wih hem are ossible dusable oly for his eeryday commo sese scheme of oriea-io i bea o be dersoo ha i he quaum heory



THE SOCILOGY OF KNOWLEDGE 27

fo intanc wh w a daing with th maumnt ofcton it i impoib to pak of a ut of maumnwhich can b fomuatd indpndnt of th mauing intu

mnt ud Fo in th att ca th mauing intunti intptd a an objct which itf vant inuncth poition and vocit of th cton to b maud Thuth thi ao that poition and ocit maumnt axpib on in indtminat ation (Hinbgwhich pcif th dg of indtinac Futho thnxt tp fom thi ida wa th dnia of th ation whichwa co aid to th od mthod of thining that th

cton in thmslvs mut in ait hav wdnd pathon th gound that uch a uch ation bong to tattp of compt contnt ation which to b u docommunicat a ot of intuitiv divd imag but which acompt dvoid of contnt inc no conqunc can bdawn fom thm Th am wa hd to app to th aumptionthat bodi in motion mut hav an about vocit. Butinc accoding to Eintin ativit thi i in pincip notdtminab thi aumption in th ight of modn thobon quit a much with th mpt ation a th thithat in addition to ou wod th xit anoth wod whichi in th natu of th ca inaccib to ou xpinc

If w foowd thi tnd o thought which in it unfomuatdationim i upiing ima to ou own thn th ttingupof th ogica potuat that a ph of tuth in itf xitad ha vaidit m a dicut to jutif a a of th othmpt itntia duaim jut mntiond Bcau a ong aw on ationa dtminabiiti in th who am ompiica knowdg th fomuation of an a uch phha no conqunc whatov fo th poc of knowg

5 ROBLEMS OF EHQUE STORALOOLOL

ESEARH THE EL OF THE OOLOY OF OWLEDE

Th mot impotant tak of th ocioog of knowdg atpnt i to dmontat it capacit in actua ach in thhitoicaocioogica am In thi am it mut wok outcitia of xactn fo tabihing mpiica tuth and foauing thi conto It mut mg fom th tag wh itngag in caua intuition and go gnaiti (uch a thcud dichotom invovd i th ation that h w d



276 IDGY AND UIA

ogeois hinking hee we nd poletaian hinking etc)hogh even his may involve sacicing is slogan-like cleactness In his i can and mst lean fom he mehods and

eslts of he exac pocede of the philological disciplinesand fom the methods sed in he hisoy of a with paticlaefeence t stylistic sccession

In he late the methods f daing and placing dieent wks of a ae especialy advanced and fom hem�tatis utais hee is mch e leaned The aic askof eseach in he sociology of knowledge in this connection is odeemine he vaios viewpoins which gadally aise in he

histoy of hogh and ae constantly in pocess of changeThese vaios posiions ae detemined y he mehod of

imptation. This involves a clea conception of he pespectiveof each podc of hoght and ingig of he pespective hsesalished ino elaionship wih he cents of hogh ofwhich i is a pa These cens of hogh in mse taced ack o he social foces deeg hem (his sephas no ye een aken y he hisoy of a in is own domain)

Thee ae two levels on which the ask of imptation maypoceed The st (inngss Zrchnng) deals wih genealpolems of intepeaion I econscs inegal syles ofthogh and pespecives acing single expessions and ecodsof hogh which appea o e elaed ack o a cenalWltanschag which hey expess I makes explici the wholeof he sysem which is implici in he discee segmens ofa system f thogh In syles of hogh which ae notavowedy a pat o a closed system i ncoves he ndelyingnity of olook ven afte his has een done he polemof impaion on his level is not ye compleely solved venif fo instance we wee sccessfl in showing ha in he shalf of he nineeenh ceny mos inelleca aciviies andpodcs cold fm he sandpoin of hei meanings e ssmed nde and impted o he olaity of lieal and

consevaive hogh he polem wold sil aise whehethis explici efeence o a cental olook which poceeds pelyon an intellectal level acally coesponds o the facts I isite possile tha he investigao will scceed in ildingp o f fagments of expession he wo anihetical closedsystems of consevaive hogh on the one hand and liealthoght on he ohe alhogh the lieals and cnsevaives ofthe peiod migh no in actaliy have thogh ha way a all



THE SOCIOLO OF KNOWLEDE 277

Te seond level of impuion aktttrcg operesb ssuming e idel pes buil up roug e proessbove desribed re indispensble poeses for reser nd

en sking o w exen: liberls nd onservives ulid ink in ese erms nd in w mesure in individulses ese idel-pes were ull relized in eir inkingEver ur f e ime essible o us mus be exined fris poin of vie nd e impuion in e se mus be mdeon e bsis f e blends nd rossings of poins of view wire be fund in is sserins

e onsisen rring u of is sk of ipuin wil

n prdue e nree piure f e ourse nd direinof develpen wi s ull ken ple wi revele ul isr of ese wo sles of oug is eodoers e mxiu reliili in e rensruion f ineeuldevelpmen sine i nlses ino is eleens w rsws merel sumr ipression of e urse of ineeulisr nd b reduing is imressin o exlii rierimkes possible rensrion of reli ereb i sueeds

subsequenl in singling u e nnus unriuled freswi re erive in e isor of oug I des sowever no erel in e bre form of surmises nor in nrrveerms (wi is sill e level of our poliil nd ulurl isr)bu rer in e fr f e nrble deeinin f fsOf urse i is preisel in/e roess of deied invesigin mu previusl ppered o be erin beesprblemi us fr exmple ere m be gre del

of nrvers in view f e mbivlen rer of mixedpes s e sle o wi e suld be impued efruifulness of e isoril med in e sud of risisles owever is no refued bu rer re-enfred wen quesions rise s o weer e work of erin iss is ipubleo e Renissne or o Broque

Wen e srures nd e endenies of w sles ofoug ve been worked ou we re fed wi e sk of

eir siologil impuion As silgiss we do n empo explin e forms nd vriins in onservive ugfor exmple solel b referene e onservive Wltancang. On e onrr we seek o derive em rslfrm e omposiion of e groups nd sr wi expresseselves in mode f oug And seond we seeko explin e ipulse nd e direion f developmen of



28 IDELGY AND TPIA

cosrvativ thought though th stuctual situatio ad thchags it dgos wthi lag histocall coditiodwho (sch as Gma o istac) ad though th co

sttl vag oblms aisd b th chagig stuctB costatl takig accout o all th vaious ts o kowld agig om ai ititiv imssios to cotoldobsrvatio th sociolog o kowldg sks to obta sstmaticcomsio o ltioshi btw social xistc adthought Th whol li o a histocal-social gou stsitsl as a tddt coguatio ; thought is ol itsxssio ad th itactio btw ths two ascts o li

is th sstial lmt i th coguatio th dtaild tcoctios o which must b tacd i it is to b udstoodFomost amog thos who a advacg th sociolog o

kowldg d th sociological histo o idas a thos scholasho i thi scic sachs s a coscious mthod dalg wth coct matials Th cotovs cocgticu oblms o imutatio i th sociolog o kowldg vidc o th tasitio om imssioistic cojctus

to a stag o actual miical sach

6 RIF URVEY OF HE ISOY O HE OIOLOY OF

OWLEDGE

Th mst sstial cuss which gav s to th sociologo kowldg hav alad b tatd i th cdig agsBcas it is a discili hich as ot o th xigcis o

social dvlomt it is cl that th itllctual sts dttitds which ld u to it mad slowl ud th mostdivs coditios ad at dt ts H w mstco ouslvs xclusvl o th most imotat amsad stags i its histo Th sociolog o kowldg actuallmgd wth Max whos ooudl suggstiv aprus wtto th hat o th matt Hov i his wok th sociologo kowldg is stil distigishabl om th maskig o

idologis sc o him socil stata classs w th baso idologis Fthmo lthouh h tho o idologaa wthi th amwo o a gi ttatio o hstoit was t as t cosisttl thought out Th oth soco th md tho o idolo ad o th sociolog o kowldgis to b oud i th ashs o isight o Nitzsch who combidcoct obsvatios i this ld th a tho o ds ad



THE SOIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE 27

ho o kowlg which mi o o pgmtism H oom sociologicl impuios, usig s his chi ctgos istoctic moctic cultus, to ch o which

h scib ci mos o houghFom Nitzsch th lis o vlopmt l to th Fui Pti hois o oigil impulss to h mthosvlop b hm o viwig hum thought s istotios s poucts o istictiv mchisms A l cutlig o th vlopmt o ho o iolog is to bo i posiivism, which l om Rtzho thoughGumplowicz o Opphim uslm, who stimul mo

ct scussios, m lso b cout mog th positivistsHowv, h i o s h iculis i h poblm isigom histoicism om Dilh's posiio o th cultulscics1

h mho o h sociolog o kowlg ws wok outi mo m o wo mi lis : h st ws houghLukcs, who gos bck o Mx who lbos h uitulHgli lmts coi i h lt I his m h

iv v il, schmtic, ogmtic solutio oh poblm, but o which sus om h o-siss h hzs o giv philosoph o hist. Lukcs i ogo bo Mx i so s h il o isiguish btw thpoblm o mskig iologis o th o h th sociologo kowlg o h oh I ws o Schl's cit ht, iitio to m vlubl obsvtios h ttmp to itg h sociolog o kowlg ito h stuctu o philo

sophicl wol-viw Th mphsis i Schl's chivmt,howv, is o b sough mo i h icio o mtphsiclvc This ccous o h c h h mo o lss igoh itl coicts ihig i his w illcul oittio th mic implictios w poblms isig ou o it is u h h si o o ull usic o h w pspctivop up b h sociolog o kowlg, bu ol i so s it coul b cocil wih h oolog, mtphsics,

pismolog which h ps Th oucom ws giosssmtic sktch ul o poou uiios bu lckig i cl pcicbl mho o ivsigio sui o sociologill oi, cultul scic

I i his summ psio o h socioog o kowlg

e oks epesenng s enden nldng nvesgaons o een soologss oneng me og ae no eae ee



80 IDEOOGY AND UOPIA

we did n presen i a is vriey bu nly in he frmin which he uhr cnceives f i nd which is elbred he s fur prs f his bk i is becuse we desired o

presen he prblem in a unied frm a pssible in rder ofcilie discussin.



LGRPHY(he nmbers n prenheses fer he le refer her pcs

n he blgrphy hch he bk r rcle ce s relevn.)

I. EPISEMOLOGIAL ASPES OF HE SOIAL SIENES

PRESUOSIIONS

EL EODORE Sytemati Soiology i Germay A crclnlyss f sme emps esblsh sclgy s n nepenen scence. lmb Unversy Ses HsryEcnmcs n Pblc L, N. 310 Ne Yrk n Lnn1929 (I 2 3 4 5 ·

EEY JON he Nee fr Recvery n Phlsphy, nCreaie Itelligee pp. 369 Ne Yrk, 191

Eay i Exerimetal Logi hcg 1919 (I 3 7_ GINSERMORRIS Recen enences n Sclgy, n

Eooma vl. 39 pp. 2239 Febrry 1933(I

6 Studie i Soiology pp. 143 Lnn 1932 (I, 6NI FRANK H. he Lmns f Scenc Meh n

Ecnmcs," n The Tred of Eoomi pp. 22926 e. byR. G. gell. Ne Yrk. (I, 6

ANDEER BR he Prblem f Pesppsn n SclgyAmeria Joural of Soiology v. 1932 5 ; I, 3

E A. Eoomi ad oiology A ple fr cpern nhe scl scences. Lnn 1936

MAvER R M. Scl sn," Publiaio of te Ameria

Soiologial oiey v 3 pp. 2836 Ags 1932RANER DUARD Snn er Vrssezngslsgke n enGesesssenschfen,A bhadluge der reuihe A kademieder Wiehafte Philoohihhiorihe Klae erln,1931 (I, 5

2 BIAS ND PERSEIE

BURKE ENNE Permaee ad Chage Ne Yrk 1935ALERON V. F. Mern Anhrplgy n he hery f

lrl mplsves" n. Te Makig of Ma p. 13Ne Yrk 193 Als prne s he mplsve ssf Scl hgh," n A meria Joural of Soiology v5 pp. 68920 93 An Pyhe 930 3

EEY JON The Iuee of ari o Philoohy Ne Yrk9O (I, 3

OSON JON A. Free Though i the Soia Siee N Yrkn Lnn 926

EISEAN ANS ekfome erln n Lepzg 928



282 ILIOGPHY

I, EDR Erketi ud Lebe Unterschngen beGliederng, Methoden er der Wissenschat Leipzig, 1923(I, 3 4 5 Ill, 4

Idiiduum ud Gemeihaft. Grndlegng de Klt

philosophie. Leipzig, 1924. (I, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.) URN, W F ias, Psychoanalysis and the Sbjective inelation to ltre," Publiatio of the Ameria SoiologialSoiety xvii, pp 62-4 1923

ENCER, ERER The Study of Soiology New York, 1882X 5)

VAIINER ANS The Philoohy of A If " A system o thetheoretical practical and religios ctions o mankind Trby K Ogden New York and London, 924 (I, 3 I,

OLE, A Radialim Coeratim ad Sieti MethodNew York, 923 (I, 3

3 ECIIY

BECKER ARL Detachment and the Writing o History A tlatiMothl Octobr, 9

OEN, MORRI Reao ad Nature pp 333385 New York, 93Also pblished in The Soial Siee ad their Iterrelatio pp 43-466 ed by Ogbrn, W F, and Goldenweiser, A A

oston and New York, 92 (I, 2 4 5 6 )OOLEY, H The oots o Social Knowledge, " in SoiologialTheory ad Soial Reearh pp 28-312 New York, 1930And in A meria Joural of Soiology xxxii, 926) pp 59-9(I, 2

ULER Methodology of Soial Siee Reearh A Bibliograhy erkeley, 1936

EEY, JON The Quet for Certaity London, 1929 (I, ;Ill, 1)

Exeriee ad Nature hicago and London, 925 (I, 4URKEI mile Le Rgle de la thode oiologique Paris,

92 8th ed (I, GROLANN A v. Das Wissen das Verhltnismssge in de

Paradoxie des Seins," in Zeithrif deuthe PhiloohieVol ii, p 5

OSON, E W The omai of Natural Siee ambridge, 926OOK, IDNEY A Pragmatic ritiqe o the HistoricoGenetic

Method, in Eay i Hoor of Joh ewey pp 56-4New York, 1929 (I, 2

USSERL, E Idea General introdction to Pre PhenomenologyTr by W oyceGibson New York, 93 (I, 2 4JAES, ILLIA Pragmatim New York, 190 (I, i, 2 ; Ill, 1 5 LER, H ontemporary German Psychology" Appendix

to Mrphy, Gardner Hitorial Itrodutio to Moder Pyhology New York, 1929 (I,

MI, M Is Sociology a Naral Science ? " Publiatioof the A meria Soiologi et xxv, 2 pp 25-3 May,93 (I, 1



ILIOGRAPHY 83MANNHEI, KARL. Strukturanalyse der Erkenntnistheorie. rgan-

zunsheft 57 anttuden. Berln 9 22 ( 2 3 )MEAD, G. H " Scientifc Method and the Individual Thinker in

Create Itellgee 76-227 ew ork 97 (7)

EIRCE, . Pragmatm ad Pragmatm Vo!. v of ColletedPaer of C S Pere ed by artshorne and P. ess.( 4 7)

ICE UAR (ed) Method Soal See. hcao 93f also revew by Mannhem n Amer. Joural of Soologyxxxv (etember 932)

CELIN, LEXANDER Max Weber Wehaftlehrebnen 933 ( 2 4 5 6 7 V 2

EIDLER RN De oalwehaftlhe Erket n Betrazur Methodk der Gesellschaftslehre Jena 930 ( 7 )

IEL, GER Probleme der Gehhthloohe. econd comletely revsed edton. ez 905 ( 2 4 5 6 )ALL, LIN The rg of Soology. hcao 924 ( 6)IEELER, A treatmu Krtk de Relatmu ud

Sketmu der Werte ud de Solle rch ez 935NER, " ur ntwcklun des Problemes der hstorschen

bjektvtt ne rnzeneschchtlche kzze DeutheVertelahrhrft fr Lteratur ud Getegehhte Jh. eft 04

EER, MAX. " e bjektvtt sozalwssenschaftlcher undsozaloltscher rkenntns n Geammelte A fte Wehaftlehre. 46-2 4 bnen 922

" er nn der ertfrehet der sozoloschen und konomschen Wssenschaften n Geammelte A ufte ur Wehaftlehre . 45-502 bnen 922 ( 2 4 5 6 2)

4 YL, MEANIN, UNICAIN, AND ANUAE

LANN t as ormatve Moment m BedeutunsberA A ad. Set. Feun. er B om. xv o 2 elsnfors1926

BALDIN, J M The Iddual ad Soety 0 Pyhology aSoology Boston 9

Soal ad Ethal Iterretato Metal eelomet study n socal sycholoy. ew ork and ondon 193

BENAIN, W. " Pobleme der rachsozoloe Zethrf frSoalforhug v 2 935

BENA, J. The Theoy of Fto ed. by . den. ondonand ew ork 932BINANER " Verstehen und rklren n der Psycholoe

Zetrft fr de Geamte Neurologe u Pyhologe vo!. 1092

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The Soal Ba of Cooue ondon and ew ork927





BBLOGPHY 285MAINSKI B " he anae of

Mac an Garenn vol

of Coral Garde ad the Mag. onon 1935" Mac cence an elon n eeham J e Siee

Religio ad Reality 1925

- Myth i Primitie Pyhology Psyche Mnatures 1926 " he Problem of Meann n Prmtve anuaes n

en an J chars The Meaig of Meaig ew orkan onon 1923

MARKEY, JHN F The Symboli Proe ew ork an onon1928

MARoUZEAU J anae a£ectf et lanae ntellectuel J dPyh. 20 1923

MAYERGRo, W an IS, H " as Problem er Prmtvenenkformen hiloohiher Aeiger v . 1930

MEAD, G H " ocal onscousness an the onscousness ofMeann Pyhologial Bulleti v 1910) 397405

" he Mechansm of ocal onscousness Joural of Philoohy 15 1912) 401-6 (I, 1 2 3.)

" Behavorstc ccount of the ncant ymbo Jouralof Philoohy xx 6 1922) 15-163

" he Geness of the elf an ocal ontrol IteratioalJoural o Ethi vol 35 1925) 251-277. ernte nPhiloohy of the Preet. hcao an onon 1932 ( 3.)

Mid Self ad Soiety hcao 1934 (I 2 3 . )AANN, H " eber as srachlche Verhltns von ber zur

nterschcht n J ahrb. fr Philologie 55 £ 1925E . " he Mac of Wors n Pyhe an annual of

eneral an lnustc sycholoy vol xv 1934 Jeremy Betham n Psyche Mnatures o 46. onon

1932

an ICHARDS, r The Meaig of Meaig stuyof the nuence of lanuae uon thouht an of the scenceof symbolsm ew ork an onon 1923

EINACH ultes mythes relons 3 vols Pars (eroux 1905-8

ENSTEIN, G a Problem de yhologihe Vertehetuttart 1926

YCE, JSIAH The World ad the Idiidual 2n seres NatureMa ad the Soial rder 153204 ew ork 1904.

AIR, DARD " mmuncaton Eylodia of the SoialSiee vol 4CHIDER, P Wah ud Erketi Berln 1918 CHTZ, RED er ihafte A uau der oiale Welt Venna

1932 ( , 2 3 6 ; IH 1)ART, WERNER " as Verstehen Wth scusson by tolten

ber Wach othacker Mannhem ner I Verhadlugede te deuthe Soiologetage 208226. bnen 1929.(I, , 2 3 5.)



86 ILIOGY

RAER, DUARD . " ur heorie des Verstehens : ur Geisteswissenschaftlichen Psychologie, Fethrift fr Johae VolkeltMunich, 98 (, , 7 )

Die Pyhologie de Jugedalter eipzig, 93 1 (, 1 )

ER, G " Meaning and hange o Meaning, Gteborg HgkolaA rkrift, viii, 932, 1 . Gteborg, 93 1

K, WILHEL Geheimi, Lge ud Miertdi Beitrgezur Beziehungslehre, vol 2 Munich and eipzig, 929 (, 1 .)

RCH, LRED. Da arhaihrimitie Erlebe u Deke derShiohree Berlin, 922.

VSSLER, " ie Grenzen der prachsoziologie, in Hautroblemeder Soioogie rinnerungs gabe r Ma Weber. Mnchen,93 ·

W ACH, ACHI Da Vertehe Grundzge einer Geschichte derhermeneutischen heorie im 9ten ahrhundert. Vol . " ieGrossen ysteme, 1926. Vol 2 " ie theologische ermeneuikvon cheiermacher bis omann, 929 Vol 3 " asVerstehen in der istorik von anke bis zum Positivismus,933 bingen 926-933

WEISERER, Mutterrahe ud Geitebildug Gttingen 929 " prachwissenschaft und Philosophie zum Bedeutungs

problem in Bltter fr deuthe Phloohie, v, 930, p. 77

rt. " prache in Vierkad Hadwrterbuh der SoiologieWERER, Urrge der Metaher A rbeite ur Etwiklug

yhologie, iii. eipzig, 919WHIEHEA, . Symbolim, it Meaig ad Eet 927U, " anguage hought, and ocial eality, in Soial

Attitude, ed by oung, e ork, 93 1

5 ALUAIE AD ALUAIE CIAL CIECE

IEHL, ARL " he ife Work o Ma Weber, Quarterly Jouralof Eoomi, viii ( 1924) , 87-07 (, , 2, 3 )

SHU, Kritik der Soiologie Freiheit und Gleichheit asrsprungsproblem der oziologie, ch ii and iii Munich andeipzig, 929 ( 2, 6, 7 ; , 3)

wIH, ARL " Ma Weber and arl Mar, A rhi fr Soialwiehaft ud Soialolitik, vl 67, pp 2 1 3 (, 2, 3, 4)

A, HAR. Geellhaftlehre, 3rd ed revised eipzig, 1930 Tote ud lebedige Wiehaft ena, 1921.

Kategorielehre ena, 1924WEER, AX " Wissenschaft als Beru, Geammelte Aufte uWiehaftlehre, pp. 52455 5. bingen, 192. (, 2 )

" er inn der ' Wertfreiheit der soziologischen und konomischen Wissenschaften, Geammelte Aufte ur Wehaftlehre, pp 45 1502. bingen, 1927 . (, 2 )

" i bjektivitt sozialwissenschaftlicher und sozialpolitischerrkenntnis Geammelte A ufte ur Wiehaftlehre, pp6-24 bingen, 1922



BBLOGHY 287

6 ISRICISBELo, GER ber hitorihe Periodiierug Berlin, 1925RCE, BEEEo Hitory it Theory ad Pratie tr by ouglas

inslie ew or, 1923 ILHEY, WILHEL Eileitug i die Geitewiehafte Versuheiner Grundlegung r das tudium der Gesellshat u derGeshihte Geammelte Shrifte i eipzig and Berlin, 1922( 2, 3, 4, 5, 7

Der A uau der gehihtlihe Welt i de Geitewiehafte Geammelte Shrifte ii eipzig and Berlin 1927.(, 2, 3

RYSE G Gudri der Hitorik 1st ed, 1858 ; new edby othaer alle/ , 1935 nglish translation by

RES, B , utline o the Priniples o istory Boston 1893FREER, A Soziologie al Wirklihkeitwiehaft ogishe

Grundlegung des ystems der oziologie eipzig and Berlin,1930 (, 2, 3, 7

EUSSI, ARL Die Krii de Htorimu 1932MAHEI, ARL. istorismus Arhi fr Sozialwiehaft

ud Sozialolitik (, 7 AKE as politishe Gesprh (1836, ed by othaer,

alle a d ale, 1925EQUA, P Johae Mller ud der Frhhitorimu

Mnhen 1929HECHER, ARL Uber da Wee de Gehihtlihe ud die

geellhaftlihe Gebilde bingen 1926IEL, GER as Problem der historishen eit Philoo

hihe Vortrge der Kat Geellhaft Berlin 19 16 (, I EAR, FREERICK Thery of Hitory ew aen, 1925RELSCH, RS. Der Hitorimu ud eie Probleme Geammelte

Shrifte ol bingen 1923

WIER The Crii i Hitorial Siee azan 19217 GEERLIAIS

LEXEYE, The Soial ad Natural Siee i the MutualRelatiohi of their Method ssays in the istory andMethodology o the oial ienes Mosow, 1912 6

BRIA P W The Logi of Moder Phyi ew or, 1927(, 2, 3

EEY, H. Philosophy in Gee, Wilson Reearh i theSoial Siee pp 241-268. ew or 1929 (, 1

RESERER, istorishe und soziale Gesetze in Hadwrterbuh der Soziologie ed by Vierandt tuttgart 193 1 ULEER, F ind historishe Gesetze mglih, in Haut

robleme der Soziologie rinnerungsgabe r Ma Weber, ed byMelchior Plyi, ol 1 eipzig and Munih, 1923

ber Gesetzmssigeit in der Geshihte (historisheGesetze) Arhi fr Sozialwiehaft ud Sozialolitik ol 35,pp 299 ( 1912

" aturgesetze und soziale Gesetze Arhi fr Sozalwiehaft ud Sozialolitik ol 31, 32 (1910



ILIOGP

AR, YU URK Soial La study the validity sigia geeralizatis hapel il, 930

LER, he Prble ype i ultura iee Psyhlgy, Joural of Philoohy vl 22 (923), pp 225-234

" Webers deal ype i Psyhlgy, Joural of Philoohyvl 23 (1926)

MISES UI. Grudrobleme der Natioalkoomie tersuuge ber Verahre, ugabe, halt der Wirtshatsud Gesellshatslehre ea, 933 sp h " zilgie udGeshihte, reprited r A rhi fr Soialiehaft udSoialolitik vl 61 (1929) (, 6)

PARK, , ad BURE, W Itrodutio to the Siee ofSoiology h i hiag, 92 (, 5, 6)

PISER BERHAR ie Etiklug um Idealyu bige1928 (, 3 )ICKER EIRICH ie Gree der aturiehaftlihe

Begribildug ie lgishe ileitug i die histrisheWisseshate, 5th revised editi bige, 1929

Kulturiehaft ud Naturiehaft 3rd revised editibige, 915 (, , 2, 6)

, E " Werer bart ad the ' aural iee Methdi is, Joural of Politial Eoomy li (933), 222-236

(, )HACKER, RICH Eileitug i die Geiteiehafte 2editi bige, 1930 (, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

UE ACUES From the Phyial to the Soial Siee Baltirea d, 929 ( , , 3, 5)

CHELI, LEXAER . " ie lgishe herie der ulturwisseshat v Ma eber, isbesdere sei Begri des dealtypus, A rhi fr Soialiehaft ud Soialolitik 49(, , 3, 6)

IEL, GER Soiologie h i Muih ad eizig, 908ELL ur aturisseshatlihe Begrisbildug i Grieh

ishe, i Philo Aeiger 1928, p 234 (, 4) AR, WERER ie drei Natioalkoomie Muih ad

eipzig, 930 (, , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 )RAER, UAR Te of Me tr by Pigrs alle (aale) ,

928 WEER, MAX Wirthaft ud Geellhaft Part Grudri

der Soialkoomik h i bige, 925 ls prited ipart i Geammelte A ufte ur Wiehaftlehre as " Meth

dishe Grudlage der zilgie, pp 503-523 " ber eiige ategrie der verstehede zilgie, iGeammelte A ufte ur Wiehaftlehre pp 403-480 (, 3, 4, 5 , 6 )

WIELA, WILHEL Gehihte ud Naturiehaft trassburg, 1 894 ls reprited i Prludie vl 2, 5th edbige, 95

" ypsiu the bservability ial Pheeawith espet t tatistial alysis, Soiologu 8, 4, ad 9,



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(H, , 5)BERNSTEIN, " dee nd nteresse in der Geschichte, Ethos i,

(198)OURNOT Trait de l'enchanement de ide fondamentales

dans les sciences et dan l histoire Paris, 181

Considrations ur l a marche des ide Paris, 187OEL, AJDU, P " ie iteratr ber Mar, ngels nd berMarisms seit Beginn des eltkrieges (mit asnahme d rss) Mit Beilage : ie assalle iteratr derselben poche , MarxEngel Archiv, 47537 19

IETRICH, " ritik der politischen deologien, Archiv fGeschichte u. Politik (193)

URA, G Le ensonge Paris, 1913 LLINER, G Das Verhltnis der entichen Meinung zu Wahr

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ondon, 199GINUR, B " ypocrisy as a Pathological ymptom, Intern.

Journ of Ethics ii p 14GROEHUYSEN, BERNARD Les Origines de l' esprit bourgeoi en France

Paris, 197ESSLEIN, Ideale und Interessen, by ascher Berlin,

9 1

ONISHEI AUL " r oziologie der mittelalterlichen cholastik (ie oziologische Bedetng des ominalisms), Hauptrobleme der Soziologie. rinnrngsgabe fr Ma eber, ed byM Plyi vol ii Mnich and eipzig, 193 (, 3 4 , 1 )

UTH Soziale und indivdualistische Auassung im Jhdtvornehmlich bei Adam Smith und Adam Ferguson eipzig,907

ANKELEITCH " rle des ides dans voltion des socits,Revue philosophique (908) pp 5 .

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OLNAI, UREL " Versch einer lassizierng einer allgemeinsozialen Machtidee, A rchiv fr sstem. Philosophie u: Soziologie,vol 3 and (198) pp 15 (, 3)

RACAER, " ie Grppe als deentrger, in Archiv. frSozialwisenschaft u. Sozialpolitik 49 3 p 594



90 LOP

ARoN A. y a ci y c ci T In btin wit . . Hn nL. Kee. T Uvsity f Cig Pss.

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New Yk, 98 (I , , 3, 4. )MAoNREL, P. Cmaraiv Philhy New Yk n Lnn,

9 (I, , .)MILLIOUD, M L tin de 'id," vue ilh

(1908), p 38 (I, .)ETERREICH, T. K. Vm achideal zum Klural Cttn

bug, 919.ARETO, VILREDO Trai cilgie grale t. b P. Bven vs. Lusnne nd Pis, 97, 99 . (I, , , 3, 5, , 7 I, 3, 4 I, I , 3 IV,

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Le ym ciali vs. Pis, 903 . (I, , 3, 4 I, 5.)

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Idee un Inteesse in e pitisn esite," in ieDikure 97.OERTY E. DE. L Ntue sie de id," in vu er

de cil 1907. Scilgi e l aci La cale la a le

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llha Festsift f Fnz Oppnie. pp. 47 Fnkfut .M., 94.

i Mielaler al al er mak Muni, . (I, 3 .OART WERNER r rlarch zalm vs Jen,

94 (I , 3 II, 3 . )ZENDE PAL . Ein szigis Tei e Absktin,"

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3 OCAL TRATIICATION AND ELTANSCHAUUNOCIOLOY OITERATURE

DLER M Wssensct und sze Stuktu," Verhandlungedes ten deutschen Soziologentages pp 180-212 Tbinge, 192(IV, 2)

BALDENSERER F La littrature Cration Succs Dure Pis(E Fin), 1 9 1 3

BARTLETT F C Tepeent nd Sci Css, " Eugeics e20 Lndn

BAUER TTO Ds Wetbid des Kpitsus, " Der ebedigearxismus ed by O Jenssen Jen, 1924 (I,

BEHN S Rntisce und Kssisce Lgik Mncen, 192( , 4)BERNHEI E. ittelalterliche Zeitanshauunge i ihrem Einuss

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Weltbild Scten des Instituts Szscung, iv Ps,1934 (I, 4 ; IV, 2)

BREANN F De Kp u die bgeice Wet undLebensnscuung in de deutscen Litetu des 1 8 J

undets, Deutsche V iertelahrsschrift fr Literaturwisseschaftund Geistesgesch He S 192BUDDEER H Zu Szge des eupscen Denkens, "

]ahrbuch fr Soziologie ii, p 17 ed by SnKsue, 1927.

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FLCKENSCHLD H Lebens und etbid des tpeussiscenBuenus zu Zet des Vz," Arch f AngewandteSoziologie. Bd v, Het 2, S 1 0 1 .

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ELLACH, W. Nrveebe ud Wetaschauug Ie Wecsebezieungen i deutscen Leben vn Heute. Wesbden 190.

IELSCHER ANS Ds sycgisce Vetnis zwiscen d.g. Bdungsstufe eines Vkes u. d in i sic gesttenden

/ Wetnscuungen Arch. f ges Psch. ix 1 1907/ ASERS, ARL Ma i the Moder Age ng t. by nd PuNew Yk 1 934 (I 5. )

Pschoogie der Wetaschauuge nd ed. Bein 19.(I )

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MANNHEI ARL Beitge zu Teie de Wetnscuungsinteettin" in Kustgeschichtiche Eizedarsteuge ii.

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ANDSER, P Wesen und Bedeutung der platonischen AkademiSiten zu Pisie u Szigie i Bnn 193

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Brtan London 1935.AANN FRIEDRICH De Stellun der Gebldeten m pltschen

eben Berln 1907.OAD X. Rebels and Reneades New York 1932.AECKER B De Prletarserun der estn Arbeter unich

1920EIER AN Die Intelektuellen und ihr sozialer Beruf" NeueBltter r den Szalismus 12/13. Potsdam 930

Zur Soziologie der brgerlichen Intelligenz in DeutschlandDe Gesellschat, pp 58-72. 1929. (IV 2 . )

HIADET LERT La publque des esseurs Paris 927.VELEN HORSTEIN The Hher Learnn n Amerca A memoran

dum on the conduct of universities by busness men NewYork 1918

EER LRED Die Not der geistigen Arbeiter Schrten deserens r Szalpltk Leipzig nchen 120

EER X. Gesammelte Austze zur Relnsszle. 3 vols.Tbingen 1920-1.

ITTOEL ARL A. De Wssenschat der brerlchen GesellschatBerlin 922. (I ; IV 2.)

EHRER H. Die Revoluton der Intellgenz" De Tat vl 21 1929

THE SOCIAL ROLE O KNOWLEDGE

1 ATIONALITY AND OA

B J B A stY Freedm Thuht. New York 913EEY JOHN w we Thnk Revised ed. Bston 933 (II 2 )AES W. The Wll t Beleve New York 897. 2 ; I 2 .)ORDAN The Develpment Relus Tleratn n Enland, 1932MANNHEI ARL Ratnal and Irratnal Elements n Cntemprary

Scety Hobhouse emorial Lecture Oxford 134.ARETO V. Trat de Scle nrale Lausanne Paris 1 917- 8 .ARSONS TALCOT Capitalism i n Recent German Literature

Sombat and Weber" urnal Pltcal Ecnmy, xxxviand xxxvi (1928) 641-661 ; 31 -5 . (I 3 )

Ultimate Values in Sociologcal Theory Internatnauna Ethcs xlv 3 (April 1935).

EIK T. Dogma und Zwangsidee" Ia xiii 1927OERTSON J . Shrt Hstry Free Thuht (rev ed 2 vols.)

936



296 ILIOGPHY

INSN J . H The Mind in the Mkin The elation o ntelligence to Social Reom New Yok and London 192

IER G DE The History of Eropen Liberlism, t G ollingswood London 1927

ANTAYANA G eson in Society The Lie of eson ii NewYok 1905IEL GEOR Philosophie des Geldes Leipzig 1900NER W G Folkwys Boston 1906 (I 1 ; I 2)WALLAS GRAHA The A rt of Thoght New Yok 1926 Socil Jdgment New Yok 19 35 (I 2 )WEER MAX Wirtschft nd Gesellscht Tingen 1925 Gesmmelte A fstze zr eligionssoziologie 3 ols Tbingen

19201 Gesmmelte A fstze zr Wissenchftslehre Tingen 1922

2 DCATIN AND NDOCTRINATIN

ENS W Die pdgogischen Bewegngen des Jhres Elbeeld 1914

BEARD A A hrter or the Socil Sciences in the Schools Repot o the ommission on Social Studies New Yok 193 (I 4, 5·

The tre of the Socil Sciences in eltion to Obectives o

nstrction Repot o ommissin on Social Studies NewYok 1934onclsions nd ecommendtions of the ommission Repot o the

ommission on the Social Studies Ameican Histoical Association New Yok 1934

NTS G S The Americn od to ltre New Yok 1930 Dre the School Bild ew Socil Order ? ohn Day Pam

phlets 1 1 New Yok 1932 The Socil omposition o Bords of Edction A study in

the social contol o education hicago 1927 Socil Fondtions of Edction Repot o the ommissioon Social Studies New Yok 1934· 3, 4, 5) School nd Society in hicgo New Yok 1928 (I 3, 4, 5 )D A E Edction nd Socil Movements - London

1919·GIESE G Stt nd ErziehngGrndzge einer politischen Pd

gogik Hambug 1935ARER S N ivic Trining m Soviet ssi hicago 1929

(I 3, 4·)

H IDNEY The Impotance o a Point o View SocilFrontier i 1 and 2 (Octoe Noembe 1934)ARSEN F Neue Liteatu e esellschat und Ezichung"

Zeitshrift fr Sozilforshng iii 1, 1934RKATRIK W (ed) The Edctionl Frontier New Yok 193 OSOK P Modern Germny Stdy of onicting Loylties

Chicago 1933 · (Ill, 3, 4·) DDEKE H Die Tgeszeitng ls Mittel der Sttshrng

Hag 93



BIBIOG 297MERRIA, C E The Making of Citizens A compaative stuy of

methos of civic taiig Chicago, 193 1 ( , 3, 4) Ciic Training in the United States Repot of the Commissio

o Social Stuies New Yok, 1933 ( , 4.)

OHL, H, a ALLAT Handbuch der Pdagogik vol 2 Diesoziologischen Grundlagen der Erziehung 1929IERCE, B Citizens' Organization and the Cic Training of outh

Repot of the Commissio o Socal Stuies New Yok, 1933(, 3,

Public Opinion and the Teaching o History New Yok, 1926(, 3,

Ciic A ttitudes in American School Textbooks Chicago, 1930USSELL, B Education and the Social Order Loon, 1932

CHEIDER, H W, an LOUH, S B Making Fascists Chicago,1929 (, 3, 4 )CHIDT, ARTEED Das Erziehungsziel als Ausdruck des

sozialen Lebens 1931 ICLAIR, U The Goslings A stuy of the Ameica schools

Pasaena (Calif , 1924 ( , 3 The GooseStep A stuy of Ameica eucatio Pasaena

(Caf , 1923 (, 3 Social Frontier Publishe mohly New Yok, 1934

3 ROAADA

ASSELL, H D ( Popagaa," Encyclopdia of the Social Sciencesvol ii

Psychopathology and Politics Chicago, 1930- Stategy of Revolutioay a Wa Popagana' in Public

Opinion and World Politics E by Quicy Wigt Chicago,1933· (, 3, 4·)

Propaganda Techique in the World War New Yok aLoo, 1927

Personal nsecurity and orld Politics New Yok, 193AELL, H D, D ASEY, BRUCE AES ITH Propaganda

and Promotional Actiity An anotate Bibliogaphy iesota, ieapolis a Loo, 193

ULEY, E The Propaganda Meace New Yok an Loo,1933

ASSAK,J

Psychologie de l'opinion et de la propaganda politiquePais, 1927 ( ,

CHULEAELER, G Propaganda Aitation Reklame Beli,1923

TERARTH, DR Die Propagana als politische nsrumenBelin, 1921

OU, K a ARACE, R B Bibliography on Censorship andPropaganda Uniersity of Oregon Publication JounalismSeies i, No , ach, 1928



98 BBOGPY

4 ISSEINATION AND OULARIZATION O NOLEDE

EEY JON Te Scoo i e New Socia Order New York Democracy ad Educatio New York 96 I 2, 5

ANSOE, MARIUS Word Workers Educatio Moemets. Columbia Uiversity Studies i History Ecoomics ad ublic Law338 New York ad Lodo 93

IA, Lookig Forward : Mass Educatio rou Pubicity.Lodo 920 I 2, 5

ALLEN, H. Educatio, te Macie ad te Worker. A essay othe psychology of educatio i idustrial society. New York1925 I 2)

IAN, ALTER Libery ad e News. New York 927

MNZER, GERARD etice Meiug ud Presse. Sozialwisseschaftliche Abhadluge VI Karlsruhe 928 I 5)AUL, DEN, ad EDAR Proetcut Proetaria Cuture) . New York

92 I 2, 5OINSON, J H Te Humaizig of Kowedge New York I923ALON, L Te Newspaper ad Auority. New York 924IESE, EOOLD v. Ed.) Sozioogie des Voksbidugsweses

Schriften des orschugsistituts fr Sozialwisseschafte iKl i Muic ad Leipzig 92

5 ULIC INION AND OLLECTIE CTION

NELL, OAN Te Pubic Mid. Lodo 926BAER, LE ublic Opiio Eccopdia of e Socia

Scieces, vol. xii Die etice Meiug ud ire escictice Grudage

Tbigen 94ILDS, H L A Referece Guide o e Study of Pubic Opiio, ec

riceto Uiversity School of ublic ad Iterat AairsPrinceto New Jersey 934EEY JON Te Pubic ad is Probems New York 927URKEI, E Eemetary Forms of Reigious Life, tr by J

Swai Lodo New Yrk 9 5 ; 9 2 6 FLAD, UT Studie zur poiisce Begrisbidug i Deusc

ad wred der preussisce Reform Der Begri der eticeMeiug bei Stei, A rudt ud Humbod. Berli 929 I 4 I 3, 4

GEER, Die Masse ud ire A ktio.Ein Beitrag zur Theorieder Revolutioe Stuttgart 926

E BON, GUSTAE Te Crowd. A study of the popuar midLodo 926

Te Pycoogy of Revoio, tr by Berard Miall Nework 93

IAN, ALTER Te Patom Pubic. New York I925 Puic Opiio. New York 922DEARD, H. Te America Pubic Mid. New York 930



IIGPHY 29

RK E Human Nature and Collectie Behaior, AmerianJournal oj Soiology xxxii (1926-7) 733

Masse und Pulikum Bern, 1904.OENSTEIN, G ur sychologie der politischen einung, in

Zeitsr. jr Vlerpsyologie und Soziologie 3. 1927RDE, GRIEL L'Opinion et la Foue aris 1901NNIES, FERDINND Kritik der entlien Meinung Belin, 1922

HE OCOLOGY O KOWLEDGE

FORERUNNERS

LLIER, Te Mind oj te Save London, 1929BODNO, A Entwklungsformen der Gesellsaft und die Wissen

saft Berlin, 1924NEL, FR. Ludwig Feuera Eng tr Ne York 1935 C

arx, KarlGULOICZ L Grundriss der oziologie in Ausgewlte Werke

ii, ed by G alomon Innsbruck, 1926INTZE, O ber ax Schelers Wissensormen un die Gesell

schat, Zeitsrijt fr die gesamte Staatswissensaft o 81OOK, IDNEY. Towards te Understanding of KarlMarx Ne Yok,

1933 ( 2 3 5 2 3)ERUSLE, W oiologie des Erkennens," Die Zukunft 1909 oiologie des Ekennens (Bemerkungen u chelers Au

sat), Klner Viertelarsefte fr Sozialwissensajten i, 3 (1921) 28

LEYBRH UCIEN How Natives Tink t by Lilian A ClaieNe York, 1926

Te Soul " of te Primitive t by Lilian A Claire NeYork, 1926.

Primitive Mentality tr by Lilian A Claire Ne Yok1923 ( ; . UK, G Gesite und Klassenewusstsein tudien bermarxistische Dialektik Berlin, 1923 (, 2 6 7 2 3 4 3 5)

RX, RL Die deutse Idelogie MarxEgels Gesamtausgapt i, ol Belin 193 1

Die eilige Familie MarxEngels Gesamtausgae pt i , ol Belin, 932

Te Poverty of Pilosopy Eng tr by H Quech Chicago,

9 and ENEL FR Te Communist aniesto ed byD Ryaano Ne York, 93 1

IETSCHE, FR. Te Will to Powe 2 ols r by A LudoiciLondon and Edinburg, 924

Geneology of Morals tr by H B Samuel Lodon 1923( 2 3 4)

ENHEIER, FRNZ System de Soziologie i, pt ; ii ena922



300 BIBLIRAH

AEO, VIREDO Trait de ociologie gnrale. 2 vols Lausannead Pais 1917-19

- The Mid ad Socety edited by A Livigsto Londo135·

Le ytme ocialite 2 vols Pais 1902-3 CHELER, M Die positivistische Geschichtsphilosophie desWisses und die Aufgaben eie Soziologie de Ekenntnis,"Klner Viertelahrhefte fr ozialwienchaften, i, (1921 ,pp 12

- Zu W. Jeusalem's Bemekugen," Klner Viertelahrheftefr ozialwienchaften, i, 3 1924, pp 34

- Weltanschauugslehe Soziologie und Weltanschauugssetzug" Klner Viertelahrhefte fr ozialwienchaften, ii, 1922 pp I 3

chriften zur oziologie und Weltanchauunglehre, vols i-iiiLeipzig, 1923 ad 1924ed Veruche einer oziologie de Wien. Schiften des

oschngsistituts f Sozialwssenschaften in Kl, vol iiMunich and Leipzig, 1924

- Die Formen de Wien und die Bildung. Bonn 1925 (I, 4- Die Wienformen und die Geellchaft. Leipzig, 1926 I, ,

2 3 4 - Uivesitt und Hochschule " same volume as above Ekentis ud Abeit" In same volume as above I, ! ad DLER, M Wissenschaft ud soziale Stuktu " in

Verhandlungen de I V deutchen oziologentage am ept1924 Tbige, 19 25

OREL, GEORES La Ruine du monde antique. 2d ed Pais,1925 I, , 2

La Matialisme histoique," Bulletin de la ocit fraaiede philoophie, ii (902 (I , 2, 3, 5

- Reection on Violence, by T E Hulme (I, 1 2 Il, 1 5 - La Dcompoition du marime. Pais, 90 (I 5 Il , 3 ;

I, 5 - Le Illuion du progr Pais, 1911 (Il 2, 3 4 De Utilit du pragmatime Pais 192 1 (I, 3, 5, 7 Matriau dune thorie du proltariat. Pais, 1921AINE, H A Hitory of Englih Literature. Eng t by H va Laun

New Yok, 79 hiloohy of A rt. Eg t by Joh Duad 2nd ed New

Yok 73EER, MA Wirtchaft und Geellchat, n Grundri der

ozialkonomik, 2 vols Tbingen, 1925 Geammelte A uftze zur Religionoziologie. 3 vols Tbige,920-21

2 RESEN TATUS

DLER, M Da oziologiche in Kant Erkenntnikritik. Wie1924 I , 3 5 7

NDREI, P Die oziologiche A uaun der Erkenntni. Lepzig1923



BIBLIGPY 30

RENDT, . • Philosophie und Soziologie Anlsslich K annheim Ideologie und Utopie" Di Gsllschaft, vii 2 1930) pp 163

RN, R t Sociologie du savor" in La Sociologi allmand contmpoain, pp 7596 Paris (Alcan) 1935

BRINKANN, C Der berbau und die Wissenschaten von Staatund Gesellschat" Schmolls ] ahbuch, 54, 3 (1930)

URIUS, E R Die Soziologie und ihre Grenzen" Nu SchwzRunschau, 10, pp 727-36 1929

Dutsch Gst n Gfah Stuttgart 1932. E LI t Wissenssoziologische Untersuchung des bergags

vom ittelalter zur Neuzeit" Achiv f angwandt Sozolog,iii (1931) pp 143

RESERR, J Zur Soziologie des konomischen Denkens

Achv angwandt Soziolog, iv 75UNKANN, K t Ideologie und Utopie" A chv f angwandtSozolog, ii pp 71

t Die soziologische Begrndung der Wissenschat" Achiv fsystm Phil u Soz, xx, , 2 (1927) pp 145

HRENER, Ideologische und soziologische ethode Ein Wortzur Sozialisierung der Denkart" Achiv f systm Phl. u Soz.,xxx , 2 1927), pp 133

LEUHRULS A t Sozialpsychologie und Wissenssoziologie"

Ztschft f Vlkpsycholog und Sozolog, iii 2 (1927),pp 197 SEIN, PAUL Die ragestellung nach der Wirklichkeit im

historischen aterialismus" A chiv f Sozalwissnschaft undSozalpolitik, 60 (1928), pp 449

FREUND, Karl annheim Ideologie u Utopie" DutschLtatuzitung, 45 (1930)

FRYER, Anmerkungen ber das Problem der Ideologie undber Wissenssoziologie " in Sozologi als iklichkitswssnschaft

Leipzig B€rlin1930

GRUENEER, Ende der Wissenschat" D Tat. (XXI, 8.)GRNALD RNST Das Poblm in Soziologi ds Wssns

Vienna and Leipzig 1934 (IV ! )GURIAN W Grenzen und Bedeutung der Soziologie Ideologie

und Utopie Gmana, 15 und 22 uni 1929ALACHS, MAURICE Ls Cads sociaux d la mmo. Paris

1925 (I 4 ; I 3)EINRICH, ber den brgerlichen und sozialistischen Begri

der reiheit" D Kamf, 21 (1928), pp 288 RKHEIER, AX t Ein neuer Ideologiebegri ? " A chv fd Gschcht ds Sozalismus und d Abitbwgung, xv(1930)

ANELLULS, PANTI Das Individuum als Grenze desSozialen und der Erkenntnis Soziologie contra Soziologismus"Achiv f angwandt Soziolog, iii 79

RAT, JULIUS Soziologie oder Soziologismus" Ztschift fVlkpsycholog und Soziologi, v 4 (929)



30 BBLOPH

L P L. Wesen und Bedeutung der Platnishen AkadeieShite u hisphie ud Sge Bd 1 ed b. Shee B, 92 (, , 4) Zu Sigie de Eketistheie, Schmollers ]ahruch

55, ( 9 ) , S . Dei Kstitutive shugshaaktee ud ei

Exkus be Wissessigie (Ka aheim) i his iider Soziologie he, Leipig, 929.

, E. Wissessigie ud axismus. Eie Auseiadesetu mit Ka aheims degie ud tpiev maxstishe Psiti aus." A rchiv fr Sziissenschajtund Sozialpolitik xiv, 1 (190).

, K Das Pbem eie Sigie des Wisses,"

Archiv r Sozialissenschat und Sozialpolitik v. 54 (1925)Tbige. (V, . ) degishe ud sigishe tepetati de geistige

Gebide, ]hruch fr Soziologie ii, ed. by G. Samasuhe, 926.

ensch und Gesellschat im Zeitalter des Umaus. Leide, 195(, 1 , 2, , 4 , 1, 2 3, 4, 5.)

l Homre y la ciedad en la poca de Crisis t. by F Ayaaadid. 96

The Pae Sigy, i Conerence on the Social ences

heir Relations in heory and eaching Ld. 96 Gema Sigy ( 191 -19), Politica 1, 194 Zu Pbematik de Sigie i Deutshad. Nee Scheizer

Rundschau l 1929., S axistise Gudpbeme i de Sigie

de Gegewat, Die Gesellschajt iv, 2 (1927), pp. 16 f Zu Pbem de Seisvebudeheit des Wisses, Archiv

jr Philosophie u Soziologe pt. 2 pp 23 estgabe fLudwig Stei. Bei, 1929

, H. Zu Wahheitspbematik de sigisheethde Ka aheims degie ud tpie, Die Geseschajt vi, 929.

, A Sigie as Resigati u issi. NeueScheizer Rundschau 1930

, H. degie ud tpie, " Zeitschr f Nationakonomiepp. 40-417, 19.

P, H. Abwaduge des degiegedakes,Klner Viertelahrshefte fr Soziologie x, 2 (1931), pp. 63 f

(V, )R, K. st de axismus degie de Wisseshaft ? Der Kamj i (192), pp. 245 f

R, E Zu Lehe vm eshe Ei Sammeefeatbe Nuesheiuge u Kutusigie. Deutsche Viertelahrsschrijt fr Literaturissenschajt und Geistesgeschichte xi, 1

S, JR. . Remaques su e uveet sgiquee Aemage, i Revue de la synthse historique v Ns.1-150, pp. 57-69 (190)



BIBLIPHY 303

ALN ber Poltik als Wissenschaft Fstschrft fr Oobnr (1930) pp 2

Historischer aterialismus und Ideologienlehre ahrbuchfr Soziologie ed by Salomon ii pp 386 Karlsruhe 1926

EIER ANS Soziologie oder Ideologie D Gslschaft vii 4(1930)

Die eschihtsphilosophie Lassalles A rcv fr Sozlnschaft un Sozlpoltk vol lxi and 2 (1929) pp 13 .

RNER E Ideologie und Wissenschat Rede gehalten in derPreuss Akademie der Wissenschaften c Forschungn unFortschrtt Nachrichtenblatt der Deutschen Wissenschat undechnik Berlin 1t April 1930

TERN GUENTHER ber die sogenannte Seinsverbundenheit des

Bewusstseins Ansslich Karl annheims Ideologie undUtopie Archv fr Sozalssnschaft un Sozalpoltk vol lxiv(1930) pp 492

ILICH AUL Ideologie und Utopie D Gsllschaft vi 10(1929) pp 348-3

ITTEL K A Wissen und esellschaft Neuere deutscheLiteratur zur Wissenssoziologie Untr m Bannr s Mrsmus (1931)

L K a Socolog l Sapr crc una nzon

esi di Laurea in ilosoa anoscritto Biblioteca della acoltdi Lettere e ilosoa della R Universit degli Stud di irenze193 (I 2 3 6 ; H 3 ; IV 2)

IELER H O Ideologienlehre Archv fr Sozalwssnscaft unSozalpoltk 92 pp 6

3 TTETS AT AN LICATIN R MDIICATIN THE METHD

AS RESENTED IN THIS BK IN EEN IRIA ESEARCH

\BAKER R Th Socologcal Functon of Intllctuals n MornSocty A Stuy of som Socal Movmnts n PostWarGrmany (PhD hesis London School of Economics adPolitical Science 1936) (Unpublished) (I 2 4 ; I 1 3 HI, 3 4 ; IV 2)

ARL W Wltanschauung un Prss (Dissertation rankurt a) Leipzig 193 (I 4 ; H 3 4 ; I V 2

LIAS N D hsch Gsllschft Untrsuchungn zur Sozolog

s A ls s ngtums un s Hofs vor allm n Frankrchs VII tn ]ahrhunrts (Unpublished) (H 1 3 4 ; IV )LIASER W Die widersprechenden sacherstndigen utachten

Was sollen die Richter die entliche einung und die Sacherstndigen tun wenn ie utachten sich widersprechen A bhanlungn aus n Grnzgbtn r Psycolog un MznFstschrft fr A Mo Berlin 1932

FREUND a Photograph n Frnc au nuvm SclEssa socolog t sttqu Paris 1936 (I 3 4 IV 2)



304 ILIGY

GERTH H D szalgschichtlch Lag d bglch Itlg um di Wd ds 18 Jahhudts " Ei Bta zurSzilg ds dutsch Fhlbalsmus Dissettion,nkut ) VDIVeg GmbH, Bein, 7

1935 · (H , 3 , 4 ; , , 3, 5 ; IV, 2ERRANN O D A fg Gustav Fytags" Ei szilgschBtag zu gschicht d dutsch bglch Itllgz m19 ahhut isettion) Hmbug, 1934 (H 3 4 IV, 2

HNBRASTEDT E Class Dstctis as Rctd thGma Nvl f th Ntth Ctuy : A stcacy, MddlClasss, Itllctuals, 1 830-900 " A study i scilgy ltatu. PhD Thesis London Schoo o Economics nd

Poitic Science13)

Unpubished) (H3, 4 ;

IV, 2TKENS H Ds Pobem de Ameiknischen InteigenzUnpubished) , 3, 4 ; IV 2

MANHEI E D Tg d tlch Miug Studien zuSozioogie de entichkeit Bnn, Pg, Leipzig, en, 933(H 3 , 4 ; , 4, 5 ; IV, 2

MARTIN A n Szlg d Raissac Physigmk udRhythmik d bglich Kultu Stuttgt 1932 (H , 34 IH , 5 ; IV, 2

- De Humnismus s sozioogisches Phnomen Ein Betg

zum Pobem des Vehtnisses zwischen Besitzschicht undBidungsschicht, in A chi f Szialwssschaft ud Szalplitk Vo 5 Tbingen 931 (H , 3, 4 IV, 2

- Kutusozioogie des ittetes in Viekndts Hadwtbuch d Szilg Stuttgt, 1931 (H, , 3 , 4 ; IV, 2

- Kutusozioogie de enissnce . in Viekndts Hadwtbuch d Szli Stuttgt, 1931 (H 3, 4 ; IV, 2

RUHEL K Szialbamt Ei Bitag zu Szaalys d BkratDissettion nkut in) Sgn Benjmin Kuse),1934· I, , 3, 4 )

EL H D Etsthug ds dutsch Bldugspizips, Schitenzu Phiosophie und Sozioogie ed b K nnheim Bon,1930 (H I 3 4 , 5 IV 2)



OF Adler, G, 54Adt, J , 201Augustne, 205

Bacon, 55Bakunn, M, 125, 1 96, 219 and n 1Bauer, xv, n 1Beard, Ch A , xvBeckerath, E v, 120 n 2Beha, B, 194 n 3Bekker, 106 n 1Bengel, A, 201 and n 1Bentha, xvBergson, H, 119, 120Berkeley, 13Bsarck, 215Bloch, E, 190 n 2, 194 n 2Bhlau, 106 n 1

Bousuet, G H, 123 n 2Brodrero, 20 nBrggeann, F, 139 n 1Brupbacher, F , 2 19 n 12Buber, M, 235 n 1Burke, E, 107

Coccejus, J , 201Cote, A, 123Condllac, 64Condorcet, 200, 22

Cooley, C H, xxCunow, H, 200 and n 1

Descartes, 13Dewey, J, xv n, xxDetrch, A, 54Dlthey, , 40, 279Doren, A, 1 84 n, 1 90 n 2, 201 n 1Droysen, J G, 179 nDrer, 194 n

Eckehar, Mester, 194 nEnsten, A, 275Esler, R 53Engels, F, 51, 204 and n 1, 220

and n 1

Fchte, 109Fourer, Ch, 220·Frank, Seb, 204 n 1

305

Freud, S, 229, 279reyer, H, 196 n 2, 205

Galton, F, xxGerlch, F, 201Grsberger, H, 196 n 1, 21 6 n 1Goethe, 210, 212 n 1Goltz, vd, 201Gr, 197 n 1Grnewald, 194 n 3Guplowcz, , 279

Halbwachs, M, x n 1Hegel, 24, 59, 61, 134, 136, 182, 189,

205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212 andn 1 , 229, 232, 235 n , 279

Hedegger, M, 158 n 1Hedrich, E, 194 n 3

Hesenberg, 275Herder, 200Hobbes, 13Hobson, J A , xxHoll, K, 190 n 2, 192 n 1, 194 n 1,

195 n 1 , 204 n 2 , 21 1 n 2Huch, R 219 n 1Hue, xv, 13, 56, 229, 230 n 1

J aes, W. xx, xxJ ankelevtch, 54

Jerusale, , 10J oach o f Flores, 190

Kant, xv, 13, 59, 189, 261Karlstadt, 195 n 1Keller, G, 225Kelsen, H, 53Kerkegaard, S, 15, 234Krug, T 53

alande, 53

aartne, 18andauer, K, 174, 1778, 203,235 n 1

ask, E, 73 n 1ebnz, 13enn, 1 1 3 n 2, 1 14 n 1 17 n 1essng, 201ttr, 179 n 1ocke, xv



06 INDEX OF NAMESuc G 53 1 13 . I 227 249

279ute 193 I 194 2 24 . 2

Maccaell 55 56 125MacIe R M xxMa A. V, 21 5 . 1Mawtz . d. 2Max x 34 51 66 1 1 2 1 15

1 17 1 36 219 232 249 27279

Mead G. H xxMerg F. 66 24 1Meiecke 56 12 1 27

2 1 5Mill J. S xiii xixMlloud M 54Motage 15More T. 1 11Mer J 2Mle Ada 21 1Mller Joae 214 . 1Mzer 19 1 2 192 1 3

193 1 194 . 1 2 195 1 21 1 2 232

Muol 1 19 1 2 1 2 . 1 123 3 1 24 . 1 126 . 1 13 1

Napoleo 61 65 113 12Nettlau 219 . 1Ncola Cza 219 . 1Nebu . R 19 Netzce 1 22 27

Oppeee F. 53 247 1 279Owe 22

Paeto V 1 19 1 2 1 22 123 . 2229 233 279

Park R. xxPacal 15Pearo K xixPeice C. S S xxPecz G 194 n 3

Pcaet 63Pde 199 1Pirou G 121 . 2Poe E 121 2Poudo 25

Rady 195 . 2Rake 94 1 ad . I 12Ratzeofe 279Ree K 253 1

Requadt P. 214 . 1Ra J 221 1Rcket H. 19 ad 1Rezle K 53Robo J. H xxRyazao . 1 12 2

St Sio 22Saloo G 53 66Sagy 127 . 21 212 1Sce A. 1

Sceler M. xix, 53 15 n 1 242 . 3 21 26 279

Scellg 212 . 1Sctt C. 53 56 1 3 . 1 1 1 ad

1 123 . 3 125 . 2 12 1Scwekefeld 24 2Sebald H. 194 . 3St A. 34Socate 9Sobart W. 53 5 67Sorel G 1 19 1 2 1 1 21 ad 2

123 I, 125 129Spa 227Specer x xx 21Stal F J. 125 136 155 1

212 . I , 247Stai 1 13 . 3Sue W G xxSzede P. 5

Toa W. I. xx

Tlc P 19 .Tacey de etutt 63Toeltc E 67 227

Veble T. xiii x

Waa G xiWebe A. 137 159 ad I , 1

227Webe M. x xx 7 . I, 53

67 ad 1 72 ad . I 2 . 2

22 233 242 ad 2 273Wetpal W. 274

Zegle , 53 n 1 22 1Zedof 21



INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Absolute state, 32, 199 v also

state ; corporative statebsoutes 77, 78, 83, 84, 86, 11 2,

117, 132, 135, 152, 178, 182, 219,227, 235 n 253-4, 270, 27 1 ,275 v also validity ; absoltevaidity of tout

bsolute vaidity of tougt 1 3,38, 6, 71, 75, 136, 152, 168, 225,270, 274-5 v also absoluts validit

Absolutis, its ideology, 207 nAbstracion level of, 2489, 271,

272 v also consructive abstraction as contrasted witspeculation

Abstractness, social factors akngfo 205, 216, 26, 271-2, 273

Acadeies, 160-1Action and tougt, 3-5, 17-18,20, 28, 36, 75-8, 85, 1 1 2-1 3,114, 118, 119, 122, 129, 146,151-2, 157, 171, 214, 221, 222,25-7 revealing reaity, 87,1 1 2-1 3, 1 18, 15 1 stabilizingte aspect of tings 20, 1 57 setting new causal sequences ite world 1 70 v also purpose action direct ; activis ; context

of activityAction direct, 1 19, 122, 1 25 v als

revolutionary deed of the roetariat ; moment in istory

Activis 119, 120 n 1, 122-3, 126 v als revolutionary deed of teproletariat action direct

Activity science of 1 00 of ideas1 85 v also politics

Administration 1 00 (def ) 1 05-6,1 70 v al bureaucratic tougt

Ambivalence of motivations 204n 2 v. als motiva tions

American sociology 228-9Amorhous asect of life 1 34

v als moent in istory atomization of te basis oftougt

Analytical tougt social factorsaking for it 8, 1 50, 246 ee

als tougt ; knowledge ;syntesis

307

narcis, 125, 177, 178, 196 n. ,203, 213, 215, 218-19, 223

Angle of refraction wen ideas areaken over fro anoter socialstratum, 204 n 2, 241 , 245

Approac, see genetic, psycogenetic, istorical and ssteatic,sociological, etapysical intuitive, orpological approac

Approxiation, idea of, 200Art and its social backgrond 97

146, 160, 194 n 3, 199-200, 22,230, 233 istory of, 1 54, 243,276, 277

scendent classes, see groupsAspects 20, 26, 238 v also pe

spective ; standpointsAtelier 160-1

Atoization of te basis of ougt,226 v also basis of tougtAttitudes : social dierentiation o,

191 , 207, 208 realistic, 192,222, 230 ciliastic, 193, 214,219 correlated to socialstructures, 49, 20

Attribution of ideas see iputatioAwareness of otives 169-170,

208, 236 v also otivationsAxioms 147, 148, 149, 167, 196

v also miniu of assumptionBasis of tougt canging or

broadening, 252, 27 1 , 274 v also

atoization of te basis oftougt

Becoming, process of, 1 00, 1 12, 1 52,196, 1 98, 202, 203 v also

dynamic tougt ; dialecticsBeaviour, 98, 207 v also con

duct behaviouris

Beaviourism 39Belief, its disintegration 217, 233 v als disinteration

Bias 42, 62-7, 76, 266Blocking te answer troug te

way of stating a proble ortroug te forulation of tefundaental concepts 92, 176-8181-2, 240, 260

Bolsevis, see communism



08 NDEX OF SUBJECTSBourgeois petty 216 n. 1 222Bourgeoisie 106 108 10 123

12 12� 12 13 13 137 13141 14 162 183 17206 228

24 20 al bourgeois pettyBureaucratic thought 18 n. 1 06 114 132

Calculation 108 112 114 118171 204 210 n. ; alrationalism

Cant mentality 1 76 al liesCapitalism 8 130 n. 1 200 228

231 24 20Categories 1 72 73 77 86 1

104 1 1 1 3 16 16� 24 24248 2 272

Causality category of 16 1823 n. 1

Certainty 1 227 al uncertainty ; unrest

Charismatic 186Chiliasm 107 201 202 203 204

206 211 212 213 214 216 21821 223 224 233 234 almystics ecstatic experiences

Choice 143 144 163 16 210 222234 23 al decision

Christ as seen by Mnzer anLuther representing dierentsocial stata 14

Christianity 223 402 4 17Church 10 11 13 30 33 8

214Class society 102 1 17 130

struggle 10 113 n. 133 143

228 relations 11 116 ;theory 138 2478 278 ; consciosness 60 127 142 10 n. 1 11 al groups ; classe

Classes social and thought 8 2636 2 60 66 143 1767 1187 20 247 al groups ;class

Classless stratum relativel13 . ; al intelligentsia

Clergy medieval 10

Club 162 (def.) 163Cg rg m its sociologicalinterpretation 1 3

Communal elements 116Communication : of knowledge

1467 14 18 13 16 between homogeneous andheterogeneous groups 213713 al community ofeperiencing

Communism 110 112 216 n. 218 221 n . 1 223 231 23 al socialism

Community of experiencng 28

203 al socialization ofevents ; communication ; experiences collective

Competition free 1 02 ; its impacton thought 10 11 2 67 102412

Compromise static and dynamic137 144 21 al dynamicmediation

Concepts 1 17 177 180 24 formal 1 1 24 with

rich content 1 24 descriptive 1801 18 fundamental 01 4 their absencas a symptom 246 alcounter concepts ; blocking theanswer through the formulationof he fundamental concepts conceptual elasticity

Conceptual elasticity 88 n. 1 0 al concepts

Concreteness : immediate 120 sense of with dierentcial strata 202 221 overemphasis on 248

Conduct 102 103 121 146 11162 1 76 273 political 100(def) 102 103 103 n. 104 1081 10 146 16 208 pattes 31 7 al individualization oconduct

Conguation 21 1 22 271 278

of experience7

alGestaltCnicts as inner experiences

1 7 1 40 their social interpretation 1 6 al contradictions and their signicance ;compromise

Conscience ethicsConsciousness 112 113 n. 1 142

207 21 ; iself" 8 606 1 1 4 12 16 18 2723

al sefawareness ; falseconsciousness Consensus : social 1 lack of

20 ; ex post 1 68 cf. al78 n 7 n. 1

Conservatism histoical 106824 246

Conservative thought 46 n. 114117 121 1323 136 141 14478 180 20 2021 218 220



DEX OF SUBECTS 309223 224 245; als cnservaismhisrical ; irrainalism ; upia

Cnsiuin 106 16Cnsrucive absracin as cn

frne wih speculain 5-3182 18 10 ; als speculain

Cnemplai an knwlege 28151 154 156 17 210 265

Cnen f hugh 73 240 ; alscncep wih rich cnen

Cnex f aciviy : 2 3 4 cllecive an iniviual 24 15 155 ; f he bureaucra18 n 1 105 ; als cnex flife experience ; facs ; meanings

an he scial cnexCnex f life experience an heinerpreain f he wrl 711 214

Cnraicins an heir signicance 47 an n 1 3 1 80 ; a�s ynamic meiain

Cnrl : ver hugh 4 4288 n 1 6 26 ; f pliical life4 1 70-1 222 ; f uncnsciusmivains 5 106 16 171

Crpraive sae 120 n 1 ; alssaeCrrelain 23 n 1 243Cuner cnceps 187 12 17

207 211 215 217 220 224 231245 265 ; als cunerielgy

Cuner ielgy 207 ; alsielgy ; cuner cnceps

Crisis 5-48 pass 44 8 1 34 6 127 134 236 237

Crieria f ruh 4 14 222 237254 261-2Culural sciences 4 148 243 27 ;

als scial sciences

Debunking 56-7 ; als isillusinmen

Decisin : 144-5 152 162 168 16224 234 235 ; an evaluain17 7 152 ; als chice evaluain ; values

Deniins : hei naure 2 1771 82 ; f a siuain 11 77 ; cnraicry f he samesiuain 7 8 176 177 184 ; als cnraicins an heirsignicance

Dehumanizain 3 ; als humanpin f view ; human elemen innwlege ; impersnalizain

Demcraizing prcess an isimpac n hgh 7 8 32 3335 108 n 145 n 1 14

Derivains 122Deerminain 23 n 1 (ef )

als impuain f ieas equain scial

Deerminism 3 43 72 138 16171 206 210 211 217 218 21222 224 225 234 alsineerminaeness

Diagnsing an epch 83 22Dialecics 68 84 112 1161

12 1 17-180 228 240 ; lsynamic hugh ; ielgy is

ynamic cncep ; upia is ynamic cncep ; realiy is ynamic cncep ruh is ynamiccncep

Dicarship 127Diereniain scial f purpses

an aiues s purpses aiues

Discussin 10 1 1 0 133 ; alsruh irec an inirec aackn

Disilusinmen 5 125 200 233 als " ebunking Disinegrain 57 74 1 10 1

204 2 17 2 1 ; als perspeciveis isinegrain ; belief isisinegrain ; amizain fhe basis f hugh

Disre knwlege 86-7 238 als false cnsciusness

Divisn { funcins an hug27

Dgmaism an is scial rs 10 34 88 n 1 ; scienic 2 22Dminain 103 207 n 1

248 272 als pwer pwepliics

Dualisic wr view 263 267 75 als Welanschauung

Durain s raiin ; alsimesense

Dynamic meiain 144 152 162163 168 1 ; als synhesis

cmprmiseDynamic hugh 77 87 88 n

4 100 115 11 121 135140 15 1 152 27 ; alsialecics ; ielgy is ynamccncep ; upia is ynamic cncep ; realiy is ynamic cncep ; ruh is ynamic ccep ; ynamic meiain



1 NDEX SUBJCTScnmics (pure), 39 9 49

also thery, ure scences, exctEcsttic experience, -2 92-4

9 9 99 203 205 22-32 9 224 233 also estericknwledge expeiences, cllective mystics chlism chismtic

ductin 3 205 1' sope<gy, pitic

Ean poitic, 42 24 25 2 222 also nduct, pliicl

leents, lst, se xislite, 9 23 24 2 27 29

3 34

Etin, 0 09 4 alsontegrtin f etinsmprcism, 79 90-3 95 25

259- also experimenttinking

Englih sil hilsphy, sphilphy, scil

Epistmlgic rch, 2-47 7 25 259-20 29 iplictins the scilgy fknwledge 239 25 275

istemly 9 2 44 4 704 25-2 2-275 individulsti, 25 nd the histricl prcess, 704 its fundtinl functin, 70-4 25922 its tw drectins, 29-275 dynmic cncept f, 2-2 ndscilgy, 24

Epistemlgy nd the scilgy fknwledge, 24 also pecilsciences

Equlity, 3 25 250 alsoequliztin, ge fEqulizin, ge f, 25-2Equtin, scil, 53 7- ;

also imputtin idesEquilibriu, 9Er, 23 270steric knwledge, lso

knwledge Estblished reltinships, 235

also structure rtinlized

steretyingthics 79 tribl, 4 wld,4 its three stges, 0- ndthe scil bckgrund, 4 72 5 70- 1 9 29 23 alsons stndrds lues

vlutin, nherent in thestructure f tught, 7 n 9 n. 09- 0 52 770

also vlue jugments vlidit vlues vlitinl elements

Eltin, 2 25 30 7 2002 also prgress

Exct mdes fthinking, 4 1 70 also science, exct

Existence : 74 79 0 21 2 2 n, 237 23 24 2 ssuch, 234 scil, 24 alsorelity ntlgy knwledge

xistentil determintin f knedge s knwledge

xperience : 240 inner, 4 extel, 4 aso selectin fthe dt f experience

Expences cllective, 24 asocntext f ctivit, clectivend individul

Experimentl thinking 47- 37 also knwledge empiricism

xpressinism, 233xtremists, 1320 4 4 13 227

Fcts 47 n. 30 5 53 427 22 227 35 n., 257-20 23 2 existing in the

scil cntext nly, 9-7 lso sciliztin f eventsFith, s beliefFse cnsciusness flsches

Bewusstsein 2-3 4 7

Fscism, 9-30 34 alsoirrtinlsm knwledge utpi

Ftlism, 70-1 also determinim

Feigning, 5 also les nd

delgyFeudlism, 3 99Fictins, 22-3 alo myth,

cllective lies feigning idegies idl belief ntmentlity distrted knwege flse cnsciusness

.

Flkspirit Vlksgeist) 59 0 0 20 32 2 0 27 24 245 also " silently wrking frces

Frce, diving, 27 29 222

Freunner, 90 n. alsostructure, mentl, being befrethe present

Frmliztin f thught, 5-73-9 4 44 5 72-3 09 4749 150 97 200 209 22 244249-250 27-4 its scilrts, 20 73 5 49 27 272-3274 also scilgy, frml



INDEX OF SUBJECTS Fre o reerence 48, 76 , 77 , 6,

7, 51 lso systeFreedo 43, 1 69-1 71 , 1 0, 35 n

45, 50 its bourgeois concet1 83 its conservtive concet

14 ; its socilist concet15-17 objective 14 inner14, 45 lso indeterinteness ; decision ; choice

Function 160, 1 14 n , 316Future s seen by dierent grous

195, 195 n. 1, 16, 17, 0,1 , 8 lso st s seenby dierent grous

G in the theoreticl icture s syto 117

Generlizing ethods 118, 13,136, 147, 149, 150, 156, 157, 10,8, 9, 48, 49

Genertions nd thought 6, 117,153, 158, 4, 48

Genesis ctul 55, 64 eningul 64 nd vlidity oening , 3, 40, 43-50,54-6, 58, 6-4 lsogenetic roch ; vlue generting unction ; vlidity ; bsolute vlidity ; vlidity eternl

Genetic roch 1 4, , 5 oint o view nd the ntiuthoritrin roch 13, 3 lso genesis

Genius s gret n theoryGenuine 84, 31Gestlt 1 8, 148, 189, 7 lso

congurtionGirondis 00" Gret n theory 7 nd n

41Grou : 19, 44, 5, 157, 186-7,

41-3, 47-8 ruling 130 ; sitution 5 occutionl 48 lso grous ; grouind

Grouind criticis o its concet , 5, 44, 5, 1 89, 41 lso olksirit

Grous : orgnic nd orgnized ndtheir thought 1 6, 19, 7 doinnt nd scendnt ndtheir ersectives 183, 0, 07,1 8, 4, 47 sontneous ndtheir ersectives 1 6 theirlgtion king or bstrctness 7 lso couniction o knowledge between

hoogeneous nd heterogeneousgrous clsses socil ; grouind

Hegelinis 66, 79 let ndight 1 34 lso dilecticsHere nd now 117, 137, 193-6, 198,

01, 03, 09 lso relitytie sense

Historicl : reserch 46 n ,69, 90, 164-5, 180, 5-6,7-8, 37, 39, 75-8 stges 01 , 1 nd systetic roch 180-, 39 uniqueness 156, 180, 181 understnding 189 school 56, 60,108, 1 0, 14 lso history historicis ; hegelinis conservtis historicl

Historicis 49History : its ening s seen by

di grous 4, 81-3, 84, 108,116, 119-130 (sc) 13-3,178 (nrch) 193, 00 (Grondis) 01, 0 (liberlis) 03,07-14, 19-0, 1-, 6-8,43, 46 its terilistic concetion 67, 17, 9 itsrtionized concetion 117, 16,18, 131 yth o 1 n1 4 nd the subhistoicl 18,nd the suerhistoricl 166,167, 168, 33 lso historicl ;historicl school ; historiclnd systetic roch ; historicl stges understnding

historicl ; conservtive thought ;historicl reserch ; sociologynd history

History o ides 19-3, 193 n 40,4 lso ides ; iuttion oides

Hun eleent in knowledge 68,73 lso dehuniztion ;hun oint o view ; iersonliztion

Hun oint o view 66-7

lso dehuniztion ; huneleent in knowledge ; iersonliztion

Hunis 139, 30

Idel tyes 189, 190, 04 n. , 3,77 lso entlity tyes ;yoogy



3 INDEX OF UBJECTIdeaistic phosoph 198-9, 201

256-67, 268Ideaization 86, 122, 22 ; also

iusion irationa rrationasm introversion phiosophideaistic reait idoa utopia ideoog

Ideas 45, 1 15, 124 and n. 142,156, 179, 1 84, 192, 1 97, 06,197 n. 198, 00, 203, 205, 206-15, 215-22, 221, 22-3 passm situation a (adequate) 1 75 (def.)passm situationa transcendet 173 (def.) 175, 184, 185,32, 33, 236 passm also

ideoog utopia histo of ideasIdentication socia 142Ideoogiss 63, 64, 08Ideoog 36, 38, 4, 49-53,

78 n 1 86 n. 1 (def.) 1 10,1 1 1 1 4, 13, 169, 236,38-9 (def.) 278 and pass ;particuar concept of 49-53, 56,57-67, 1 83 (def. ) tota concept of 49-53, 57-67, 6 n. 2def) 86 n 1 specia versus

genera concept 68 n. 2 (def.) its dnamic concept 84-87 ;as contrasted with Utopia 173-4,176-7 ; its evauative concept71 , 78-80, 3, 84, 86 n 1 , 88 n. 1 it nonevauative concept 70,71 , 74-8 ; its Marxian concept13-4 ; histor of the concept53-67, 68-74 also deas utopiaits dnamic concept counterideoog imputaton of ideas

absoutism its ideoog iesIdoa 55 ; also ideoogIusions 76 91 , 14, 19, 70 ;

aso ideaizationImages 192-3 ; also smbosImmanent nterpretation s

n terpretatonImpersonaization (Verdingichung)

249Imputation of ideas crtea of

44, 255, 277 ; its methods 186,

204 n 244, 254-6, 257-8, 276-8,279 ; also ange of refraction determination stes of thought euation socia

Indetermnate reation (Heisenberg) 275

Indeterminateness 205, 206, 21-220 ; also determnism

Individua its pace and function

in societ 1 02, 103, 186 ; asmember of heterogeneous groups7 ; its signicance for thought2, 3, 5, 26, 51, 52, 97, 156,186-7, 210, 240, 241 ; its anguage 2 ; also individuasmtheoretica individuaization individuaization of thought

Individuaism theoretica 25-30,235 n. also individuaization

Individuazation of thought andconduct 9, 31 , 32 ; alsoknowedge conduct

Indoctrination 163Inner diaectics s interpretation

immanentInstitutiona eement 202Integration of dierent aspects

93-4, 1 32-3 ; of pschic experiences 51-3, 57-60 ; of emotons 1 03, 1 14 n 1 ; alsosnthesis dsintegration

Inteectuaism and its sociafunction 108 (def. ) 109 1 13,118, 133, 135, 146, 148, 15,154, 159, 161, 199, 220

Inteigentsia : n static societ 9 ;in modern societ 10, 30, 33,105, 106, 15, 127, 136-146, 199,204 n. 2, 208, 232-3 ; therfunction 142 ; the four aternatives open to them in thepresent situation 233 ; alsocassess stratum reative dnamic mediation sefjustication

Interdependence 29, 43, 61, 97,

1 15, 12 1, 188, 223, 6, 7 ; also meanings thir interdependence

Interests 27, 43, 51 , 52, 56,89 n. 107, 108, 133, 134, 137,140, 142, 145, 149, 151, 152,162, 164, 24, 245 ; inteestsand perceptions 1 53 ; vested18

Interpenetration s commuication

Interpretation 46, 47, 6 1 , 1 31 ,214, 234, 241 , 273, 276 ; immanent (ideoogica) 50 n. 242 ;transcendenta (socioogica) 50n 1 of ones own sef 85-6 ; als meanngs meaningfueements in socioog understandng smpathetc socioogica intepretation of meaning



INDEX F SUBETS ntroversion, 198, 213, 234ntuitive approach, 81, 89 n. 1, 93,

114, 118, 121-6, 146, 147, 149,210

rratoa its meaning andfunction in conservativethought, 106-8, 1 18, 133 ; inibera democratic thought,108-1 10 ; in sociaistcommunistthought, 1 13-19 ; n fascistthought, 1 19, 120, 126, 128 ; inbureaucratic thought, 106 ;foundations of knowedge, 28 ;irrationa matrix i socia ife,01 , 102, 109 ; als intuitiveapproach

rrationaism : 37, 73, 89 n 1 , 1 02,103, 128, 170, 21 1 ; its two mainsources in society, 103, 1 28 ; ofthe deed 1 20 125-6 ; alsirrationa ; activism ; action,direct ; intuitive approach intuition

Joueyman, 204Judgment, socia, 146

Jura federation, 219Juste miu, 137

Kairos, 198 n. 1 def)Knight, 205Knowedge situationay exis

tentiay) determined, 43, 44,46, 69, 71-4, 111-12, 124, 14615, 151, 156, 168, 237-240 def.),250, 256, 265, 268 ass ; as acoective process 26, 1 15-16,

237-9 ; esoteric, 81 ; alsexperimenta thinking ; esotericknowedge ; thought ; personaity and knowedge ; probems

Language : of the group, 2 ; of theinividua, 2

Laws universa, 1 18-19 ; historica, 181 ; als generaizingmethods ; history ; historica

Leader, 122, 124, 125, 222

League of Nations, 109Legaistic mind, 105, 274Leninism, 1 12, 1 1 3 n. 3, 1 1 8, 129 ;

als communism, neMarxismLiber, socia structure nd

thought, 29, 108110, 118, 97,197-206, 208-9, 122, 215, 218,219, 220, 221 224, 245

Lie, 50-3, 54, 62, 111, 123, 142,

176, 238 ; als ideoogy feigning ; iusion ; idoa ; beief

ctions ; myths ; cantmentaity ;" debunking ; disiusionment ;dstorted knowedge ; fase consciousness ; bias

Logic 1 04, 240, 243, 244, 265 ; as anaytica thought ; abstractness ; thought mode ;categories ; nooogy

Long range ew and its sociaroots, 1 16, 126, 129 ; asthought

Macchiaveianism, 207 n. 1

arxism 49, 65, 66, 67, 69110-19, 123, 133 134, 219, 227,228 229 248, 249 ; and thesocioogy of knowedge, 248

ass, 27, 27 n. 1, 116, 119, 124, 125,127, 134, 196 ; als masspsychoogy, it imits

Mass psychoogy, its imits, 52, 167 als psychoogy, socia

Materia conditions and their sociaevauation, 217 ; als history

its materiaistic conceptionMathematics, 39, 147 Matter of factness neue ac

ichkeit 230-1, 236Meaningfu eements in socioogy,

40-1, 264 ; als socioogy ;meanings

Meanings 79 n. 2, 80, 82-3, 1 28,189, 203, 209, 233, 244-7, 263,264, 272 ; at the disposa o agroup, 2, 251 ; and the socia

context, 16, 19-20, 24, 89 ; theirunity correated to sociastabiity, 6 ; as stabizingagencies, 20 ; as integratingnits of conduct, 1 8 20 ; theirunertainty and society 15 20,88 n 1 ; their interdependence,61 , 74, 76, 81 1 77, 222 251 ; als interpretation ; socioogica interpretation of meaning

Measurabe and nonmeasurabe,

40, 46, 147 ; als quaitativeeementsMechanistic thought mode and

ife rientation, 22 44, 247 271 ;n sychoogy, 1 522 ; nsocioogy, 39-40

Mentaity types, 1 54, 277 ; alstypoogy

ercenaries, 204



314 INDEX SUJECTSMetaemirica judgments 79

89 n 1Metahysica aroach 71 78 79Methodoogy and Wetanschauung

148-9 ; als Wetanschauung

Mind : its tota structure 5 229 objective Hege) 229 alsstructure of the mind

Minimum of assumtions 79 n 189 n 1 ; als axioms

Mobiity socia and its imactuon thought 25

Mode of thought s thoughtmode

Moment n history as seen bydierent grous 1 1 7 1 2 13

134 fasc) 195 chiiasm) 19622 212 21 9 ; als historyMonooistic ye of thought 9

1 1 1 5 n ; als cometition its imact on thought

Moras s normsMorhoogica aroach 121 148

21 24 ; als Gestat ;historica uniqueness ; rrationa

Motivations 43 44 51 78 191 7 175 235 ; als ambivaence ; awareness of motives

Mystics 81 128 25 n 2 233 ;as comared with chiiasts 193 als ecstatic exeriene ;chiiasm

Myh coective 2 78 8 861 22 122 n 12 n. 1 29 1 2 23 ; als mythoogy ctions ; fase consciousness

Mythoogy 8 184

Nationaism 1 2 n I 12 n 3Natura sciences as modes of

thought 212 ; als scenceexact thouhtmodes

NeoMarxism 227Neoromanticism 148Neutraizing the artia nature of

knowedge 272 ; als articuarzation

Nobiity 167 19 247

Nooogy the study of the contents and forms of thought intheir urey cognitive interreations) 51 57 59 62 28257 259 2 28-9 ; alsvaidity

Norms 4 71 72 76 1 12 1 9922 29 2 1 21 1 25 ; alsstandards ; vaues ; urose

Object : its anaysis 1 2 77 1 1 n ;not detached from the subject44 77 1 51 ; in itsef 241

Objectiviy : 42 1 5 1 17 ; anew tye of 5 42 2 26927

Ontoogy 14 15 1 8 8 78 78 n 79 79 n 12 8 84 8 n25 264 ; its socia roots 9 1 21 88 n 1

Otimism revoutionary 192Order socia 15 174 1779

18 25 nOrdering chronoogica versus

meaningfu ordering 189 Organsmc thought mode 27Orgiasm 192

Orienting activey versus orderingschematicay 155 158 1

Pariament 19 1 1Particiation 42 14 151 152 1

22 241Particuarity of any view oint 8

8 8994 115 152 151 54 1 78 227 249 2 272 ; als articuarization oaization of theories ; synthesis

Particuarization 254 25722 als articuary ofany view oint neutraizing theartia nature of knowedge

Party schoos 11 144 1 52 1 ; als oitcs oitica thought

Past as seen by derent grous211 8 222 2 2 astraditon aditionaism ; time ;vaue generatng unction oftime

Paticians 24Peasants and thei mentaty 192

247Peasant wars 1 92 24 n 2Pedagogy : and socia grou 46

1 589 ; oitica 1 1 1 21 5 als conduct oitica

Perfection state of 2 Personastic thought mode]

247

Personaity and knowedge 151Persective 5 1 7 91- 1- 1 4152 19 176 177 178 189225- 29 def) 24 24-25244 def) 252 25 25 2-7271 2725 ; its enargement19 27 271 ; its disintegration2257 ; detached factors akigfor it 253



INDEX SUBJECTS 315

Peoeology o tougt 267-8Philosopy : 92-3, 207, 226, 234,

250, 258, 260 ; social 228, 229 ;o law 260 ; ad lie 1, 65 ;idealistic 198-9, 201, 265, 27,

268 ; ode its social uctio199 als sociology adphiloopy

Pietis 201 , 21 3, 21 4Platois 197Polarizatio o theore 242 ; als

couter cocepts particularizatio artiularity o ay viewpoit

Political tougt 34, 44, 59, 64-5,105, 111-12, 119, 122, 129, 133,146 168-171

Politics sciece o 97-104, 108,109, 1 10 1 30, 1 44, 146-15 ; als political tougt pedagogy political party scools

Positiis 79, 79 92, 12,147-8, 279

Power : 202 ; power politics 215 als doiatio

Praccal a 149Practice ad theory as see by

dieret groups 102, 103, 104-130 ; liberal 10-9 ; socialistcouist 1 10, 1 19 ; ascist1 19-120, 1 29, 152, 154 ; alsteory

Pragatis 65, 84, 247, 279Prejudice as see by dieret

groups 201Prescietic 1, 147Presetess 193, 1 94 1 95, 196,

19 20� 21� 221 ; achilias oet i historyPrestige o tougt odels 7 ;

als tought odelPriciples te leve o 259-260Probles teir eergece ro

the social cotext 3, 5-7 42,97, 104, 206, 240-1 , 245 ; adthe orgaizig priciple uderlyig te 4 ; directio o teirtreatet 240 ; als blockig

the aswer troug te way ostatig a probleProductio odes o 1 15 I

248 ; als productive relatiosroductive elatios 1 15 ad 1 ;

als produtioProgress as see by dieret

groups 79, 121, 129130, 198,00-1, 208, 11, 212, 216, 219,

228 ; als optiis reolutioary

Proletariat 66, 72, 1 13 1, 1 17,118, 124, 141, 191, 199

Property 250

Psycoaalysis : ad valuatio18 ; ad te sociologicalapproac 24

Psychogeetic approac 23-4 ; v .als geetic geesis

Psycological leel 50-1, 57 562, 66, 238 ; als otologicalevel (otology) psychology

Psycology : o tougt 1-2, 14, 25 social 1 23, 124, 229 ; alsass psycoogy

Purpose 152, 186, 188, 191, 234241 , 25 265, 266 ; aors values actio adtougt

Putscist tactics 125 ; id 126

Qualitatie eleets 42, 77, 147,148, 150, 179, 203, 228, 244-5, 261, 271-4 ; as easurablead oeasurable Gestalt orpological approac ecaistic tougt odel

Radius o diusio o a tougtodel 247 ; als tougtodel

Ratioalis 31 , 32, 56, 73, 98,108-1 10, 1 18, 121 , 128, 227 bourgeois liberal 1 08-1 10, 1 19,121, 133, 136, 147, , 196, 200 socialist 1 14 ad . 1, 1 16-1 9,

133, 1 36 ; ad te Gera coseratives 209, 210, 21 1 ; alsstructure ratioalized overratioaliztio ratioal syste bureaucratic tougt istoryit ratioalized oceptio calculatio

Rtioal syste closed its sociluctio 197

Reaity : its cagig eaig 63,64, 65, 66, 68, 81, 84, 92, 123 3,

128, 149, 173-4, 178-9, 203, 207,209, 228, 229 ; as it appears todieret classes 88, 134, 176,183, 200, 211, 217, 221, 222, 235 ad tougt 4, 36, 78 86, 8 7 1 12, 209, 211 , 217 ;its dyaic coceptio 84, 86,87, 89, 176-7, 178-9, 262 ;selecto o t eleets o



6 INDEX OF SUBJETSreality 36 221 ; ad the ubect44 ; certai trata of, 147, 166 ; als realizatio a criterio ofreality ; otology

Realizatio a citerio of reality184

Reectio ad the ocial ituatioi which it uually emerge 5 696 116 117 234

Relatioim : 70, 7 1 , 76, 77 253254 269 270 275 ; dyamic88 1 ; als relatiim

Relatiim 42, 70-1 76 81 228229237 254 270 ; als relatioim

Repreio 213Reetmet 40-1 42 ; als lue

geeratig fuctio ofReidue 213Reolutio : 105 1 13 3 1 1

1 1 7, 1 18 144 163 17 190-7,195 2 196 200, 203 218 219232 ; Frech, 198

Reolutioary deed of the proletariat 1 18 218 223 alsactiim ; momt i hitoy

Romatic 24 78 78 1, 108

144 148 160, 161, 208 210 1233 ; als romaticizig ;idealizatio

Romaticizig 86, 122 233 ; alsidealizatio

Scepticim 15 37 42 57 87123 ; ocial factor maig forit 6, 8 222, 228, 233 ; creatie222

Schematizig tedecy, 155, 158160 ; als tereotypigcholaticim 9 10 65 . 1 159Sciece exact 146, 147 148, 170

243, 247, 274 ; als exactmode of thiig

Sect 248electio of the data of experiece

240elfawaree, ad the ocial

factor maig for it, als

cocioue ; elfcotrol ; elfowledge ; awaree of motie ; iterpretatio of oe'ow ef

elf cotrol, 42-3 ; owdge43-4, 85, 151, 169-171, 198207 21 ; Utiatio, 205

Selfjuticatio, fom of : of thebourgeoiie 205 ; of coera

tie, 207, 21 1 of the ielligetia 127 ; als elf cotrol ;elf owledge

Siletly worig force, 106,11 9 224 ; als olpirit

imulacra 57 1 ; as ideologySituatio : it meaig 39-40

87 95 1 12 1 13 1 206 ;hitoricalocial 3 83 93 1101 1 5 155 187 ; uique 100 156180-1 204 2 ; ad idea 680 216 274

Socializatio of eet for a goup19, 186 ; als commuity oexperiecig

ocial ciece : 41-6 90 98146 168 247 ; ad ther ocialbacgrod 41 ; culturalciece

Sociological approach 25-30 56208 226

Sociological iterpretatio ofmeaig 45-6 49, 64 71 74264 ; als meaig ; iterpretatio ; imputatio of ideacriteria of ; ociology of ow

ledge, it techique of reearch ociologim 258ociology : 98 1 52 204 . 2, 222

226-230 235 ; ad hitory180-2 222 ; ad phloophy1-3, 254 ; meaigfu elemet i, 40, 41 , 264 ; America2289 ; formal 167 168, 249-250 272 274 ; als ociologyof owledge ; " ociologim

Socioogy of owledge : the itua

tio whch it emerge 5 569 95 1 68, 51 , 253 256 ;it method 2, 3 46, 69 96104-130 135-6, 204 2, 237-9239 ; it techique of reearch275-8 ; it hitory xii-xxi278-280 ; als owledge ;thought ; imputatio of idea ;epitemology ; arxim adociology ; ociological iterpretatio of meaig

Specia ciece : 90, 92 93 222258 ; ad epitemology, 259-261Speculatio 83 92 93 ; als

cotructie abtractiotadard uambiguity of 8

176 ; coictg, 8, 1 ; alorm

tadpoit 70 71 72 93 144 153169 226





318 INDEX OF SETSUnceainy 45, 5, , 214Uncnscius : 4, 28, 36, 43, 1,

2, 8, 24 cnl f he5, 6, 348, 16, 1

Undesanding sypaheic 14,4, 41, 43, , 1 28, 23 als inepeain

Unmskng f uncnscius mives3, 38, , 122, 225, 236, 238, 2

Ulinea deelpmen 121, 2,23, 21 2, 22 als pgess

Unes menal and scil and isnuence n hugh 1 1, 1 2, 3,

Upia 38, 8 n. I 129, 1,23, 2612 is deniin

13, 16 as cnsed wih idelgy 13, 184, 236 abslue esus elie 1 isdynamic cncep 16, 183 iscncep as seen by dieengups 168, 1834 bndness18 als idelgy ealiy ;upian enaliy

Upian menai (iking) : 36,48, 6 n 112, 185, 24,223, 22, 235, 236 is

dein 188 is dieencnguains : (a giasichiiasm 19, (b libealhumanian 1926, (c cnseaive 26215, (d scialiscmmunis 215222, in he

pesen siuain 22223 als upia upis

Upias hei cexisence 18,223 ls cune cnceps

Vagabnds 24Vaidiy : 12, 5, 149, 229, 239,

2545, 28, 2634, 269

eeal 6, 38, 3, 814, 149, 166,1 99, 26, 2, 25 scil f

hugh 8, 84, 22 als abs lues abslue validiy f ugh

values nlgy pesige f hugh mdelsValue geneag funcn f

esenmen 223 f ime 21 1 als esenmen me vaues

Value judgmens 5, 15, 1, 19, 22,23, 39, 413, 8, 83, 84,86, 89 n 11, 14 n 1 ,166, 16, 168, 1, 28,266 als ealuain viinalelemens alidiy values

Values , 63, 3, 81, 91, 15, 16,29, 211 , 212, 214, 21 asvlue geneaing funcin

Vanguad s liesVanage pin s sandpinVi 125Vedinglchung s impesnaliza

inVliinal elemens 4, 151 , 168

als value judgmens alidiy values value geneaig funci

Vlksgeis s flkspii

Welanschauung 5, 52, 8, 1,1811 1 , 1 1, 1 19 131 , 139,14, 148, 12 166, 16,25 n 2, 225, 2, 2, 28 als duasic wld view hdlgy and welanschauung

Wish images 1 4 184 185 als images

Wkshp s aelie

Yema 25

Documents

(Collected Works of Karl Mannheim 1) Karl Mannheim-Ideology and Utopia-Routledge (1998)