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Which of the following process(es) Which of the following process(es) that occur(s) at a synapse could be that occur(s) at a synapse could be targeted by a drug designed to treat targeted by a drug designed to treat mental illness?mental illness?
A) Secretion of the neurotransmitterA) Secretion of the neurotransmitter
B) Binding of the neurotransmitter to a B) Binding of the neurotransmitter to a receptorreceptor
C) Degradation of the neurotransmitterC) Degradation of the neurotransmitter
D) Re-uptake of the neurotransmitterD) Re-uptake of the neurotransmitter
E) All of the above and moreE) All of the above and more
Where are we?Where are we?• Last time I discussed…Last time I discussed…
– that before the introduction of psychopharmacology, mentally ill that before the introduction of psychopharmacology, mentally ill patients were treated barbarically.patients were treated barbarically.
– the brain is a trillion cauldrons of chemical activity in which the brain is a trillion cauldrons of chemical activity in which neurotransmitters in the synapses regulate the transmission of neurotransmitters in the synapses regulate the transmission of electrical signals.electrical signals.
– how psychopharmacological drugs influence the concentration of how psychopharmacological drugs influence the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synapses. neurotransmitters in the synapses.
– that while we understand a lot about the physico-chemical that while we understand a lot about the physico-chemical processes that take place in the brain, we still do not understand processes that take place in the brain, we still do not understand the mechanism of normal and abnormal thinking and the way the the mechanism of normal and abnormal thinking and the way the psychopharmacological drugs work. psychopharmacological drugs work.
• This time I will discuss…This time I will discuss…– immunity—how the body immunity—how the body protects itselfprotects itself from invaders. from invaders.– the innate immune system.the innate immune system.– the acquired immune system that, like the nervous system, can the acquired immune system that, like the nervous system, can
learnlearn, , rememberremember and and recognize self from non-selfrecognize self from non-self..– allergies, anaphylactic shock and autoimmune diseases.allergies, anaphylactic shock and autoimmune diseases.
The human body is capable of The human body is capable of resisting many harmful disease-resisting many harmful disease-causing agents in the course of causing agents in the course of
everyday life.everyday life.• Not everyone in a Not everyone in a
family, dorm, sorority, family, dorm, sorority, fraternity or classroom fraternity or classroom is equally is equally resistant to resistant to diseasedisease..
• Luckily, Luckily, immunityimmunity (from the Latin word (from the Latin word immunisimmunis meaning “free meaning “free of”) against disease of”) against disease can be conferred to can be conferred to sensitive people though sensitive people though vaccinationsvaccinations..
The Ancients Realized that Survivors of a The Ancients Realized that Survivors of a Disease were often Immune to Getting that Disease were often Immune to Getting that
Disease Again Disease Again
• In 429 BC, Thucydides noticed that In 429 BC, Thucydides noticed that smallpox survivors did not get re-smallpox survivors did not get re-infected.infected.
• In the 10In the 10thth century, also realizing century, also realizing that survivors of small pox were that survivors of small pox were immune to the disease, Chinese immune to the disease, Chinese doctors put the fluid from small pox doctors put the fluid from small pox pocks into the noses of susceptible pocks into the noses of susceptible people to protect them from small people to protect them from small pox. pox.
Puritans Learned that Africans also Puritans Learned that Africans also Inoculated People to Make them Immune to Inoculated People to Make them Immune to
Small PoxSmall Pox
• In 1706, the Puritan minister, Reverend In 1706, the Puritan minister, Reverend CottonCotton MatherMather, learned from a slave , learned from a slave named named OnesimusOnesimus, that he had been , that he had been inoculated with small pox as a child in inoculated with small pox as a child in Africa as a protective measure. Africa as a protective measure.
• Courageously going against the Church Courageously going against the Church and State, in 1721, during the small and State, in 1721, during the small pox epidemic in Boston, Cotton Mather pox epidemic in Boston, Cotton Mather and Dr. Zabdiel Boylston inoculated the and Dr. Zabdiel Boylston inoculated the people.people.
, ,
• Lady Mary Wortley Lady Mary Wortley
Montagu (1721), the Montagu (1721), the wife of the British wife of the British Ambassador to Turkey, Ambassador to Turkey, brought back to England brought back to England a method of preventing a method of preventing the deadly the deadly small poxsmall pox disease.disease.
• Physicians would take a Physicians would take a small amount of small amount of puspus from the pocks of a from the pocks of a person with a mild case person with a mild case of small pox and rub it in of small pox and rub it in to a scratch in the arm to a scratch in the arm of a healthy person. of a healthy person.
• Unfortunately, the Unfortunately, the healthy patient often healthy patient often contracted a full blown contracted a full blown case of small pox and case of small pox and died.died.
Edward JennerEdward JennerJennerJenner (1798) and many (1798) and many milkmaids he treated noticed milkmaids he treated noticed that people who got cow pox that people who got cow pox ((variolae vacciniavariolae vaccinia) were ) were immune to the deadly small immune to the deadly small pox. One day, when pox. One day, when Sarah Sarah NelmesNelmes came to him with cow came to him with cow pox, he decided to see if pox, he decided to see if inoculating someone with cow inoculating someone with cow pox would prevent them from pox would prevent them from getting small pox. He took pus getting small pox. He took pus from Sarah Nelmes’ pocks and from Sarah Nelmes’ pocks and rubbed it into scratches in rubbed it into scratches in James PhippsJames Phipps’ arm. The 8 year ’ arm. The 8 year old son of the gardener old son of the gardener developed cow pox. Once he developed cow pox. Once he was over the cow pox, Jenner was over the cow pox, Jenner exposed him repeatedly to exposed him repeatedly to small pox, but he had become small pox, but he had become immuneimmune to the small pox to the small pox virusvirus. .
A Profile in Courage: Edward A Profile in Courage: Edward JennerJenner
• Jenner reported his results to Jenner reported his results to the the Royal SocietyRoyal Society; however, ; however, Sir Joseph Banks, the Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society president of the Royal Society suggested that suggested that he should he should not risk his reputationnot risk his reputation by by presenting something presenting something "so at "so at variance with established variance with established knowledge".knowledge".
• Thankfully Jenner used his Thankfully Jenner used his meager savings to publish his meager savings to publish his work privately and within a work privately and within a few years vaccinations for few years vaccinations for small pox became common small pox became common practice. practice.
Cholera: A Bacterial Cholera: A Bacterial InfectionInfection
• Cholera Cholera is transmitted from is transmitted from person to person by the person to person by the fecal-fecal-oral route oral route resulting from resulting from drinking water contaminated drinking water contaminated with feces that contain the with feces that contain the bacterium, bacterium, Vibrio choleraeVibrio cholerae. .
• Vibrio Vibrio secretes a toxin into the secretes a toxin into the intestine that results in intestine that results in massive massive diarrheadiarrhea followed by followed by dehydrationdehydration..
• If the patient is not If the patient is not rehydratedrehydrated orally or and/or intravenously orally or and/or intravenously within hours of being infected, within hours of being infected, death can result.death can result.
• Cholera can also be prevented Cholera can also be prevented by a by a vaccinevaccine..
Louis Pasteur Had a Prepared Louis Pasteur Had a Prepared MindMind
• Louis PasteurLouis Pasteur (1880) (1880) reasoned that if a vaccine reasoned that if a vaccine could be found for small pox, could be found for small pox, then a vaccine could be found then a vaccine could be found for all diseases. Pasteur found a for all diseases. Pasteur found a vaccine against vaccine against chicken chicken choleracholera by by chancechance. .
• One of his colleagues had One of his colleagues had inoculated chickens with inoculated chickens with chicken cholera bacilli from an chicken cholera bacilli from an old old culture and the chickens culture and the chickens did did notnot get sick. Even when he get sick. Even when he exposed exposed thesethese chickens to chickens to fresh chicken cholera bacilli fresh chicken cholera bacilli that would kill other chickens, that would kill other chickens, the chickens who were exposed the chickens who were exposed to the old strain first still did to the old strain first still did not get sick.not get sick.
Louis Pasteur Had a Prepared Louis Pasteur Had a Prepared MindMind
• Pasteur Pasteur reasonedreasoned that that the potency to cause the potency to cause cholera in chickens had cholera in chickens had attenuated attenuated in the old in the old culture. culture.
• He guessed that the He guessed that the chickens chickens used the used the weaker germs to weaker germs to form a defense form a defense against the more against the more powerful germspowerful germs in in the fresher culture. the fresher culture.
• Pasteur pioneered the Pasteur pioneered the use of attenuated use of attenuated bacilli for bacilli for vaccinationsvaccinations, a word , a word he coined in honor of he coined in honor of Jenner. Jenner.
AnthraxAnthrax
• AnthraxAnthrax is often a fatal disease characterized is often a fatal disease characterized by hemorrhaging and tissue decay. by hemorrhaging and tissue decay.
• It is caused by a toxin produced by It is caused by a toxin produced by Bacillus Bacillus anthracisanthracis, which can enter the body through , which can enter the body through the lungs, skin or intestines.the lungs, skin or intestines.
Louis Pasteur and AnthraxLouis Pasteur and Anthrax• Pasteur (1881) aged cultures of Pasteur (1881) aged cultures of
anthraxanthrax to weaken them and to weaken them and used the weakened germs to used the weakened germs to make a vaccine. make a vaccine.
• The idea that germs could The idea that germs could make an animal healthiermake an animal healthier seemed unbelievable and seemed unbelievable and Rossignol, the editor of Rossignol, the editor of The The Veterinary PressVeterinary Press, challenged , challenged Pasteur to a public test. Pasteur to a public test.
• Pasteur inoculated twenty five Pasteur inoculated twenty five sheep with his vaccine while sheep with his vaccine while twenty-five were not. twenty-five were not.
• Subsequently, all fifty were Subsequently, all fifty were injected with anthrax. Those injected with anthrax. Those injected with the vaccine lived injected with the vaccine lived while those that were not while those that were not inoculated died within two days.inoculated died within two days.
RabiesRabies
• Rabies is a fatal disease characterized by the inflammation of the brain. Rabies is a fatal disease characterized by the inflammation of the brain. • Rabies is caused by the rabies virus, which is found in the saliva of an Rabies is caused by the rabies virus, which is found in the saliva of an
infected animal.infected animal.• Rabies is often transmitted by a bite.Rabies is often transmitted by a bite.
Louis Pasteur, Joseph Meister, Louis Pasteur, Joseph Meister, Human Experimentation and Human Experimentation and
RabiesRabies• Pasteur injected healthy dogs with Pasteur injected healthy dogs with
aged rabies germs (viruses) from the aged rabies germs (viruses) from the spinal cord of rabid rabbits. The spinal cord of rabid rabbits. The vaccinated dogs became immune to vaccinated dogs became immune to rabies.rabies.
• A 9 year old boy named A 9 year old boy named Joseph Joseph MeisterMeister was bit by a rabid dog. Since was bit by a rabid dog. Since the boy would have died had he been the boy would have died had he been left untreated, Pasteur (1885) left untreated, Pasteur (1885) reluctantly took the risk on treating reluctantly took the risk on treating Joseph Meister with the vaccine that Joseph Meister with the vaccine that had only been tested on dogs. had only been tested on dogs.
• Happily, the vaccine worked and the Happily, the vaccine worked and the boy survived to become the boy survived to become the caretaker of the Pasteur Institute.caretaker of the Pasteur Institute.
Pasteur’s Father and Mother Pasteur’s Father and Mother Painted by Louis Pasteur, HimselfPainted by Louis Pasteur, Himself
The Wisdom of the Body in the The Wisdom of the Body in the Fight Against Infectious DiseasesFight Against Infectious Diseases
The body protects itself from infectious The body protects itself from infectious microbes in two ways:microbes in two ways:– Innate Immunity (skin, phagocytes, Innate Immunity (skin, phagocytes,
interferon)interferon)– Acquired Immunity (B and T lymphocytes)Acquired Immunity (B and T lymphocytes)
The Body’s First Line of Defense: The Body’s First Line of Defense: Innate ImmunityInnate Immunity
• SkinSkin and the and the mucosamucosa lining the digestive and lining the digestive and urogenital tracts are physical barriers to disease, urogenital tracts are physical barriers to disease, although a tiny cut will allow pathogens to enter the although a tiny cut will allow pathogens to enter the body.body.
• SweatSweat, , salivasaliva and and tearstears contain contain lysozymelysozyme,, an an enzyme that degrades the cell wall of gram positive enzyme that degrades the cell wall of gram positive bacteria. This causes the bacteria to lyse. Lysozyme bacteria. This causes the bacteria to lyse. Lysozyme was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1922. was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1922.
• The respiratory tract is guarded by the The respiratory tract is guarded by the hairshairs in the in the nostrils as well as the nostrils as well as the mucusmucus that traps microbes and that traps microbes and ciliacilia that sweep the mucus out of the respiratory that sweep the mucus out of the respiratory system and down the esophagus.system and down the esophagus.
• The The hydrochloric acidhydrochloric acid produced by the parietal cellsproduced by the parietal cells in the stomach kills microbes (with the exception of in the stomach kills microbes (with the exception of HelicobacterHelicobacter) that come from the respiratory system ) that come from the respiratory system or enter the body along with food. or enter the body along with food.
The Inflammatory Response: The Inflammatory Response: Phagocytes and PusPhagocytes and Pus
• Microbes that breach the first Microbes that breach the first line of defense are accosted line of defense are accosted by the by the white blood cellswhite blood cells which are found in the blood, which are found in the blood, the interstitial fluid, and the the interstitial fluid, and the lymph. lymph.
• The The white blood cellswhite blood cells that that engulf microbes by engulf microbes by phagocytosisphagocytosis are known as are known as phagocytesphagocytes. The . The neutrophilsneutrophils, which are a , which are a kind of kind of phagocytephagocyte that most that most rapidly fights infections, rapidly fights infections, make up most of the make up most of the puspus that occurs with an infection.that occurs with an infection.nobelprize.org/educational_games
Ilya MechnikovIlya Mechnikov
In 1882, Ilya Mechnikov was In 1882, Ilya Mechnikov was studying the larvae of starfish. studying the larvae of starfish. He noticed that when he He noticed that when he inserted a splinter into the inserted a splinter into the larva, strange cells gathered larva, strange cells gathered at the point of insertion. The at the point of insertion. The cells surrounded the splinter, cells surrounded the splinter, eating any foreign substances eating any foreign substances that entered through the that entered through the ruptured skin. Mechnikov ruptured skin. Mechnikov named these new cells named these new cells phagocytesphagocytes from the Greek from the Greek words “eating cells.”words “eating cells.”
SplintersSplinters
““Sharp splinters were Sharp splinters were introduced into the bodies of introduced into the bodies of these Bipinnaria and the next these Bipinnaria and the next day I could see a mass of day I could see a mass of moving cells surrounding the moving cells surrounding the foreign bodies to form a thick foreign bodies to form a thick cushion layer. The cushion layer. The analogy analogy between this phenomenon between this phenomenon and what happens when a and what happens when a man has a splinter that man has a splinter that causes inflammation and causes inflammation and suppuration is extraordinary.” suppuration is extraordinary.”
Disease: A Fight Between Disease: A Fight Between Microbes and PhagocytesMicrobes and Phagocytes
• This observation led This observation led Mechnikov to propose that Mechnikov to propose that in humans, phagocytes in humans, phagocytes move to the wound and move to the wound and engulf the bacteria. engulf the bacteria.
• “…“…disease would be a fight disease would be a fight between the morbid agent, between the morbid agent, the microbe from outside, the microbe from outside, and the mobile cells of the and the mobile cells of the organism itself. Cure would organism itself. Cure would come from the victory of come from the victory of the cells and immunity the cells and immunity would be the sign of their would be the sign of their acting sufficiently to acting sufficiently to prevent the microbial prevent the microbial onslaught.”onslaught.”
Ilya MechnikovIlya Mechnikov
““Photographs taken of him Photographs taken of him when he was working at when he was working at the Pasteur Institute show the Pasteur Institute show him with long hair and an him with long hair and an unkempt beard. It is said of unkempt beard. It is said of him that at this time he him that at this time he usually wore overshoes in usually wore overshoes in all weathers and carried an all weathers and carried an umbrella, his pockets being umbrella, his pockets being overfull with scientific overfull with scientific papers, and that he always papers, and that he always wore the same hat, and wore the same hat, and often, when he was often, when he was excited, sat on it.” excited, sat on it.”
The Inflammatory ResponseThe Inflammatory Response
The Inflammatory ResponseThe Inflammatory Response• When the skin is broken, damaged When the skin is broken, damaged mast mast cells cells
release release histaminehistamine (which causes one to (which causes one to burn burn and itchand itch). The histamine diffuses to the ). The histamine diffuses to the capillariescapillaries and cause them to and cause them to dilatedilate and and become become leakyleaky..
• The phagocytes and components of blood The phagocytes and components of blood plasma move out of the leaky capillaries. This plasma move out of the leaky capillaries. This results in results in redness and swellingredness and swelling. The . The swelling puts pressure on the pain receptors. swelling puts pressure on the pain receptors. Consequently, the inflammation leads to Consequently, the inflammation leads to painpain..
• In the interstitial fluid, the In the interstitial fluid, the phagocytesphagocytes known known as as neutrophils neutrophils rapidly rapidly engulf microbesengulf microbes and and dead or injured body cells.dead or injured body cells.
• The The puspus at the site of injury consists mostly of at the site of injury consists mostly of interstitial fluidinterstitial fluid and and dead neutrophilsdead neutrophils..
Stinging Nettle Causes Stinging Nettle Causes Inflammation Because It Contains Inflammation Because It Contains
HistamineHistamine• The hairs of The hairs of stinging stinging
nettle nettle contain contain histamine, histamine, acetylcholine and acetylcholine and serotonin.serotonin.
• These molecules that These molecules that occur in the plant and occur in the plant and animal kingdoms cause animal kingdoms cause itching, burning, itching, burning, reddening and swelling reddening and swelling when you touch the when you touch the hairs of the plant, hairs of the plant, informing you that the informing you that the plant you touched is plant you touched is Urtica dioicaUrtica dioica..
Phagocytes, Antioxidants and Free Phagocytes, Antioxidants and Free RadicalsRadicals
• The phagocytes kill the The phagocytes kill the invading bacteria by invading bacteria by producing a dose of producing a dose of free radicalsfree radicals (including (including superoxidesuperoxide), which ), which are produced by the are produced by the phagocyte itself.phagocyte itself.
• Vitamin CVitamin C is necessary is necessary as an as an antioxidant antioxidant to to protect the phagocyte protect the phagocyte from its own high dose from its own high dose of superoxide.of superoxide.
Corticosteroids and Anti-Corticosteroids and Anti-InflammationInflammation
• Cortisol Cortisol released during stress released during stress suppresses the inflammation suppresses the inflammation responseresponse. In the short term, this . In the short term, this minimizes the painminimizes the pain associated associated with inflammation; but in the long with inflammation; but in the long term, it makes it easier to term, it makes it easier to succumb to germssuccumb to germs. .
• Synthetic corticosteroids Synthetic corticosteroids ((hydrocortisonehydrocortisone) are used ) are used topically topically to treat the pain and to treat the pain and itchiness of dermatitis, eczema, itchiness of dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, hemorrhoids, and poison psoriasis, hemorrhoids, and poison ivy or ivy or nasally nasally to treat allergy to treat allergy symptoms.symptoms.
ZitsZits• AcneAcne occurs during puberty when occurs during puberty when
androgensandrogens produced by the produced by the adrenal adrenal glandsglands in men and women stimulate in men and women stimulate secretion of oils from the sebaceous (oil) secretion of oils from the sebaceous (oil) glands beneath the skin.glands beneath the skin.
• The oil glands, which are The oil glands, which are exocrine glandsexocrine glands, , continuously secrete oil in order to lubricate continuously secrete oil in order to lubricate the skin.the skin.
• Cells that are close to the opening of an oil Cells that are close to the opening of an oil gland block the duct and cause a buildup of gland block the duct and cause a buildup of oil beneath the skin. oil beneath the skin. Bacteria feast on Bacteria feast on this oilthis oil and trigger the and trigger the inflammation inflammation responseresponse..
• If the inflammation is near the surface, you If the inflammation is near the surface, you get a get a pimple pimple and if it is deeper, you get a and if it is deeper, you get a boilboil..
• When the oil breaks though to the surface, When the oil breaks though to the surface, you get a you get a whitehead whitehead and the oil becomes and the oil becomes oxidized, it turns black and you get a oxidized, it turns black and you get a blackheadblackhead..
Causes and Preventative Causes and Preventative MeasuresMeasures
• The three basic causes of The three basic causes of acneacne– Oil from sebaceous glandsOil from sebaceous glands– Clogged poresClogged pores– BacteriaBacteria
• Three preventative measuresThree preventative measures– Minimize oil (wipe away with Minimize oil (wipe away with
mild astringent; or kill oil mild astringent; or kill oil producing cells with laser). producing cells with laser).
– Unclog pores (soap and water; Unclog pores (soap and water; alpha-hydroxy acidsalpha-hydroxy acids or or beta-hydroxy acidsbeta-hydroxy acids))
– Kill bacteria (benzoyl peroxide)Kill bacteria (benzoyl peroxide)
Alpha-Hydroxy AcidsAlpha-Hydroxy Acids
Glycolic acid Glycolic acid (from sugar beet (from sugar beet and sugar cane)and sugar cane)
Lactic acidLactic acid
(from milk)(from milk)
Beta-Hydroxy AcidsBeta-Hydroxy Acids
• Salicylic acidSalicylic acid, isolated , isolated from the bark of willow from the bark of willow ((SalixSalix) trees and ) trees and SpiraeaSpiraea bushes, is involved in the bushes, is involved in the “systemic immune “systemic immune response” of plants. response” of plants.
• Notice the greater Notice the greater proportion of CH bonds in proportion of CH bonds in this beta-hydroxy acid than this beta-hydroxy acid than in the alpha-hydroxy acids. in the alpha-hydroxy acids.
• This makes salicylic acid This makes salicylic acid more soluble in oil (more soluble in oil (more more nonpolarnonpolar) so it penetrates ) so it penetrates more deeply into the oil more deeply into the oil ducts.ducts.
Innate Immunity Against Viruses: Innate Immunity Against Viruses: InterferonsInterferons
• InterferonsInterferons are proteins are proteins that are produced by virus-that are produced by virus-infected cells that help other infected cells that help other cells become cells become resistant to resistant to virusesviruses..
• The interferon The interferon genegene from from the infected cell is the infected cell is transcribed transcribed and and translatedtranslated to make to make interferon, which is interferon, which is secretedsecreted from the cell and from the cell and diffuses to the neighboring diffuses to the neighboring healthy cells. healthy cells.
• The interferon stimulates The interferon stimulates the healthy cells to make the healthy cells to make antiviral proteinsantiviral proteins..
Recombinant DNA Technology Makes Recombinant DNA Technology Makes Interferon Cheap and Accessible for Interferon Cheap and Accessible for the Treatment of Hepatitis and other the Treatment of Hepatitis and other
Viral InfectionsViral Infections
The Immune System:The Immune System:The Mind Body ConnectionThe Mind Body Connection
IL-6 is produced by the white blood cells that participate in the innate immune IL-6 is produced by the white blood cells that participate in the innate immune response. Participants looked at a 10 minute slide show of people holding guns response. Participants looked at a 10 minute slide show of people holding guns or people with disease symptoms. After seeing pictures of the sick people, the or people with disease symptoms. After seeing pictures of the sick people, the interleukin-6 (IL-6) level in the participant’s blood rose significantly. The interleukin-6 (IL-6) level in the participant’s blood rose significantly. The increased levels of IL-6 can give a boost to the entire immune system.increased levels of IL-6 can give a boost to the entire immune system.
Psychology Today
Psych Sci
Our Blood—Our IdentityOur Blood—Our Identity
• Experience with blood transfusions Experience with blood transfusions indicate that our body can indicate that our body can distinguish between our own blood distinguish between our own blood and the blood of others.and the blood of others.
• Karl Landsteiner found that the Karl Landsteiner found that the red blood cellsred blood cells in the blood in the blood seemed to fall into four groups (A, seemed to fall into four groups (A, B, AB and O).B, AB and O).
• Jean Dausset, Baruj Benacerraf and Jean Dausset, Baruj Benacerraf and George Snell found that the George Snell found that the white white blood cellsblood cells (as well as all the (as well as all the other cells in our body) also have other cells in our body) also have proteins, now known as the major proteins, now known as the major histocompatibility complex, in their histocompatibility complex, in their plasma membranes that represent plasma membranes that represent our our selfself..
Karl Landsteiner (1930):Karl Landsteiner (1930):Our Blood and Our Biological Our Blood and Our Biological
IndividualityIndividuality
• Anthropological StudiesAnthropological Studies– Northern Europeans are Northern Europeans are
mostly Type A.mostly Type A.– Asians are mostly Type B.Asians are mostly Type B.– American Indians are American Indians are
mostly Type O.mostly Type O.• Forensic StudiesForensic Studies
– Tests of blood found at a Tests of blood found at a crime scene has been used crime scene has been used to acquit innocent people.to acquit innocent people.
• Paternity TestsPaternity Tests– Blood tests has been usedBlood tests has been used to exclude a putative to exclude a putative
father.father.
Karl LandsteinerKarl Landsteiner
Jean Dausset, Baruj Benacerraf Jean Dausset, Baruj Benacerraf and George Snell and George Snell
John Galbraith Simmons: The John Galbraith Simmons: The SelfSelf
““The self is not just a narrative The self is not just a narrative fiction of language and mind, nor is fiction of language and mind, nor is a physical structure its only a physical structure its only boundaries. boundaries. The self may also be The self may also be said to exist on a molecular said to exist on a molecular level, comprised of a group of level, comprised of a group of antigenic proteins antigenic proteins found in all found in all cells of the body. The specific cells of the body. The specific complexion of these antigens is complexion of these antigens is configured by a set of genes known configured by a set of genes known as the “major histocompatibility as the “major histocompatibility complex” (MHC).”complex” (MHC).”
Peter Medawar and Macfarlane Peter Medawar and Macfarlane Burnet: Acquired Immunity (1960)Burnet: Acquired Immunity (1960)
• If the innate defenses can not eliminate If the innate defenses can not eliminate an infection, the an infection, the immune systemimmune system kicks kicks in.in.
• The immune system provides The immune system provides acquired acquired immunityimmunity, consisting of , consisting of humoral humoral immunityimmunity and and cell-mediated cell-mediated immunityimmunity..
• Whereas the Whereas the innate systeminnate system may be may be effective effective beforebefore one is exposed to a one is exposed to a microbe, the microbe, the immuneimmune responseresponse develops develops afterafter exposure to microbes. exposure to microbes.
• The immune system is triggered by an The immune system is triggered by an antigenantigen, a molecule that is foreign to the , a molecule that is foreign to the host’s body.host’s body.
Peter Medawar (1946):Peter Medawar (1946):The Uniqueness of the IndividualThe Uniqueness of the Individual
“Philosophy and common sense, though often parted, have long agreed about the uniqueness of individual man. Different men have different faces, sizes, shapes and origins; different aptitudes, skills and predilections; and different ambitions, hopes and fears. Science now makes it a trio of concordant voices, for the uniqueness of individual mice and men is a proposition which science can demonstrate with equal force, perhaps with deeper cogency, and certainly with a hundred times as much precision.”
Books by Peter MedawarBooks by Peter Medawar
Books by MacFarlane BurnetBooks by MacFarlane Burnet
Clonal Selection TheoryClonal Selection Theory
How does the immune system How does the immune system recognize so many different recognize so many different foreign particles, mobilize foreign particles, mobilize against them and remember against them and remember them? them? MacFarlane Burnet suggested MacFarlane Burnet suggested that it “would make real sense that it “would make real sense if if cells produced a cells produced a characteristic pattern of characteristic pattern of globulin [antibody globulin [antibody molecule] for genetic molecule] for genetic reasonsreasons and were and were stimulated stimulated to proliferate by contact to proliferate by contact with the corresponding with the corresponding antigenic determinantantigenic determinant.”.”
Antigens Antigens GenGenerate the erate the Proliferation of Proliferation of AntiAntibodiesbodies
• ProteinsProteins that make up the coats of that make up the coats of viruses, the surfaces of protozoa and viruses, the surfaces of protozoa and other parasites act as other parasites act as antigens.antigens.
• CarbohydratesCarbohydrates from the walls of from the walls of bacteria and fungi also act as bacteria and fungi also act as antigensantigens..
• Various Various venomvenom and and toxinstoxins that get into that get into the blood stream also act as antigens.the blood stream also act as antigens.
• VaccinesVaccines act as act as antigensantigens..• Unfortunately, proteins from the surface Unfortunately, proteins from the surface
of of donateddonated blood cells, tissues and blood cells, tissues and organs also act as organs also act as antigensantigens..
AntigenAntigen: : AntiAntibody-body-GenGenerating erating SubstanceSubstance
• An An antigenantigen triggers the immune system triggers the immune system to produce large quantities of the to produce large quantities of the antibody antibody that will bind to it.that will bind to it.
• An antibody is a protein found in the An antibody is a protein found in the circulatory system that circulatory system that specifically specifically bindsbinds to an antigen with to an antigen with high affinityhigh affinity..
• The immune system, like the brain, The immune system, like the brain, learnslearns about the antigens to which a about the antigens to which a host is exposed and has a host is exposed and has a memorymemory which which allows it to react rapidly against an allows it to react rapidly against an antigen it has experienced before.antigen it has experienced before.
AntibodiesAntibodies
• An antibody has An antibody has twotwo identical antigen binding sitesidentical antigen binding sites that allow it to form large complexes with antigens or that allow it to form large complexes with antigens or microbes with exposed antigens.microbes with exposed antigens.
• This process of forming large complexes is called This process of forming large complexes is called agglutinationagglutination..
• MacrophagesMacrophages are a kind of phagocyte that engulfs the are a kind of phagocyte that engulfs the insoluble agglutinated complexes of antigens and/or insoluble agglutinated complexes of antigens and/or microbes in a process called microbes in a process called phagocytosisphagocytosis. .
Paul Ehrlich (1908)Paul Ehrlich (1908)
The antigen and the The antigen and the antibody antibody “…enter into “…enter into a chemical bond which, a chemical bond which, in view of the strict in view of the strict specificity is most specificity is most easily explained by the easily explained by the existence of two existence of two groups of distinctive groups of distinctive configuration - of configuration - of groups which according groups which according to the comparison to the comparison made by Emil Fischer made by Emil Fischer fit each other fit each other ‘like ‘like lock and keylock and key’.”’.”
Antibody-Antigen: Lock and Antibody-Antigen: Lock and Key Key
• The part of the antigen that the The part of the antigen that the antibody recognizes is called the antibody recognizes is called the antigenic determinantantigenic determinant or or epitopeepitope..
• The antibody has The antibody has amino acidsamino acids with the correct with the correct chemical chemical propertiesproperties to bind the to bind the epitopeepitope..
• If the epitope be If the epitope be positively positively charged, the binding site will be charged, the binding site will be negatively negatively charged.charged.
• If the epitope be If the epitope be negatively negatively charged, the binding site will be charged, the binding site will be positivelypositively charged. charged.
• If the epitope be If the epitope be polarpolar, the , the binding site will also be binding site will also be polarpolar..
• If the epitope be If the epitope be nonpolarnonpolar, , binding site will be binding site will be nonpolarnonpolar..
The Complement System The Complement System “Complements the Antibody-“Complements the Antibody-
Macrophage System”Macrophage System”• The The
complement complement proteinsproteins recognize the recognize the antibodies when antibodies when they bind to an they bind to an antigen on a antigen on a microbe. microbe.
• The The complement complement proteins proteins poke poke holes in the holes in the plasma plasma membranemembrane of of the microbe and the microbe and the microbes the microbes die.die.
B (bone marrow) Cells and T (thymus) B (bone marrow) Cells and T (thymus) CellsCells
• The cells that produce The cells that produce antibodiesantibodies are called are called lymphocyteslymphocytes. They are . They are derived from derived from lymphocyte stem lymphocyte stem cellscells. .
• The lymphocyte stem cells are The lymphocyte stem cells are derived from derived from pluipotentpluipotent stem stem cellscells in the bone marrow. in the bone marrow.
• Lymphocytes that mature in the Lymphocytes that mature in the bbone marrow are known as one marrow are known as B B cells.cells. Lymphocytes that move to Lymphocytes that move to the the tthymus and mature there are hymus and mature there are known as known as T cellsT cells..
• The mature B and T cells enter the The mature B and T cells enter the lymphatic systemlymphatic system and go to the and go to the spleenspleen, , lymph nodeslymph nodes, , tonsilstonsils, , adenoidsadenoids and and appendixappendix..
The Lymphatic SystemThe Lymphatic System• The lymphatic The lymphatic
system is an system is an open open conducting conducting systemsystem that that returns fluid from returns fluid from the interstitial fluid the interstitial fluid back to the back to the circulatory system.circulatory system.
• When the lymph When the lymph fights a large fights a large microbe attack, the microbe attack, the lymphocytes lymphocytes and and macrophagesmacrophages accumulate in the accumulate in the lymph glands and lymph glands and one gets one gets ““swollen swollen glandsglands.”.”
Humoral Immunity: B cellsHumoral Immunity: B cells
• B cellsB cells, with , with antibodies on antibodies on their surfacestheir surfaces, , travel through the travel through the circulatory and circulatory and lymphatic systems. lymphatic systems.
• The B cells also The B cells also secrete secrete antibodiesantibodies that that circulate in the circulate in the blood stream, blood stream, interstitial fluid and interstitial fluid and lymph.lymph.
Susumu Tonegawa (1987): Susumu Tonegawa (1987): Generation of Immune Diversity by Generation of Immune Diversity by Splicing Distant Segments of DNASplicing Distant Segments of DNA
How can lymphocytes create How can lymphocytes create antibodies to millions of antibodies to millions of antigens when there are antigens when there are approximately 20-30 thousand approximately 20-30 thousand different genes in a person? different genes in a person? Susumu Tonegawa discovered Susumu Tonegawa discovered that, in each lymphocyte clone, that, in each lymphocyte clone, the the antibody genes are antibody genes are formed by splicing formed by splicing segments of DNA in a segments of DNA in a unique way.unique way.By recombining segments of By recombining segments of DNA, millions of genes and DNA, millions of genes and antibodies can be createdantibodies can be created. .
Revolutionary IdeaRevolutionary IdeaBefore Susumu Tonegawa obtained experimental evidence that the DNA that encodes a single polypeptide in an antibody occurs in two widely separated regions of the genome in non-lymphocyte cells, this revolutionary theory, originally proffered by W. J. Dreyer and J. Bennett in 1965, was not taken seriously because it contradicted two of the most widely accepted dogmas of biology:– one gene encodes one polypeptide– the genome is constant during
ontogeny and cell differentiation
B CellsB Cells
• When a B cell develops, its antibody When a B cell develops, its antibody genegene is is transcribedtranscribed, the mRNA is , the mRNA is translatedtranslated and the resultant and the resultant antibody antibody proteins move proteins move through the secretory system until 100,000 through the secretory system until 100,000 of them become incorporated into the of them become incorporated into the plasma membrane.plasma membrane.
• These antibodies, which can be considered These antibodies, which can be considered receptors for antigensreceptors for antigens, stick out of the , stick out of the plasma membrane.plasma membrane.
• Some of the antibodies produced are Some of the antibodies produced are inin the the exocytotic vesicles and are not exocytotic vesicles and are not incorporated into the plasma membrane, incorporated into the plasma membrane, but are but are secreted secreted from the B cells into the from the B cells into the blood (one of the four blood (one of the four humorshumors).).
B CellsB Cells• There are There are
millions of millions of different kinds different kinds of B cells.of B cells.
• Each B cell has Each B cell has a different gene a different gene and produces a and produces a different different antibody.antibody.
• B cells that B cells that have the have the antibody to an antibody to an antigen that antigen that enters the body enters the body become become activatedactivated..
B CellsB Cells• The activated B The activated B
cells divide to cells divide to produce produce plasma plasma cellscells and and memory cellsmemory cells. .
• The The memory memory cellscells have the have the antibody on the antibody on the B B cell surfacecell surface. .
• The The plasma plasma cellscells live for 4-5 live for 4-5 days producing days producing and secreting a and secreting a given antibody given antibody at a rate of 2000 at a rate of 2000 molecules per molecules per second. second.
B CellsB CellsThe The memory memory cellscells, which , which live as long as live as long as the person the person does, are does, are poised to poised to divide into divide into plasma cells plasma cells that will rapidly that will rapidly produce produce antibodies and antibodies and memory cells memory cells following a following a later exposure later exposure to the same to the same antigen.antigen.
Only B Cells that Encounter their Only B Cells that Encounter their Antigen PropagateAntigen Propagate
Every minute our body produces several Every minute our body produces several million lymphocytes—each one expressing million lymphocytes—each one expressing its unique antibody. If a B cell encounters its its unique antibody. If a B cell encounters its antigen, it will divide to form plasma cells antigen, it will divide to form plasma cells and memory cells, which will last a lifetime. and memory cells, which will last a lifetime. If a B cell does not encounter its antigen, it If a B cell does not encounter its antigen, it will die. will die. “After the great randomized gene “After the great randomized gene lottery natural selection will pick the lottery natural selection will pick the winners, thereby generating specific winners, thereby generating specific immunity, the cheapest and most efficient immunity, the cheapest and most efficient protection there is against infections.”protection there is against infections.”
Memory Cells and Acquired Memory Cells and Acquired ImmunityImmunity
• Acquired Acquired immunityimmunity results from results from the buildup the buildup of memory of memory cells in your cells in your body.body.
• The number The number of types of B of types of B memory cells memory cells your body your body has depends has depends on prior on prior exposure to exposure to various various antigens.antigens.
Childhood ImmunityChildhood Immunity
• A A mother’s antibodiesmother’s antibodies, but not her , but not her lymphocytes, are passed through the lymphocytes, are passed through the placentaplacenta from mother to child. Her from mother to child. Her antibodiesantibodies and and macrophagesmacrophages are are passed through her passed through her breast milkbreast milk. .
• These antibodies provide a child with These antibodies provide a child with immunity to many germs, including immunity to many germs, including polio. polio.
• While the child is immune, he/she can While the child is immune, he/she can come in contact with these germs and come in contact with these germs and build up his/her own build up his/her own acquired acquired immunityimmunity, so that an infection will be , so that an infection will be fought in the child for the rest of fought in the child for the rest of his/her life by the powerful his/her life by the powerful secondary secondary immune responseimmune response and he/she would and he/she would not even realize they were infected.not even realize they were infected.
Dropped Pacifiers, Dirty Hands and Dropped Pacifiers, Dirty Hands and FacesFaces
• Exposure to some Exposure to some amount of dirt and amount of dirt and germsgerms during childhood during childhood primes the immune primes the immune systemsystem so that the so that the secondary immune secondary immune response is armed and response is armed and ready.ready.
• Antibacterial soaps kill Antibacterial soaps kill germs, but they also germs, but they also slow down the priming slow down the priming of the immune systemof the immune system..
How Polio Became a “Disease of the How Polio Became a “Disease of the Clean”Clean”
• Polio is a contagious disease.Polio is a contagious disease.• The polio virus enters the body The polio virus enters the body
through the through the mouthmouth and leaves and leaves the body in the the body in the fecesfeces. By not . By not flushing the toilet or washing flushing the toilet or washing one’s hands, the polio virus can one’s hands, the polio virus can be transferred between infected be transferred between infected and uninfected people by the and uninfected people by the fecal-oral routefecal-oral route. .
• There was a polio epidemic in There was a polio epidemic in the United States in the 1950s.the United States in the 1950s.
• Consequently, health Consequently, health officials and scientists officials and scientists recommended good sanitary recommended good sanitary practices to prevent the practices to prevent the spread of poliospread of polio. .
How Polio Became a “Disease of the How Polio Became a “Disease of the Clean”Clean”
• However, the recommended However, the recommended sanitary measures, including sanitary measures, including washing one’s handswashing one’s hands, , cleaning cleaning ones houseones house and ensuring a and ensuring a polio polio virus-free water supplyvirus-free water supply, , prevents a child from prevents a child from developing acquired immunitydeveloping acquired immunity to the polio virus while still being to the polio virus while still being protected by his/her mother’s protected by his/her mother’s antibodies. antibodies.
• Consequently, a child or an adult, Consequently, a child or an adult, who has lost the protection of the who has lost the protection of the maternal antibodies, but had not maternal antibodies, but had not developed his/her own acquired developed his/her own acquired immunity, could easily come down immunity, could easily come down with polio.with polio.
• Consequently, polio predominantly Consequently, polio predominantly infected those who followed the infected those who followed the new sanitary guidelines.new sanitary guidelines.
Polio Vaccines Virtually Eradicated Polio Vaccines Virtually Eradicated Polio Polio
• Jonas Salk found that humans became Jonas Salk found that humans became immune to the polio virus when they were immune to the polio virus when they were injected with a injected with a “formaldehyde-killed” “formaldehyde-killed” virusvirus..
• Albert Sabin found that people became Albert Sabin found that people became immune to the polio virus after eating a immune to the polio virus after eating a lump of sugar containing a live lump of sugar containing a live attenuated virusattenuated virus. The dead virus . The dead virus vaccine could be prepared quickly, but it vaccine could be prepared quickly, but it took a while to find the conditions that took a while to find the conditions that would yield a live virus that could enter would yield a live virus that could enter the body through the digestive system by the body through the digestive system by itself and was safe.itself and was safe.
• The live-attenuated virus has an The live-attenuated virus has an advantage in that it easily passes from advantage in that it easily passes from the immunized person to his/her family the immunized person to his/her family and friends by the fecal-oral route and friends by the fecal-oral route resulting in the immunization of many resulting in the immunization of many people.people.
Comic Book about Polio Vaccines
Eckard Wimmer (2002), who was Eckard Wimmer (2002), who was Driven by Curiosity, Created a Driven by Curiosity, Created a
Synthetic Poliovirus that is Identical to Synthetic Poliovirus that is Identical to the Natural Virusthe Natural Virus
““Research on viruses is driven Research on viruses is driven not only by an urgent need to not only by an urgent need to understand, prevent, and cure understand, prevent, and cure viral disease. It is also fueled viral disease. It is also fueled by a strong curiosity about the by a strong curiosity about the minute particles that we can minute particles that we can view both as chemicals and as view both as chemicals and as “living” entities.”“living” entities.”
Should Scientists Create Should Scientists Create Synthetic Disease-Causing Synthetic Disease-Causing Viruses?Viruses?
Allergies Allergies • AllergiesAllergies are an overreaction are an overreaction
to common environmental to common environmental antigens.antigens.
• Antigens that cause (or Antigens that cause (or generate) allergies are known generate) allergies are known as as allergensallergens..
• When a person is first exposed When a person is first exposed to an allergen, the allergen to an allergen, the allergen binds to the binds to the B cellB cell with a with a complementary receptor. The complementary receptor. The activated B cells divide to form activated B cells divide to form plasma cells which secrete plasma cells which secrete antibodies to the allergen.antibodies to the allergen.
Allergic ResponseAllergic Response
• These antibodies bind to receptors on These antibodies bind to receptors on Mast Mast cellscells. .
• When the antibodies on the mast cell recognize When the antibodies on the mast cell recognize and bind the allergen, the mast cells secrete and bind the allergen, the mast cells secrete histaminehistamine, which triggers the , which triggers the inflammation inflammation responseresponse..
AntihistamineAntihistamine
• HistamineHistamine released from released from damaged damaged mastmast cells causes cells causes blood capillaries to become blood capillaries to become leaky so the phagocytes can leaky so the phagocytes can get to the region where the get to the region where the cells are damaged.cells are damaged.
• In the case of In the case of allergiesallergies, , histaminehistamine released from released from mast cellsmast cells does the same does the same thing, but the fluid is just a thing, but the fluid is just a nuisance nuisance causing causing nasal nasal irritation and watery irritation and watery eyeseyes..
• Antihistamines block the Antihistamines block the histamine receptorhistamine receptor on the on the capillaries and consequently capillaries and consequently reduce the release of fluid.reduce the release of fluid.
The Histamine Receptors in the The Histamine Receptors in the Stomach Differ from those in Blood Stomach Differ from those in Blood
VesselsVessels• HistamineHistamine increases the increases the
production of gastric acid. production of gastric acid. • James Whyte Black discovered James Whyte Black discovered
that antihistamines, which that antihistamines, which successfully block the allergic successfully block the allergic reactions, do not inhibit the reactions, do not inhibit the production of' gastric acid production of' gastric acid because the histamine receptors because the histamine receptors in the stomach (H-2 receptors) in the stomach (H-2 receptors) are different. are different.
• Histamine-2 receptor Histamine-2 receptor blockersblockers, including Tagamet, , including Tagamet, Zantac and Pepcid are effective Zantac and Pepcid are effective treatments for ulcers.treatments for ulcers.
Anaphylactic ShockAnaphylactic Shock• When a person is When a person is
hypersensitivehypersensitive to a given to a given allergen (e.g. peanut protein, allergen (e.g. peanut protein, bee venom and penicillin), an bee venom and penicillin), an exposure to the antigen will exposure to the antigen will cause all their mast cells to cause all their mast cells to release histamine release histamine simultaneouslysimultaneously..
• This will cause all the capillaries This will cause all the capillaries to become leaky and the to become leaky and the blood blood pressure will suddenly and pressure will suddenly and drastically dropdrastically drop. .
• Anaphylactic shock can be Anaphylactic shock can be thwarted by injecting thwarted by injecting adrenalineadrenaline into the patient. into the patient.
Cell-Mediated Immunity: T Cell-Mediated Immunity: T Cells Cells
• T cells proliferate into T cells proliferate into cytotoxic T cellscytotoxic T cells, Helper , Helper T cells and memory T cells. T cells and memory T cells.
• Cytotoxic TCytotoxic T cells recognize and destroy the cells recognize and destroy the body’s own cellsbody’s own cells that have become infected or that have become infected or cancerouscancerous..
Cytotoxic T CellsCytotoxic T Cells
• Cytotoxic T cells bind to Cytotoxic T cells bind to body’s cells body’s cells that have that have a a non-selfnon-self antigenantigen bound to the surfacebound to the surface. .
• The cytotoxic T cells then synthesize and The cytotoxic T cells then synthesize and secrete a number of deadly proteins, one of secrete a number of deadly proteins, one of which is known as which is known as perforinperforin, a protein that kills , a protein that kills the infected host cell by making holes in its the infected host cell by making holes in its membrane.membrane.
Helper T CellsHelper T Cells
• The The macrophagesmacrophages that digest microbes that digest microbes interact with the rest of the immune system. interact with the rest of the immune system. They have receptor proteins that bind the They have receptor proteins that bind the antigen from the microbe. antigen from the microbe.
• The antigen-receptor complex then migrates to The antigen-receptor complex then migrates to the surface of the macrophage.the surface of the macrophage.
Helper T CellsHelper T Cells
• Helper T cellsHelper T cells have receptors that have receptors that bindbind to the to the macrophage receptor-antigen complexmacrophage receptor-antigen complex..
• Each Helper T cell has only one type of receptor Each Helper T cell has only one type of receptor that recognizes only one macrophage receptor-that recognizes only one macrophage receptor-antigen complex.antigen complex.
Interleukins (or Cytokines)Interleukins (or Cytokines)
• The macrophage secretes a protein known The macrophage secretes a protein known as as interleukin-1interleukin-1 that promotes the binding that promotes the binding of the Helper T cell to the macrophage. of the Helper T cell to the macrophage.
• The Helper T cell, once bound to the The Helper T cell, once bound to the macrophage receptor-antigen complex, macrophage receptor-antigen complex, secretes a protein known as secretes a protein known as interleukin-2interleukin-2, , which activates B cells and T cells to divide which activates B cells and T cells to divide in order to form B and T memory cells and in order to form B and T memory cells and more plasma B cells and cytotoxic T cells more plasma B cells and cytotoxic T cells that can be used right away.that can be used right away.
• The protein is called interleukin because it is The protein is called interleukin because it is involved in involved in communication between communication between (inter) white blood cells (leukocytes).(inter) white blood cells (leukocytes).
Interleukin-1 and FeverInterleukin-1 and Fever
• Interleukin-1 travels to the Interleukin-1 travels to the hypothalamushypothalamus and causes it and causes it to change the set-point for to change the set-point for your body temperature higher your body temperature higher than 98.6 than 98.6 ̊ F. ̊ F.
• Even though you have a fever, Even though you have a fever, you you feel coldfeel cold when your when your temperature is less than the temperature is less than the temperature of the set-point.temperature of the set-point.
• When you have a When you have a feverfever, your , your blood is diverted from the skin blood is diverted from the skin to the core of the body to heat to the core of the body to heat up the core. You also shiver to up the core. You also shiver to heat up your body core. All this heat up your body core. All this makes you want to bundle up makes you want to bundle up in bed.in bed.
Interleukin-1 Makes you Feel Interleukin-1 Makes you Feel CrummyCrummy
• Interleukin-1 also causes Interleukin-1 also causes the hypothalamus to the hypothalamus to secrete releasing factors secrete releasing factors that activate the flight or that activate the flight or flight response, which flight response, which kills your appetitekills your appetite..
• Interleukin-1 also lowers Interleukin-1 also lowers the threshold of the the threshold of the nerves that carry stimuli nerves that carry stimuli from pain sensing from pain sensing neurons to the brain. neurons to the brain. Consequently, Consequently, your your joints begin to achejoints begin to ache..
Interleukin-1, Prostaglandins Interleukin-1, Prostaglandins and Aspirin and Aspirin
• Interleukin-1 causes fever, Interleukin-1 causes fever, loss of appetite and pain loss of appetite and pain through a signal transduction through a signal transduction chain that involves the chain that involves the synthesis of synthesis of prostaglandinsprostaglandins..
• Luckily, Luckily, aspirinaspirin blocks blocks prostaglandin synthesis and prostaglandin synthesis and prevents the crummy feelings prevents the crummy feelings caused by interleukin-1 that caused by interleukin-1 that are associated with being are associated with being sick.sick.
AcetaminophenAcetaminophen
The action of The action of acetaminophenacetaminophen is is not well understood. It not well understood. It blocks prostaglandin blocks prostaglandin synthesis and it may synthesis and it may also prevent pain by also prevent pain by binding to the binding to the endogenous endogenous cannabinoid cannabinoid receptor in the receptor in the brainbrain..
Recombinant DNA Technology Makes Recombinant DNA Technology Makes Immuno-Boosters (Interleukins) Cheap Immuno-Boosters (Interleukins) Cheap
and Accessible for People with and Accessible for People with Immune Deficiency Diseases Immune Deficiency Diseases
(Although it also makes them feel (Although it also makes them feel crummy)crummy)
HIV Causes a Deficiency in the HIV Causes a Deficiency in the Immune SystemImmune System
• HIVHIV (human (human immunodeficiency virus), immunodeficiency virus), which is the cause of which is the cause of AIDSAIDS (Acquired Immune (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), Deficiency Syndrome), specifically binds to and specifically binds to and destroys destroys Helper T cellsHelper T cells..
• The depletion of Helper T The depletion of Helper T cells drastically impairs the cells drastically impairs the body’s ability to fight body’s ability to fight infections through cell-infections through cell-mediated immune mediated immune responses.responses.
Severe Combined Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID)Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID)
• One form of SCID results One form of SCID results from the production of a from the production of a mutant form of mutant form of adenosine adenosine deaminasedeaminase (ADA) by B (ADA) by B cells and T cells. cells and T cells.
• Some clinical trials are Some clinical trials are underway to treat this underway to treat this immunodeficiency immunodeficiency diseasedisease with with gene gene therapytherapy..
• Other clinical trials have Other clinical trials have been suspended because been suspended because the random gene the random gene insertions has caused insertions has caused leukemialeukemia..
Autoimmune DiseasesAutoimmune Diseases• An out-of-control immune system An out-of-control immune system
causes trouble when the causes trouble when the lymphocytes make lymphocytes make antibodies antibodies directed against the body itselfdirected against the body itself..
• LupusLupus ( (→→) occurs when the B cells ) occurs when the B cells make antibodies against the normal make antibodies against the normal molecules in the body. The molecules in the body. The antibodies can be directed against antibodies can be directed against a variety of organs.a variety of organs.
• Type 1 diabetesType 1 diabetes occurs when the occurs when the insulin-producing cells of the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are the targets of pancreas are the targets of Cytotoxic T cells.Cytotoxic T cells.
• Multiple sclerosisMultiple sclerosis occurs when occurs when the oligodendrocytes in the central the oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system are the targets of nervous system are the targets of Cytotoxic T cells.Cytotoxic T cells. lupus.org
Lymphoma and LeukemiaLymphoma and Leukemia
• LymphomasLymphomas are are cancers that occur in cancers that occur in the lymphatic system the lymphatic system and are caused by and are caused by malignant malignant lymphocytes (T cells lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).and B cells).
• Leukemias Leukemias are are typically cancers that typically cancers that occur in the bone occur in the bone marrow or circulatory marrow or circulatory system and are system and are caused by other caused by other kinds of malignant kinds of malignant white blood cells.white blood cells.
Development of Lymphoid and Development of Lymphoid and Myeloid CellsMyeloid Cells
[Granulocytes]
Biotechnology: Monoclonal Biotechnology: Monoclonal AntibodiesAntibodies
• A A mouse can be injected mouse can be injected with an antigenwith an antigen and after and after it produces antibodies to the it produces antibodies to the antigen, its antigen, its B cellsB cells are are isolated from its isolated from its spleenspleen..
• The The B cells are then fused B cells are then fused with cultured cancerwith cultured cancer cellscells and the fusion cells and the fusion cells divide divide often and grow often and grow indefinitelyindefinitely, producing an , producing an antibody to the antigen antibody to the antigen injected into the mouse.injected into the mouse.
• Single fusion cells are Single fusion cells are isolated and grown on isolated and grown on culture platesculture plates.. They They produce a single kind of produce a single kind of antibody.antibody.
Biotechnology: Monoclonal Biotechnology: Monoclonal AntibodiesAntibodies
A A monoclonal monoclonal antibodyantibody produced produced this way can become this way can become part of a part of a diagnostic diagnostic kitkit to detect to detect molecules, like molecules, like human chorionic human chorionic gonadotropingonadotropin, , which is an indicator which is an indicator of pregnancy; or the of pregnancy; or the antibody to HIVantibody to HIV, , which is an indicator which is an indicator of HIV infection. of HIV infection.
Cell Mediated Immunity and Organ Cell Mediated Immunity and Organ TransplantsTransplants
• Unless one gets an organ from an identical Unless one gets an organ from an identical twin, a transplanted organ will have cells twin, a transplanted organ will have cells whose surface is coated with antigens that whose surface is coated with antigens that are not recognized as “self” by the are not recognized as “self” by the recipient’s immune system. recipient’s immune system.
• Consequently, the recipient’s Cytotoxic T Consequently, the recipient’s Cytotoxic T cells will begin to kill the cells of the cells will begin to kill the cells of the donated organ.donated organ.
• Luckily, cell-mediated immunity can be Luckily, cell-mediated immunity can be suppressed by the suppressed by the immunosuppressant immunosuppressant drugsdrugs Cyclosporin and Tacrolimus. These Cyclosporin and Tacrolimus. These immunosuppressant drugs are important in immunosuppressant drugs are important in making making organ transplantsorgan transplants possible. possible.
Immunosuppressants are Isolated Immunosuppressants are Isolated from Fungi and Actinobacteriafrom Fungi and Actinobacteria
CyclosporinCyclosporin is produced is produced by the fungus, by the fungus, Tolypocladium inflatumTolypocladium inflatum..
TacrolimusTacrolimus is produced is produced by the Actinobacterium, by the Actinobacterium, Streptomyces Streptomyces tsukubaensis.tsukubaensis.
Individuality: How Our Blood Defines Individuality: How Our Blood Defines UsUs
• Agglutination or clumping will Agglutination or clumping will occur if the blood contains occur if the blood contains antibodies and antigens that antibodies and antigens that bind to each other.bind to each other.
• Blood Group ABlood Group A (A antigen on (A antigen on RBCs, B antibody in blood serum—RBCs, B antibody in blood serum—cancan donate to A and ABdonate to A and AB).).
• Blood Group BBlood Group B (B antigen on (B antigen on RBCs, A antibody in blood serum—RBCs, A antibody in blood serum—cancan donate to B and ABdonate to B and AB).).
• Blood Group ABBlood Group AB (A and B (A and B antigens on RBCs, no antibodies in antigens on RBCs, no antibodies in blood serum—blood serum—universaluniversal recipientrecipient).).
• Blood Group OBlood Group O (No antigens on (No antigens on RBCs, A and B antibodies in blood RBCs, A and B antibodies in blood serum—serum—universaluniversal donordonor).).
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/
Aside: Abraham Lincoln Contracted Aside: Abraham Lincoln Contracted Small Pox Just Before He Delivered the Small Pox Just Before He Delivered the
Gettysburg AddressGettysburg Address
This portrait of This portrait of President Abraham President Abraham Lincoln was taken Lincoln was taken on November 8, on November 8, 1863 by Alexander 1863 by Alexander Gardner eight days Gardner eight days before he delivered before he delivered the Gettysburg the Gettysburg Address. Address.
Abraham Lincoln at GettysburgAbraham Lincoln at Gettysburg
rmc.library.cornell.edu
Abraham Lincoln Probably Had a Mild Case Abraham Lincoln Probably Had a Mild Case of Small Pox While He Delivered his Address of Small Pox While He Delivered his Address
at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863
• Dr. Washington van Bibber told Abraham Lincoln when he Dr. Washington van Bibber told Abraham Lincoln when he returned from Gettysburg that he had "a touch of the varioloid." returned from Gettysburg that he had "a touch of the varioloid."
• Lincoln responded: "Then am I to understand that I have the Lincoln responded: "Then am I to understand that I have the small pox?” Van Bibber nodded his head, “yes”.small pox?” Van Bibber nodded his head, “yes”.
• Lincoln responded, "How interesting. I find every now and then Lincoln responded, "How interesting. I find every now and then that even unpleasant situations in life have certain that even unpleasant situations in life have certain compensation. As you came in just now, you passed through a compensation. As you came in just now, you passed through a room full of people. Do you have any idea what they are there room full of people. Do you have any idea what they are there for…they are there, every mother's son of them, for one for…they are there, every mother's son of them, for one purpose only: namely, to get something from me. For once in purpose only: namely, to get something from me. For once in my life as president, I find myself in a position to give my life as president, I find myself in a position to give everybody something!"everybody something!"
While Lincoln Survived Small Pox, William While Lincoln Survived Small Pox, William H. Johnson, Lincoln’s Valet, Was Not as H. Johnson, Lincoln’s Valet, Was Not as
LuckyLucky
William H. Johnson, Lincoln’s valet, traveled William H. Johnson, Lincoln’s valet, traveled with him to Gettysburg. Johnson died of small with him to Gettysburg. Johnson died of small pox two months later, and was buried at what is pox two months later, and was buried at what is now Arlington National Cemetery.now Arlington National Cemetery.
