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Jean Piaget: Period of Sensorimotor IntelligenceJean Piaget: Period of Sensorimotor IntelligencePiaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) believed that
infants were smart, active learnersAlso that they adapted to experienceCalled infancy (birth to 24 months) the
sensorimotor period because infants learn through their senses and motor skills
Period subdivided into 6 sub-stages
Piaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) believed that infants were smart, active learners
Also that they adapted to experienceCalled infancy (birth to 24 months) the
sensorimotor period because infants learn through their senses and motor skills
Period subdivided into 6 sub-stages
Stages 1 & 2: Primary circular reactionsStages 1 & 2: Primary circular reactionsThe brain and senses interact involve
the infant’s own body (birth to 1 month)Sensation, perception and cognition
cycle back and forth (Piaget’s circular reaction)
Stage 1: stage of reflexes--the reflexes of grasping, rooting, staring, listening--are adapted into deliberate actions
Sensation becomes perception
The brain and senses interact involve the infant’s own body (birth to 1 month)
Sensation, perception and cognition cycle back and forth (Piaget’s circular reaction)
Stage 1: stage of reflexes--the reflexes of grasping, rooting, staring, listening--are adapted into deliberate actions
Sensation becomes perception
Stage 2 of Primary Circular Reactions: acquired adaptationsStage 2 of Primary Circular Reactions: acquired adaptationsAccommodation and coordination of
reflexes (1-4 months)Example: sucking becomes adapted--
infant sucks a pacifier differently than a nipple
This indicates thinking: the infant has figured out that the pacifier is something different than a bottle
Accommodation and coordination of reflexes (1-4 months)
Example: sucking becomes adapted--infant sucks a pacifier differently than a nipple
This indicates thinking: the infant has figured out that the pacifier is something different than a bottle
Stages 3 & 4: Secondary Circular ReactionsStages 3 & 4: Secondary Circular ReactionsInvolve the infant’s responses to objects
and peopleStage 3 (4-8 months) includes making
interesting sights last: it is responding to people and objects, as in clapping hands when mother says “Patty-cake!”
Also includes responding to toysThe sight of something that delights the
infant will trigger active efforts for interaction
Involve the infant’s responses to objects and people
Stage 3 (4-8 months) includes making interesting sights last: it is responding to people and objects, as in clapping hands when mother says “Patty-cake!”
Also includes responding to toysThe sight of something that delights the
infant will trigger active efforts for interaction
Stage 4 of Secondary Circular ReactionsStage 4 of Secondary Circular ReactionsNew adaptation and anticipationInfant becomes more deliberate and
purposeful in responding to people and objects
Example: putting other’s hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake
Thinking is more innovative--babies are thinking about a goal and how to reach it
New adaptation and anticipationInfant becomes more deliberate and
purposeful in responding to people and objects
Example: putting other’s hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake
Thinking is more innovative--babies are thinking about a goal and how to reach it
Goal-directed behavior is a big dealGoal-directed behavior is a big dealThis behavior stems from1) an enhanced awareness of cause and
effect2) memory for actions already
completed3) understanding of other people’s
intentionsThis new awareness coincides with new
motor skills that are needed to achieve goals
This behavior stems from1) an enhanced awareness of cause and
effect2) memory for actions already
completed3) understanding of other people’s
intentionsThis new awareness coincides with new
motor skills that are needed to achieve goals
Object Permanence:Object Permanence:Piaget thought babies attain this at 8
monthsObject permanence refers to the
awareness that objects or people continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, touched or heard
Probably occurs as early as 5 months, new research indicates it happens somewhere between 4 and 6 months
Piaget thought babies attain this at 8 months
Object permanence refers to the awareness that objects or people continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, touched or heard
Probably occurs as early as 5 months, new research indicates it happens somewhere between 4 and 6 months
Stages 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular ReactionsStages 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular ReactionsSecond year of life Feedback loops involve active
exploration of the environment and experimentation
“Little Scientists” in stage 5, (12-18 months) new means through active experimentation
Examples: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing, or squeezing all the toothpaste out of the tube
Second year of life Feedback loops involve active
exploration of the environment and experimentation
“Little Scientists” in stage 5, (12-18 months) new means through active experimentation
Examples: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing, or squeezing all the toothpaste out of the tube
Stage 6: Stage 6: New means through mental
combinations (18-24 months)Considering before doing provides the
child with new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial-and-error experiments
This will hopefully involve remembering that flushing teddy down the toilet resulted in an overflowing toilet the last time it was tried
New means through mental combinations (18-24 months)
Considering before doing provides the child with new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial-and-error experiments
This will hopefully involve remembering that flushing teddy down the toilet resulted in an overflowing toilet the last time it was tried
Stage 6:Stage 6:Using mental combinations involves
intellectual experimentation that supersedes active experimentation
Children can now combine 2 ideas: they know a doll is not a real baby, but also that the doll can be belted into a stroller and taken for a walk
They begin to think about consequencesThey also can defer imitation (copy
behavior they saw hours or days before)
Using mental combinations involves intellectual experimentation that supersedes active experimentation
Children can now combine 2 ideas: they know a doll is not a real baby, but also that the doll can be belted into a stroller and taken for a walk
They begin to think about consequencesThey also can defer imitation (copy
behavior they saw hours or days before)
Criticism of Piaget:Criticism of Piaget:Piaget underestimated infant cognition,
probably because he based his ideas on observations of his own children, not of many children from many cultures
Modern research includes “Habituation” or repeated exposure to get used to an object or event
Then sensitive physiologic measurements are used to record reactions
Using this, even 1-month-olds can be demonstrated to differentiate between sounds
Piaget underestimated infant cognition, probably because he based his ideas on observations of his own children, not of many children from many cultures
Modern research includes “Habituation” or repeated exposure to get used to an object or event
Then sensitive physiologic measurements are used to record reactions
Using this, even 1-month-olds can be demonstrated to differentiate between sounds
More criticism:More criticism:The brain and its growth can now be
measured by fMRI, which measures electrical activity in the brain that indicates firing of neurons
This has shown us that the brain has a huge amount of early growth, then trims off dendrites
Also shows that growth continues after the first 2 years
Piaget didn’t have this technology
The brain and its growth can now be measured by fMRI, which measures electrical activity in the brain that indicates firing of neurons
This has shown us that the brain has a huge amount of early growth, then trims off dendrites
Also shows that growth continues after the first 2 years
Piaget didn’t have this technology
Summing up Piaget:Summing up Piaget:Piaget discovered that infants are very
active learnersDescribed this as Sensorimotor PeriodSubstages: Circular ReactionsLacked modern technologyAlso used a restricted sample that may
have led him to place some behaviors later than is true with the majority
Piaget discovered that infants are very active learners
Described this as Sensorimotor PeriodSubstages: Circular ReactionsLacked modern technologyAlso used a restricted sample that may
have led him to place some behaviors later than is true with the majority
Information Processing Theory:Information Processing Theory:A perspective that compares human
thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
Many versions of this theoryAll share the belief that a step-by-step
description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding
A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
Many versions of this theoryAll share the belief that a step-by-step
description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding
How it works:How it works:Human information processing begins
with input picked up by the sensesIt proceeds to brain reactions,
connections, and stored memoriesIt concludes with some outputWith the aid of technology, the
information processing model has found impressive intellectual capabilities in infants, like a basic grasp of cause and effect by the middle of the first year
Human information processing begins with input picked up by the senses
It proceeds to brain reactions, connections, and stored memories
It concludes with some outputWith the aid of technology, the
information processing model has found impressive intellectual capabilities in infants, like a basic grasp of cause and effect by the middle of the first year
Affordances:Affordances:Opportunities for perception and
interaction that are offered by a person, place, or environment
Which particular affordance is perceived and acted upon depends on 4 factors:
Sensory awarenessImmediate motivationCurrent level of developmentPast experience
Opportunities for perception and interaction that are offered by a person, place, or environment
Which particular affordance is perceived and acted upon depends on 4 factors:
Sensory awarenessImmediate motivationCurrent level of developmentPast experience
Selective perception:Selective perception:Example: consider a lemon, an
opportunity (an affordance) for smelling, touching, tasting, viewing, throwing, squeezing, and biting
Further, each of these is an affordance for pleasure, pain, or some other emotional response
Which affordance is perceived and acted upon is dependent upon sensations, motives, age, and experience
Example: consider a lemon, an opportunity (an affordance) for smelling, touching, tasting, viewing, throwing, squeezing, and biting
Further, each of these is an affordance for pleasure, pain, or some other emotional response
Which affordance is perceived and acted upon is dependent upon sensations, motives, age, and experience
How do they research this?How do they research this?Mostly by looking at what infants attend
to on a TV screenVaries with ageVaries with noveltyVaries with experienceEven varies with vocabulary
Mostly by looking at what infants attend to on a TV screen
Varies with ageVaries with noveltyVaries with experienceEven varies with vocabulary
Visual Cliff experiment:Visual Cliff experiment:Tested depth perceptionAn infant’s awareness was affected by
experience, especially with falling
Tested depth perceptionAn infant’s awareness was affected by
experience, especially with falling
Movement: Dynamic PerceptionMovement: Dynamic PerceptionDynamic perception is perception that is
primed to focus on movement and change
Babies pay close attention to things that move and to people
They also love to move: they grab, they scoot, they crawl, they walk
And they realize that motion changes what the world affords them
Dynamic perception is perception that is primed to focus on movement and change
Babies pay close attention to things that move and to people
They also love to move: they grab, they scoot, they crawl, they walk
And they realize that motion changes what the world affords them
Dynamic Perception:Dynamic Perception:Almost any moving creature will get the
attention of an infant, who will chase and grab at it
Even infants who are not mobile will try to catch a ball moving past them
Experience affect this: younger babies may ignore slow-moving balls, but attempt to catch fast ones unsuccessfully, 20% or less success
9-month-olds know to reach for the slow moving balls, with an almost 100% success rate
Almost any moving creature will get the attention of an infant, who will chase and grab at it
Even infants who are not mobile will try to catch a ball moving past them
Experience affect this: younger babies may ignore slow-moving balls, but attempt to catch fast ones unsuccessfully, 20% or less success
9-month-olds know to reach for the slow moving balls, with an almost 100% success rate
People Preference:People Preference:Another universal principle of infant
perception is that they are innately attracted to other humans, evident in visual, auditory, tactile, and other preferences
In objects, infants prefer noveltyIn people, infants prefer familiarityThey recognize their caregivers and
expect certain affordances from them: comfort, food, entertainment)
Another universal principle of infant perception is that they are innately attracted to other humans, evident in visual, auditory, tactile, and other preferences
In objects, infants prefer noveltyIn people, infants prefer familiarityThey recognize their caregivers and
expect certain affordances from them: comfort, food, entertainment)
More on people preference:More on people preference:Infants can infer emotional affordances
long before they understand languageThey “get” and respond to smiles,
shouts, facial expressions, and tones of voice very early in life
Studies indicate that 7-month-olds can reliably match facial expression and emotional tone of voice based on photos and tapes
And even younger infants can do this with people they know
Infants can infer emotional affordances long before they understand language
They “get” and respond to smiles, shouts, facial expressions, and tones of voice very early in life
Studies indicate that 7-month-olds can reliably match facial expression and emotional tone of voice based on photos and tapes
And even younger infants can do this with people they know
Smiling and mommy and daddy:Smiling and mommy and daddy:In these experiments, infants did not
match the facial expressions and emotional voice of strangers, but could do so for their moms/dads, reacting swiftly and correctly
The idea of researchers is that parents offer the affordance of JOY!
In these experiments, infants did not match the facial expressions and emotional voice of strangers, but could do so for their moms/dads, reacting swiftly and correctly
The idea of researchers is that parents offer the affordance of JOY!
Memory:Memory:Processing and remembering requires a
certain amount of experience and brain maturation
Even with repetition, infants have difficulty storing memories in their first year
This is partly due to language deficitsBut infants do form memories--especially if
motivated and if reminded repeatedlyExperiments with mobiles and kicking
indicate this
Processing and remembering requires a certain amount of experience and brain maturation
Even with repetition, infants have difficulty storing memories in their first year
This is partly due to language deficitsBut infants do form memories--especially if
motivated and if reminded repeatedlyExperiments with mobiles and kicking
indicate this
Reminders and Repetition:Reminders and Repetition:Reminder session: a perceptual
experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment
Research employing these sessions demonstrated that even 3-month-olds could remember actions that they learned 2 weeks previously
Reminder session: a perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment
Research employing these sessions demonstrated that even 3-month-olds could remember actions that they learned 2 weeks previously
And it gets better:And it gets better:After 6 months, infants can retain
information with less training, repetition and reminding
By the end of the first year, many kinds of memory are apparent: deferred imitation by 9 months
By 18 months, infants can remember and repeat complex sequences
Toddlers action indicates conceptual thinking is present
After 6 months, infants can retain information with less training, repetition and reminding
By the end of the first year, many kinds of memory are apparent: deferred imitation by 9 months
By 18 months, infants can remember and repeat complex sequences
Toddlers action indicates conceptual thinking is present
Child-directed speech:Child-directed speech:The high-pitched, simplified, and
repetitive way adults speak to infantsFosters early language developmentBy 7 months, infants begin to recognize
words, but only words that are highly distinctive: bottle, dog, and mama are recognized before baby, Bobby, and Barbie
Within the first few months of life, hearing becomes more selective, too
The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants
Fosters early language developmentBy 7 months, infants begin to recognize
words, but only words that are highly distinctive: bottle, dog, and mama are recognized before baby, Bobby, and Barbie
Within the first few months of life, hearing becomes more selective, too
What selective hearing means:What selective hearing means:They prefer child-directed speechThey like alliterative soundsThey love songs--rhyme, rhythm, and
repetitionAnd simple sounds more than complex
soundsInfants respond to sounds they like (by
4 months) with squealing, growling, gurgling, grunting, crooning, and yelling
They prefer child-directed speechThey like alliterative soundsThey love songs--rhyme, rhythm, and
repetitionAnd simple sounds more than complex
soundsInfants respond to sounds they like (by
4 months) with squealing, growling, gurgling, grunting, crooning, and yelling
Babbling:Babbling:The extended repetition of certain
syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old
Responses from other people encourage it
It stops in deaf babies because they cannot hear responses
Using sign language shows that babies can express language with gestures sooner than with speech
The extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old
Responses from other people encourage it
It stops in deaf babies because they cannot hear responses
Using sign language shows that babies can express language with gestures sooner than with speech
First words:First words:Usually at about 1 yearCaregivers understand the baby’s words
before strangersIn the first months of the second year of
life, vocabulary understanding is about 10 times the number of words they can say
Holophrases: a single word spoken in such a way that expresses a complete, meaningful thought
Usually at about 1 yearCaregivers understand the baby’s words
before strangersIn the first months of the second year of
life, vocabulary understanding is about 10 times the number of words they can say
Holophrases: a single word spoken in such a way that expresses a complete, meaningful thought
Naming Explosion:Naming Explosion:A sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary,
especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age
In almost every language, the name of each significant caregiver, sibling, and sometimes, pet, is learned between 12-18 months of age
Once the vocabulary reaches 50 words, it builds at a rate of 50-100 words per month
21 month olds say twice as many words as 18 month olds
A sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age
In almost every language, the name of each significant caregiver, sibling, and sometimes, pet, is learned between 12-18 months of age
Once the vocabulary reaches 50 words, it builds at a rate of 50-100 words per month
21 month olds say twice as many words as 18 month olds
Cultural differences:Cultural differences:Cultures and families vary a lot in how
much child-directed speech children hear
Some are more verbal than othersSome cultures emphasize quiet children
(not the US)And languages vary: some are Verb-
Friendly (verbs are placed before nouns) so infants learn as many verbs as nouns, unlike English
Cultures and families vary a lot in how much child-directed speech children hear
Some are more verbal than othersSome cultures emphasize quiet children
(not the US)And languages vary: some are Verb-
Friendly (verbs are placed before nouns) so infants learn as many verbs as nouns, unlike English
Social context matters, tooSocial context matters, tooIf social interaction is emphasized by
the culture, verbs will be acquired as much as nouns
Example: Chinese toddlers learn more verbs than US toddlers, who learn more nouns
Ethnicities that speak the language of the country they have immigrated to have babies that learn language like the new culture
If social interaction is emphasized by the culture, verbs will be acquired as much as nouns
Example: Chinese toddlers learn more verbs than US toddlers, who learn more nouns
Ethnicities that speak the language of the country they have immigrated to have babies that learn language like the new culture
Concepts and Language:Concepts and Language:Some concepts are easy, some are notIn English, infants confuse before and
afterDutch infants misuse out when it refers
to taking off clothingLearning adjectives is easier in Italian
and Spanish than in English or French because of the patterns in those languages
Some concepts are easy, some are notIn English, infants confuse before and
afterDutch infants misuse out when it refers
to taking off clothingLearning adjectives is easier in Italian
and Spanish than in English or French because of the patterns in those languages
Language:Language:Conveys/encodes cultural values and
social constructsIf a child is more referential than
expressive, it likely reflects the cultures, values, and priorities of the parents
Conveys/encodes cultural values and social constructs
If a child is more referential than expressive, it likely reflects the cultures, values, and priorities of the parents
Putting words together:Putting words together:Grammar: all the methods--word order, verb
forms, etc.--that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves
Grammar is obvious in 2-word sentences (baby cry, more juice), at about 21 months
Grammar will correlate with the size of the child’s vocabulary, reflecting a knowledge of clear communication
Learning more than one language can slow down language and grammar acquisition
Grammar: all the methods--word order, verb forms, etc.--that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves
Grammar is obvious in 2-word sentences (baby cry, more juice), at about 21 months
Grammar will correlate with the size of the child’s vocabulary, reflecting a knowledge of clear communication
Learning more than one language can slow down language and grammar acquisition
Theories of Language Learning:Theories of Language Learning:50 years ago, the first theory reflected
behaviorism (learning theory) and said that children needed to be taught language, step by step, through reinforcement
This theory includes the ideas that parents/caregivers are expert teachers and help children speak
Frequent repetition is instructiveWell-taught infants become well-spoken
children
50 years ago, the first theory reflected behaviorism (learning theory) and said that children needed to be taught language, step by step, through reinforcement
This theory includes the ideas that parents/caregivers are expert teachers and help children speak
Frequent repetition is instructiveWell-taught infants become well-spoken
children
Studies in Behavioral Theory:Studies in Behavioral Theory:Indicate great variation in how parents
reinforce infants’ speechThe frequency of paternal response at 9
months predicted infants language many months later
Adults teach, infants learn language
Indicate great variation in how parents reinforce infants’ speech
The frequency of paternal response at 9 months predicted infants language many months later
Adults teach, infants learn language
Theory 2: Infants teach themselvesTheory 2: Infants teach themselvesNoam Chomsky & followers believe
that language is too complex to be learned through step-by-step conditioning
Believe that because infants all master basic grammar at about the same age, there is a human mental structure that all are born with that prepares them to incorporate aspects of language
Noam Chomsky & followers believe that language is too complex to be learned through step-by-step conditioning
Believe that because infants all master basic grammar at about the same age, there is a human mental structure that all are born with that prepares them to incorporate aspects of language
Language Acquisition Device:Language Acquisition Device:Chomsky’s term for a hypothesized
mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation
Enables children worldwide to derive the rules of grammar from the speech they hear everyday (whether English, Tamil, Urdu, Chinese, or Xhosa)
Chomsky’s term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation
Enables children worldwide to derive the rules of grammar from the speech they hear everyday (whether English, Tamil, Urdu, Chinese, or Xhosa)
This theory is accepted by many:This theory is accepted by many:Reflects the differences without
ignoring language characteristicsReflects the fact that all languages are
logical, coherent and systematicBelieves that the brain expects
language, and quickly and efficiently connects neurons to support whatever words an infant hears
Works even with deaf infants who are taught signs
Reflects the differences without ignoring language characteristics
Reflects the fact that all languages are logical, coherent and systematic
Believes that the brain expects language, and quickly and efficiently connects neurons to support whatever words an infant hears
Works even with deaf infants who are taught signs
Third Theory: Social impulses foster infant language learningThird Theory: Social impulses foster infant language learningSocial-Pragmatic theory: says that
neither behaviorism nor epigentic theory is correct--says that communication, the social reason for learning language, is most important
Infants communicate because they are social beings dependent upon each other for survival, well-being, and joy
Social-Pragmatic theory: says that neither behaviorism nor epigentic theory is correct--says that communication, the social reason for learning language, is most important
Infants communicate because they are social beings dependent upon each other for survival, well-being, and joy
Social newborn:Social newborn:Newborns seek out human facesBy 9 months, infants’ brain patterns
indicate attention when they hear people talk to them
The emotional content, not the words, are most important in early communication
Communication is the servant of social interaction
Newborns seek out human facesBy 9 months, infants’ brain patterns
indicate attention when they hear people talk to them
The emotional content, not the words, are most important in early communication
Communication is the servant of social interaction
Social toddler:Social toddler:Social impulses propel toddler language
acquisitionToddlers learn language much more
quickly from human interaction than from television, even though they watch TV
Thus social language acquisition is more meaningful than simply learning words
Social impulses propel toddler language acquisition
Toddlers learn language much more quickly from human interaction than from television, even though they watch TV
Thus social language acquisition is more meaningful than simply learning words
Hybrid theory:Hybrid theory:All three perspectives have meritSome of each theory has been
demonstrated to workThe important thing is that children are
active learners, and that multiple factors are involved in learning language
All three perspectives have meritSome of each theory has been
demonstrated to workThe important thing is that children are
active learners, and that multiple factors are involved in learning language