Communicating as Professionals (Cengage, Melbourne) Mohan, McGregor, Saunders & Archee (2008) Chapter 11 Academic writing Contents

The audience for academic writing Academic communication Becoming a member of an academic community Referencing systems

The problem of plagiarism Authordate system of referencing Quoting verbatim

Academic genres Academic essays and research papers Literature review Thesis Posters Case Studies Reflective Journals

Introduction If you are enrolled in a course at a university or college, you will spend much of your time listening to lectures, discussing ideas with other students, presenting your views formally in tutorial groups, reading books and journals, and writing papers for your teachers.

Of all these activities it is possibly through writing that you best crystallise your ideas, discover new fields of knowledge and realise your intellectual potential. It is certainly through writing that you will offer those ideas to others for their comments and review. This Chapter will help you understand some of the common conventions of academic writing and will show you some techniques that will enhance your writing skills. The audience for academic writing In business and industry we write to persuade, to explain, to instruct, to justify ourselves. Typically we sell or share our ideas or services. We hope that our knowledge or insights are good enough to influence others and be implemented, with suitable rewards coming to us as a result. As a student in an academic context, by contrast, we write:

for our teachers, to represent our views and experience and to convince them that we have approached or achieved learning objectives

for our fellow students, with whom we may write collaborative projects

for ourself, using writing to explore and reinforce what we have read, work out our viewpoints, apply our knowledge and find solutions to our problems.

Academic communication Before we begin to discuss the different academic genres and give some guidelines for effective writing, it may be useful to consider the broader issue of academic communication. Despite the advances in mediated learning, the lecture remains a central focus of academic life. And although many lecturers provide copies of their lecture notes and slides either in hard copy or online, these written forms of communication are usually significantly enhanced during the face-to-face lecture. One of the basic challenges for you in academic writing, therefore, is to develop effective note-taking skills.

Dont attempt to write everything. Write only enough to enable you to listen to the lecturers argument and be critical of it. Highlight keywords and underscore important points. If you can develop an outline, you can be more confident that you are making sense of the information. It will be easier for you to analyse the material if you have completed the required reading before the lecture. Some students use a two-column approach, comparing the notes from their reading with those taken during the lecture. Make sure you record references and suggested reading in case you need to follow up on them for an assignment or further research.

Ask questions in the lecture if this is permitted. If you are attending large lectures, questioning may be discouraged. If so, take your questions and queries to the tutorial or post them for discussion online.

Become aware of the broader implications of your studies. Keeping journals, diaries, scrapbooks and press clippings related to your study will help you build up files of information to supplement lecture notes and notes from texts.

Becoming a member of an academic community One of the most significant learning outcomes of higher education is enculturation into a professional community. That means acquiring the traits that signify you as, for example, an accountant, engineer, lawyer or manager. Part of the challenge is learning how to communicate in the ways that are appropriate for your group as well as learning strategies for your own personal growth and your broader role in society.

When you begin working, a common way to learn how to write reports is to review existing reports. In the academic community too, you are expected to build your knowledge on existing knowledge. As an undergraduate your primary aim is to become proficient in the skills expected of your discipline area and to demonstrate that you can communicate your knowledge in the ways expected in your field. That means that you are expected to read existing material, analyse it, compare one author with another, question its validity and relevance, and synthesise your ideas using evidence you have gathered from your reading.

Referencing systems Many students have trouble understanding the academic conventions of referencing. When writing an essay, you are expected to present your ideas in your own words. If you want to use ideas put forward by a published expert as support for your argument, you may present them verbatim as a quotation or paraphrase those ideas. Paraphrasing means

using your own words to restate the central idea. Students frequently argue that their own words are not as good as the experts, and that may well be the case. But, because you are usually using the idea as part of your own argument, it is better to argue in your words. If the experts exact words are really significant, then you may present them as a direct quotation. However, a collection of lengthy direct quotations is not likely to attract high grades in any discipline area.

It is also important to follow the referencing conventions agreed on by your discipline area. In this book we use the authordate or Harvard system of referencing, but different professional communities prefer other referencing styles.

Referencing is important for a number of reasons:

If you use the work of others, you must give them credit for it. If you dont, it is considered plagiarism, a serious form of academic misconduct.

Referencing indicates that you have read and understood key publications. Referencing helps you to keep track of the arguments of different experts in your

field. Referencing helps others find the citations you list. Referencing correctly signifies that you know the conventions of your given

discipline. Referencing also signifies that you respect the way that knowledge is shared and

extended. The problem of plagiarism Any work written by a student for assessment or by anyone for publication is deemed to have copyright. Strictly speaking, there are laws against adapting or copying anything written or produced by another person. However, these laws are only invoked when writers believe that they stand to suffer financially or professionally from such borrowing. Instead, small extracts are considered fair use if you give credit for their work by accurately referencing.

In an academic context, plagiarism is the term assigned to the unethical use of anothers work. It is penalised because those who practise it are regarded as cheats; they are exploiting the efforts of others, obtaining academic rewards under false pretences, and their own learning is defective.

Some students attempt to submit other peoples ideas or data as their own because they think they will thus be thought of as original or creative. Such people may not understand the conventions of referencing or they may not realise that their teachers have read widely in their subject and usually recognise borrowed material when they see it. Students are frequently asked to sign honesty declarations and attach them to their assignments in an attempt to impress on them the importance of learning through writing. In addition, assignments may be subjected to scanning applications that detect common forms of plagiarising.

We therefore urge you to give full acknowledgement to any specific information, opinion, scheme, graphic or program from another author and that includes unpublished authors like your classmates. Written work that presents a vigorous argument and an independent point of view, but which also gives full acknowledgement to material from other writers, is all the more valued by academic teachers.

Authordate system of referencing The main reason for citing sources is not to avoid accusations of plagiarism, but to enable readers to follow up the sources of your reading so that they can either check on your accuracy or read your sources for their own interest or learning. In this book we briefly outline one common style of referencing to show you the basic principles. However, we strongly suggest that you also consult more detailed style guides such as the Style manual or the websites we list in this chapter.

One of the most commonly used systems of referencing, and the one employed in this book, is the authordate or Harvard system. Other popular systems are the MLA (Modern Languages Association) system and the APA (American Psychological Association) system (an example of the APA system is given in Chapter X, pages xxxx). Guidelines for using these referencing systems are available on many university websites and through popular search engines.

In the authordate system, after you quote or paraphrase from another author, place the name of the author, the year of publication, and if appropriate the page number(s) of the reference in brackets.. The full publishing details of the book or article appear in alphabetical order of authors surnames in the bibliography or reference list at the end of the work.

The examples below show how to reference within the text of your essay. You will note that if the author is named before the quotation or paraphrased material, the brackets will contain only the date of publication and page reference:

Some communication theorists adopted the idea from social psychology that people will attribute the cause of human action in systematic ways (Littlejohn 1992, p. 139). Often referred to as attribution theory, the explanation suggested that human beings make judgements systematically and follow a process of inference drawing and decision-making which is predictable. Wilson, Hantz and Hanna explained, when we think we understand the motives behind a persons actions, we feel more confident about our expectations of that person (1995, p. 91).

As you see, only surnames are used. Initials are added only when they are required to distinguish between authors of the same surname or where the reference is to a personal communication (for example, in a personal letter or interview) not included in the bibliography:

Most technical writers consider a technical background important for applicants wishing to prepare user manuals in electronics or computing (A. W. Hardman, pers. comm., 2005).

If the author of the source is not given, the publication or the organisation authorising

the publication is cited as the author:

Employers continue to note the poor communication skills of middle management personnel (The Bugle, 6 June 2006, p. 15).

Bibliographies and lists of references At the end of your essay you will need to present a bibliography or list of references. The difference between references and a bibliography is that a bibliography includes lists of work consulted but not necessarily cited. References contain only the sources cited within the work. Other titles used for reference lists include Select bibliography or References and further reading.

As you research, you should compile all the necessary detail for your bibliography, and we suggest that you learn how to use referencing software such as EndNote to facilitate the process. Now it will simply be a matter of providing a complete list of books and articles used and arranging them in alphabetical order according to the author at the end of the essay. The usual sequence of citations for a bibliography is based on the following:

Books: authors surname and initial(s) or given name(s), year of publication, title of book (in italics), edition (if not the first), publisher, place of publication.

Journal articles: authors surname and initial(s) or given name(s), year of publication, title of article (in single quotation marks), title of journal (in italics), volume, number, page numbers of article.

The reference list contains the works in alphabetical order by author. Note that all the information needed to find the work is provided.

Mohan, T., McGregor, H., Saunders, S. & Archee, R. 2004, Communicating as professionals, Thomson Learning, Melbourne. For more complex sources, consult the relevant style guide. Always check with a style

guide or manual in your specific field to get the details of their preferred referencing style. In some cases it doesnt matter which one you choose, so long as you follow a standard, recognisable style that indicates that you respect the basic principles of referencing. Can you combine referencing systems? Not usually, because it becomes too complicated. The one exception is that you may wish to use some footnotes in an article which uses the authordate system, to refer to personal conversations or to make comments on the text in a short statement that you feel needs to be separated from the text. In this case, the usual procedure is to use a symbol, placed after the sentence introducing the reference and at the foot of the same page. The most common symbol for this use is the asterisk (*). Referencing online documents You need to acquaint yourself with the styles of referencing material that you access through the Internet. The Style manuals citation style for electronic sources (2002, pp. 2301) suggests including the following information:

name(s) of author(s) date of creation or revision of the document title of document version number, if applicable description of document, if applicable date of viewing URL.

For example:

Australian Government Publishing Service, 2002, Style manual for authors, editors and printers, [Online] viewed 30 October 2006, .

Given the extremely fluctuating nature of the Internet, any attempt to relocate information in transitory cyberspace may be doomed to failure. We thus suggest that if it is possible to do so, the author should keep a copy of the electronic document and perhaps make it available online through an online service such as a personal website, or home page. The backup copy would be indispensable if the original document could not be found at some later date. Thus, online documents should have at least two locations: their original, and the archive location. Quoting verbatim Using the actual words of other writers or speakers can strengthen the authenticity of your writing and also provide the reader with a variety of style and tone, especially if you choose quotations that are lively and colourful. Some points of usage are:

Use single inverted commas (quotation marks) to enclose the words of your quote.

If the original author has quoted within the quotation, use double inverted commas. But try to avoid such complications; they can be difficult to read.

If the quotation is lengthy, separate it from your paragraph, indent and use single-line spacing; dont use inverted commas.

If you wish to use quoted words as part of your own text, make sure they fit grammatically into your sentence.

You may wish to omit words or phrases from your quotation because they are not necessary to the point you are making. In this case use an ellipsis (...).

Sometimes you may wish to insert some of your own words into a quotation in order to make it grammatical or to clarify a point. In this case you place square brackets ( [ ] ) around your words to distinguish them from those of your source. Such bracketed material is usually no more than a word or a short phrase.

Avoid over-quoting. An essay that consists of a series of direct quotations strung together with only a minimum of your own ideas looks patchy and may fail to express a central and original viewpoint. Use quotations selectively and sparingly.

Be sure to provide complete citation, including the page numbers. At tertiary level, it is usually preferable for you to express another writers ideas in

your own words or to summarise the writers position. For this, inverted commas are not necessary, but acknowledgement is. It is in the non-acknowledgement of paraphrasing that most plagiarism occurs.

Case study 11.1

The following paper appears on the Planet Paper website www.planetpapers.com/Assets/615.php)

Changing Use of Language Written by: colcame

I chose to find the entomology of a word that most people can usually not go through a day without using at

least once, computer. With the explosion of the personal computer in the last ten years, most households in

America own at least one. However, the meaning of the word "computer" has changed in the last century.

The word itself is found in text as far back as 1646 when Sir T. Brown said, "The calendars of these

computers." The use of "computer" in this sense, as defined by the OED, is one who computes; a calculator,

reckoner; a person employed to make calculations in an observatory, in surveying, etc.

Then, around 1897, the use of "computer" began to change. In the January 22 edition of Engineering, this

usage appeared: "This was... a computer made by Mr. W. Cox. He described it as of the nature of a circular

slide rule." This usage began the change of the definition. In the supplement to the OED, "computer" is now

defined as a calculating machine; an automatic electronic device for performing mathematical or logical

operation.

The word "computer" stems from the verb "compute" which came from the French comput-r and the Latin

computa-re. It was formed by adding com - together and putare - to clear up, settle, reckon. Together,

"compute" means to estimate or determine by arithmetical or mathematical reckoning; to calculate, reckon,

count. Then from the word "compute", the suffix "er" was added giving us the definitions we have for

computer today.

2) In an effort to further understand language, the field of psycholinguistics formed to study the psychological

side of language. Language has many different functions such as communication, expressing emotion,

explaining ideas, to create relationships, and recording ideas. Without the use of language, it would be

nearly impossible to explain the history of anything. Language allows for the communication that is

necessary for survival. It is not only humans who benefit from language either. Bees use a complex system

of a dance and buzz to show the hive where to find food, and birds use different chirps to communicate.

One psycholinguistic, Hockett, said that all languages have some aspects that are the same at some level

which he called Linguistic Universals. One aspect of Linguistic Universals is the broadcast transmission,

which says that language is public and that anyone around the message will pick it up. Another aspect of

language is that it is rapid fading, or if you don't get it right away, you won't get it at all. Hockett also said that

language is arbitrary. An object could actually be called anything anyone wants to call it. In all, Hockett came

up with nine aspects that all languages have in common.

In order to understand language, Chomsky believed that there were four levels needed. The first of his four

levels was the Lexicon. He described the Lexicon as a mental dictionary. It allows for recognizing words in

context, knowing how to pronounce the word in its context, and how the word is used in different parts of

speech.

Chomsky's second level was called the Phonemic level. This described the phonemes or the smallest unit of

sound in the language. For every language there are a countable number of sounds that make it up. For

example, the Chinese language has no sound for the English L or R. The English language is made up of 40

to 50 distinct sounds while the Hawaiian language has only eleven.

His third level needed for understanding language is the Morphemic level. This level consists of

morphemenes, which are the smallest unit of meaning of an utterance. This explains the usage of prefixes

and suffixes such as the use of an "s" to make a word plural.

The last level Chomsky used to understand language was the Syntactic level. This level consisted of the

syntax or the structure of the utterance. This level was used to explain the understanding of how a sentence

was put together. Chomsky said that there were two parts to every sentence, the surface structure and the

deep structure. The surface structure contains the words that are used to create the utterance and syntax.

The deep structure was the meaning of the utterance. Chomsky said that a sentence can consist of two

different surface structures and still have the same deep structure. The meaning of the sentence is

transcendent of the words used to make it. So, for a sentence such as, "The horse raced past the barn fell",

is still understood as "The horse that was raced past the barn fell."

I think that the levels of linguistic approach to understanding language does help explain and breakdown language. It makes sense that all these parts are necessary to understand the usage of language in general. Chomsky's four levels for understanding language breakdown and map out language pretty good. Hockett's Linguistic Universals do show the aspects that language has in general. Together, the two theories do seem to show an appropriate framework.

Discussion 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having model papers as an aid

to writing? 2. How effective is this paper as an essay on Changing Language? 3. What would you recommend to improve this paper as an academic paper?

Academic genres In this chapter we give special attention to the academic essay because much of what we say here about essay writing applies to academic writing in general. Its the genres or forms that vary. Students need to become aware of the different expectations that each of the disciplines imposes on them. A report for an engineering subject on a management topic could differ in a number of ways to one submitted for a business studies elective in management. An essay for a humanities subject on an environmental topic would require quite a different approach to one submitted in a science faculty. Part of the learning process for each field of study is to learn the conventions for communicating within your discipline area.

Most academic writing requires us to:

understand and explain ideas come forward with new information and insights explain complex ideas skilfully, accurately and authoritatively acknowledge and identify the opinions of others as distinct from your own

analyse and evaluate information in a critical and constructive manner assess new information in relation to your own knowledge and involvement be able to express clearly a variety of views and put them in a logical sequence be prepared for critical and informed reaction from the reader. Essentially, this type of writing enables us to discover more about a subject. It also

requires us to exercise a certain amount of self-discipline. We need to know and understand the ideas and facts we wish to convey and we need to plan the order in which we will express these. Understanding the conventions of the different genres will help us to express those ideas in an appropriate way. Academic essays and research papers An academic essay is the presentation of an argument that is based on rigorous research and scholarship. The purpose and the scope of the essay will determine its length. Essays may be short or long; they may require considerable research or only a careful analysis of material already known. Regardless of these details, the following strategies should help you develop an acceptable academic essay. Define the topic An academic essay pivots on a topic statement: a clear presentation of the central message of the composition. This sentence should be written as clearly and concisely as possible and should appear at the outset of the essay. In this way, the writers intended aim and method of approach to a topic, idea or problem is outlined and stated for the reader. Some possible topic statements are:

Australian education is at a point of crisis.

The development of bar codes revolutionised business.

If the thesis or topic question has been set by someone else, be sure that you understand what it means. Is the terminology clear to you? If not, a useful first step is to check in encyclopedias and dictionaries, or in some cases to speak to the lecturer or supervisor who has prescribed the topic. Let us have a look at a sample assignment:

Discuss the implications of imposing censorship on the Internet.

First we might need to ask: How should I define the Internet? How has it developed? What impact does it make on our lives? What is censorship? Does it mean banning all Internet programs or selecting among those to be censored? Censored for whom? Children? If so, at what ages? What kinds of programs? Sex? Violence? Politics? All of these questions would help you to define the scope of your topic

Keywords in essay questions We should pause here to examine the exact meanings of the verbs used as instructions in the setting of essay or report topics. You need to understand these words clearly and take them very seriously; otherwise you are in danger of misunderstanding the topic and going

off on the wrong track. Exhibit 11.1, adapted from Bate and Sharpe (1996), provides a list of the verbs most commonly used in essay topics, with their meanings. EXHIBIT 11.1 Verbs most commonly used in essay or report topics Analyse Break the subject into its parts and show how they relate to each other

and to other subjects. Argue Systematically support or reject a position by presenting evidence. Comment Express your view or interpretation of a statement contained in the

question. Support your view with argument and/or experience. Compare Express similarities and differences between two or more objects, systems,

ideas, arguments. Contrast Demonstrate differences between two or more objects, systems, ideas,

arguments. Criticise Make judgements, both favourable and/or unfavourable, using fair

argument and balanced evidence. Define Give clear, concise meanings of terms used in your writing. Show how the

item you are defining differs from others. If necessary, use some elaboration or examples.

Describe Use words to show appearance, function, events or systems. Present the different aspects of a problem. You are not being asked to make judgements.

Discuss Present a subject and give points of view about it, your own and those of other writers. Give a range of information, evidence and opinion. There may be argument and analysis but the main quality is the range of opinion canvassed.

Enumerate Present material in list or outline form, usually without comment. Evaluate Make judgements using argument, opinion and evidence. Similar to

criticize but places more emphasis on establishing standards of quality and excellence.

Examine Similar to analyse, with a little more emphasis on judgement and appraisal.

Explain Assign or interpret meanings clearly by analysing events or systems, giving reasons, describing how things developed. Your focus is on the how and why of an issue, not so much on evaluation or criticism.

Illustrate Use a figure, picture, diagram or concrete example to explain or clarify a problem or situation.

Outline Systematically list main points and subordinate points while omitting details.

Prove Confirm or verify by logical reasoning and evidence. Relate Show how things are connected to each other, how they correlate or cause

one another. Review Examine a subject critically, dealing with a number of explanations or

theories, or listing and relating a series of events that are being used as evidence for a theory.

Summarise Give a brief statement or account that covers the main points in sequence, without critical comments.

Source: Adapted Bate & Sharpe 1996, p. 5.

Concept maps and outlines As we pointed out in Chapter 10, there is no one correct way of going about the task of writing. Your own style determines to some extent how you proceed. Some students are happier jotting down ideas till they have exhausted possibilities, then reshaping the material to get a coherent composition. Others prefer a more structured approach. Concept maps and outlines are two ways to help you get started on writing an essay or other assignment.

Developing a concept map There is some merit, especially in preparing long essays and papers that require some evidence of serious research, in adopting the approach known as concept mapping or mind mapping.

Suppose you are asked to write an essay, a short thesis or a formal report on the subject Export opportunities for Australia in the twenty-first century.

You might begin by writing the topic in the centre and these questions on the edges of a paper or board:

Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? Write brief answers below each question. Keep going till you run out of ideas. Leave

your work and come back to it later to see if you can generate any further ideas. Then try to create links between the ideas. Which are the major ideas and which are secondary? Map the information by circling or underscoring the major points and linking to the sub-points by lines. The visual stimulation of having your ideas presented as a map helps you to see the relationships between them and the holes in the picture.

If you are involved in collaborative writing in, say, a tutorial group or syndicate, your team can contribute ideas to each question. Have them stand around the white-board with marker pens poised, generating ideas from each others notes.

Of course, you can also generate concept maps on your computer. Sites such as www.mind-map.com and freemind.sourceforge.net are helpful.

You are, of course, likely to generate a lot more notes on the concept map than youll ever need for one paper. But thats just the point: you can now choose the direction of your report from the questions and answers youve generated. Youll see that some of the questions and answers are more relevant than others; they are the ones to develop.

Youll also note that the subject of the essay has been expressed very generally. To say anything useful in 2000 words youll need to focus on a theme that incorporates the essence of the subject and provides you with the basis of an argument.

Case Study 11.2

The following concept map was developed by a group of commerce students who were given the topic of export opportunities for Australia.

Discussion 1. Based on this concept map, what are some of the themes that could be

explored for the essay?

2. Develop an outline for an essay on Export Opportunities. 3. Where would you look for information on the topic? Find at least 3 texts, 3

journal articles and 3 government reports.

Developing an outline Perhaps when you were doing Case Study 11.2 you selected the theme Australia is well placed right now to develop export markets in Asia and the Pacific. You might have developed an outline for this theme with the following points, divided into main and minor headings (see Exhibit 11.2).

EXHIBIT 11.2 Sample Essay outline 1 Australias stability makes us popular with potential trading partners in Asia and the

Pacific: a. our political stability industrial peace b. our economic stability low inflation.

2 We can therefore take advantage of the growth of Asian economies: a. primary products and consumer items to supply their large populations b. engineering and architectural expertise to help build their industries c. vocational and tertiary education to strengthen their knowledge bases d. tourism, communications (radio and TV) and the arts to promote cultural

exchange. 3 Our government is placing emphasis on economic and political links with Asia:

a. recent trade agreements b. playing a strong part in APEC c. close diplomatic links with China and Japan.

4 But our government can do more to help industry gain export advantages: a. with export incentive schemes b. by strengthening overseas trade centres and delegations to Asian countries c. by continuing to cultivate friendships in Asia.

There are three things to notice in this exhibit:

1 All the ideas come, directly or indirectly, from the concept map. 2 Once the theme has been identified, every point in the outline relates closely to the

theme. 3 The theme is a direct interpretation of the topic, so you cant be accused of ignoring

the subject you were asked to treat. 4 The outline gives you a structure for your essay.

Note-taking Suggestions for research are provided in Chapter 5; however, the following hints should help you to build your note-taking into the writing process. The concept of note-taking may seem out of date in the age of electronic cut and paste, but the principles are essentially the same. Using the concept map or outline method leads to a methodical procedure for developing a composition. An outline also guides you in selecting and recording information to include in your work. We suggest that you set up a computer file (or folder if you have lots of sub-topics) for each topic, and each time you come to a reference related to that topic, make an entry in the file.

For example, in the essay on Australian exports if you have a file labelled tourism, communications and the arts to promote cultural exchange (see 2 d in Exhibit 11.2, page xxx), you might find:

1 an article from the Internet showing how the tourist industry has expanded during the past three years

2 an Austrade report on the Asian trade links with Optus and its profits during the same period

3 a newspaper article about the success of the Australian Chamber Orchestra in a Tokyo season.

Each of these items would appear in the same file and is therefore handy to provide useful evidence for any claims made in the essay. Each would be carefully identified, including page numbers and date of internet access, so that when you reference it in the essay, the source can be accurately acknowledged.

Your notes include your own views on what you are reading. If two sources give contradictory information or opinions and you favour one, say why. Or if financial information offered in a cited article seems thin, give your view of the unreliability of the author. These comments can be added to the file in as much detail as you require. But keep your entry brief.

The use of files for note-taking also enables you to organise and arrange the files so that they follow the course of the outline. Thus when you are writing the essay, your notes can be cut and pasted to your master document according to your outline. This helps you to work up a smooth, coherent style.

Be wary of entering too many notes and quoting long sections of the original. This is both time-consuming and confusing; you end up with a wilderness of material. Better to paraphrase, quote vital figures and quote only brief but telling statements.

Keep a master reading-list in a bibliography file as you proceed with your research, adding to it as you go. Make sure every entry contains full source details, so that these can be included later in the essays bibliography. Most bibliography applications, such as EndNote, provide a framework for efficient referencing. However, be aware that for each item, book, article or website you need to provide sufficient information so that a reader can find that citation and the specific reference within it.

Note that this master reading-list includes all the books and other documents you read even if you dont refer to them in the essay. They can still form part of your essay bibliography, unless of course they turn out to be totally irrelevant to the topic.

Case Study 11.3

Notes for an essay on the influence of immigration on Sydney life from 1950 to the Present

Length: 2000 words Origin of arrivals. Immigration programs for permanent immigrants. marital status and sex and age of settler arrivals. Socio-economic background and occupation. English-speaking and non-English-speaking people. opulation increase. Ethnic composition of different suburbs. Housing, employment and education. Industrial and social welfare policies. Effect on consumer goods. Multicultural issues. Effect on the media in terms of changes in newspapers, radio and TV. How do Sydney media cater for the new arrivals? First and second generations. Which immigrants prefer an urban environment? In what way does Sydney attract particular groups? Problems of migrant workers. Migrant pressures on trade unions? Illegal immigrants.

Overall communication problems. Problems of migrant women. cultural differences. Australian attitudes to migrants. Child-minding arrangements. Differences in income. Impact of various migrant groups such as English, German, Italian, Greek, Maltese, Lebanese, East European, Asian, etc. Refugees significance of these arrivals. Migrants and Australian institutions such as churches, education, medical services, police, the law, media, welfare services, political parties, trade unions. Effects on churches and religion in relation to migrants.

What is needed most for new immigrants? Importance of interpreters and multilingual information. Community facilities. More social welfare needed? Issue of discrimination what evidence is there? A multicultural society for the future? Cosmopolitan elements in Sydney where? Different lifestyles. Bilingual teaching. Individual and family experiences. Areas of potential conflict. Problems of integrating. Influence of culture on Sydney life. Problems of migrant children in schools. Effect of immigration on educational system.

Role of and use of interpreters. Particular cultures and how they influence integration. Have Australian people been adequately prepared for immigrants? Are Australians hostile to immigrants? What do Australians expect of immigrants? Assimilation. Problems of language. Is Sydney a particularly cosmopolitan city? What evidence is there with shops, restaurants, buildings, architecture, food, consumer goods, etc.? Migrant hostels. How have migrants improved Sydney economically? In what ways is immigration in Sydney different from that in other capital cities?

Discussion

1. How effective are these notes for developing an academic essay? 2. What would improve them? 3. What needs to be done next? 4. Discuss possible outlines for the topics presented.

What are major topics?

What are sub-topics?

During your research you need consistently to look for material that is specifically related to your discussion, rather than merely providing a reservoir of information. Ask yourself the following questions:

1 Are there any facts or opinions with which you were particularly impressed? Did these seem to be especially important? Why? How do they relate to the theme of your essay?

2 Did any of the information spark questions of your own? What were those questions? 3 Were there any views that were inaccurate, vague or misleading? In what ways? What

comment can you make about them? 4 Were there elements of contradiction, inconsistency or lack of clarity in any of the

writers facts and opinions? How significant were these? What is your reaction to them?

5 Can you compare and contrast the viewpoints of different writers? Comparing a valid and informed argument presented by one author with one that is weak may be a useful way of substantiating your own views, when they coincide with the more effective argument.

In general, your lecturer will specify the length of the finished essay. Take this seriously. It is a guide to the level and depth of research expected, and also to the lecturers patience in reading and marking. Some lecturers penalise essays that are too short (these suggest a paucity of research and argument) or too long (these suggest an inability to edit and focus on the essential points).

Parts of an academic essay Abstract An abstract is an overview of the composition. It can be written before the development of the document as a way of expressing your ideas in a nutshell. If you are presenting your paper at a conference or seminar, you would be asked to submit an abstract well in advance so that the organisers could see what your paper was going to discuss and program it in an appropriate section. This preliminary abstract can also be used as a guide while you are writing the paper. Of course, the abstract may change as your ideas develop and evolve.

An abstract or summary can also be composed after the paper has been written, and its function is to summarise all the key ideas presented in the paper but in a very condensed form.

As in most writing tasks, function determines form. Most abstracts and summaries present the thesis statement, the central ideas and the conclusion. Detail and examples should be omitted. A rule of thumb is that an abstract should be no more than ten per cent of the length of a publication. Introduction The introduction has several functions to perform:

It tells the reader what the paper is saying. It shows that the topic is relevant. It interests the readers and shows that the paper will meet their needs. It orients the readers to the rest of the paper. It establishes the credibility of the author.

How can a writer accomplish these aims? Some effective strategies include opening with a thought-provoking sentence that either supports or challenges a common assumption. Show how in this paper you will be developing an argument to defend your statement. Tell the reader why this is an important issue and how you will be proving your case. Through strong and confident writing convince them that your argument is worth reading.

Sections Each section should address a key part of your argument. There are two main strategies open to you. You can begin each section with a topic statement and then defend it with your evidence or you can build up your case piece by piece and then draw a conclusion. Different disciplines lean towards different styles.

Remember that each of your points needs to be backed up with well-documented evidence from your research. Each section also needs to be linked to the previous section and to the following section so that a reader is quite clear about how the argument is being developed. In a lengthy paper, connecting sentences help to orient readers. For example: In the previous section, the key role of the Treasurer in setting monetary policy was established. In this section, the role of banks is explored.

Be sure to balance your treatment of topics. If topics are of equal value in the argument, they should appear equal through the number of pages devoted to them and the depth of the research.

Conclusion The function of a conclusion is to bring the paper together so that the reader is satisfied. It should affirm that the thesis has been defended and the objectives met. The key points are often summarised. As a rule of thumb, you should not introduce any new material in the conclusions section. The tone should be confident, the concluding statement memorable.

Case Study 11.4

Extracts from an essay on leadership

Introduction A leader is described by the Oxford English dictionary as one who leads or conducts; a commander; leading article. Leadership itself has a much broader scope of meanings relating to personal characteristics and the methods a leader may employ to attain various functions at a particular point in time. To achieve effective leadership the appropriate personal characteristics of the leader must be consolidated with his functions. This consolidation should be directed towards achieving the desired aims of the group or organisation with whom the leader is working. Conclusion Leadership is not merely concerned with the performance of the task-function of a leader. It consolidates this role with the adaptation of the leaders personal characteristics to fulfill the expectations of his followers. For leadership to be effective, the leader and his followers must work in harmony to achieve the desired results.

Discussion 1. Read the extracts and comment on their effectiveness 2. Discuss the purpose of an introduction 3. Discuss the purpose of a conclusion 4. What is the relationship of the conclusion to the introduction? 5. .Suggest any improvements or alterations that you think may be necessary

References or bibliography Details on the format and procedures for references are provided earlier in this chapter. At this point, it is appropriate to discuss the function of references in an essay.

Your lecturers will consult your bibliography to assess the quality and extent of your research. They will note the number of references that you cite within the text of the paper. They are assessing how well you have synthesised the work of others into your own work and how you have supported your own arguments with published evidence. Referencing techniques facilitate this assessment.

Readers who are serious researchers will immediately consult your bibliography to

note the authors whose work is familiar to them and to see if there are new or interesting works for them to read. They rely on your citations to check the thread of your argument and to read further if they wish to extend an idea. Be careful not to mislead your readers by providing irrelevant texts in your bibliography. As part of a community of scholars, you strive to make your referencing accurate to help other researchers.

Referencing also gives tribute to all of the scholars who have contributed to your

growing knowledge. It is a simple way of thanking them for their efforts to publish their

ideas so that they can be shared and extended by others. It also gives them some small reward for their work.

Title The title is the ultimate summary of your paper. It should be as informative as possible. It should give a clear indication of the topic and the content. Avoid being wordy or cute. Humorous titles may provide some respite to beleaguered teachers, but the price in credibility may be too high. Headings Most academic work requires writers to choose appropriate headings to describe the contents of each section of their composition. However, each discipline area has its own conventions about the use of subheadings. The function of headings and subheadings is to guide readers through your document, helping them to see the overall structure, and identifying where they might find specific parts of your discussion. In a long document, these headings and subheadings become a table of contents. They make reading easier because they provide visual cues regarding the contents of each section and they also provide visual rest spots that refresh a reader. The headings may also be supplemented with identifying numbers or letters. (See Exhibit 13.7, page 352, for example.)

First draft of the essay Most academic essays need at least two drafts, perhaps more. You will find that there can be substantial differences in the assessment and feedback comments made by your lecturers to first drafts of essays that you have submitted, and the feedback to essays that have been through two or three drafts. Refer to Chapter 11 for suggestions for revising and editing.

Think about the revision process as a learning process. Each revision helps you to become more connected to your topic and more articulate in expressing your own ideas. Your voice becomes stronger and more confident with each draft. The essay in final form The evolution of your drafts gives you confidence in the essay you will hand in. When you have written the final product, use the following checklist.

Checklist for academic essays 1 Does the essay clearly meet the requirements of the set assignment? Have you

addressed these requirements in the introduction, expanded on them in the body and confirmed them in the conclusion?

2 Is there any material that needs to be eliminated? Perhaps it is repetitious or irrelevant? Interesting or unusual pieces of information are not always pertinent to the main question. Too many diversions will distract the reader from the main point.

3 Have you shown the importance of each issue raised and related it logically to the rest of the material? Careful attention to paragraph planning and development will result in your work being read smoothly and coherently.

4 Wherever you present any specific evidence, do you indicate what it proves and make direct statements so that the reader can understand this?

5 Have you offered interpretations of information rather than merely stated it? If you have discussed any contradictions between different writers or within the one authors work, have you explained your reasons for doing so? Have you offered an opinion or assessment as to which may be better?

6 Have you been scrupulous in acknowledging all sources of information, whether as quotations or as paraphrasing? In other words are you quite guiltless of plagiarism?

7 Are you satisfied with the style and presentation of your paper? Are there errors in expression, sentence structure or paragraphing? Does the introduction command attention and develop interest? Is each idea presented in a balanced and logical fashion? Have you provided linking comments to guide your reader? Do the closing paragraphs tie the essay together and clearly state the conclusions that have been reached? Have you highlighted the importance of these conclusions and satisfied your reader?

8 Have you paid close attention to presentation instructions given on the assignment sheet? These are likely to be different from one situation to another.

9 Most universities have a style manual that provides instructions for students on line spacing, margins and font sizes. Common sense suggests that an assignment should be neatly printed on one side of standard paper in a font size that is easy to read. It is wise to have margins that allow for binding in a folder and for comments from the marker.

Other academic genres Reports are discussed in depth in Chapter 13. In this chapter we will briefly discuss several other common academic writing tasks.

Literature review Literature reviews are sometimes set as independent assignments, but most often they form the introductory sections of longer research projects and theses. The objective of a literature review is to demonstrate familiarity with the work of significant authors in your topic area. It helps to show that you know the established theories or research and can analyse and critique them. They are focused compositions because you are investigating a research question that you have identified.

In your literature review you are expected to show both the consistent themes that run through all the texts, and also the divergent viewpoints. You should try to identify areas that have not been sufficiently covered by other authors or areas of controversy. These gaps in knowledge form the basis for further research.

The way that you analyse the published literature demonstrates both your research skills and your professional competence. Question whether the author has clearly defined their topic and constructed a valid argument. Is their research valid and reliable? Is their viewpoint objective? Is their writing professional? Is the paper in a reputable publication?

The review is written in a discursive style, and you may choose different ways to approach the task. You may want to present the evidence and draw conclusions. You may want to pose a problem and draw from your literature to suggest a solution. You may want to use the literature to argue your thesis statement. (We discuss the thesis statement in the next section.)

The composition should be organised into themes that you have chosen to develop your argument. It is not considered good form to begin each paragraph with the name of an author and their assertions. Instead you should make a topic statement and show how the authors work supports or contests it.

An annotated bibliography is an outline form of literature review. Each item is presented and a brief analysis follows. You could group your literature into nominated sections.

Thesis A thesis is a major work usually undertaken at postgraduate level but also at the conclusion of undergraduate work or honours programs. It is a document that gives evidence of substantial research and scholarship in a specific discipline. There are usually quite stringent guidelines for the completion of theses, so in this section we will give only an overview, so that you will understand what is expected when you begin thesis work.

A thesis expands on a thesis statement or hypothesis. These are statements or assertions that the writer investigates and defends through systematic research and clear and logical argument. A thesis statement generally consists of two parts: the identification of your topic and what you are saying about your topic. The OWL website at Purdue University in the USA (owl.english.purdue.edu) is one of the many good online writing sites. It suggests that in an analytical thesis statement you need to show what you are analysing, the component parts and your approach to the analysis. If you are explaining a process, be sure to outline the categories you are examining. If you are arguing, clearly state your claim or assertion. Defining a clear thesis statement is an ongoing process. The one you write at the beginning of your research may be refined and revised periodically throughout your writing.

Both processes of researching the topic and arguing the positions are critical in assessing the quality of a thesis. A student needs to show that they have critically analysed the relevant literature in their topic area and synthesised the viewpoints into a theme that is pertinent to their thesis. They should develop and execute a research plan to support the existing knowledge they discovered in the literature with some new knowledge gleaned through experimentation, interviews, case studies or observations. They then analyse the results of this research and draw conclusions that provide us with a new insight into the topic. They may suggest areas that could be explored by the next generation of researchers. Chapter 5 gives a detailed discussion of research techniques.

The writing style for theses also varies from discipline to discipline. Some fields require short, crisp sentences while others prefer well-developed and eloquent prose. However, in all areas each paragraph develops an idea and leads on to the next idea. Each word is chosen because it has a specific function to perform. The writing is precise, polished and professional.

Poster Posters have become a common way to present the results of research work at conferences and seminars and also for assessment at university or college. A poster is like a mini-paper with the emphasis on mini. It presents a clear, succinct and precise summary of the project that can be read by a wide audience in a short period of time.

The format of poster presentations varies according to the requirements of the conference or assignment and the logistics of the venue where they will be displayed. At

a conference, posters are often displayed in a well-frequented space. Participants can peruse the posters at their own rate to familiarise themselves with the research. At nominated times, the authors may stand by their posters to answer questions and discuss their work. During this time, the presenters may be permitted to have an e-poster as well as their traditional poster, and they can have additional material available on a computer to show interested viewers. Sometimes, the authors will also present a very brief summary as an oral presentation during the conference.

Since the viewers need to be able to get an overview of the research project quickly and frequently from a distance, posters need to be carefully designed. A poster should contain the following information:

a title the authors name, affiliation and contact details a summary of the work some explanatory text diagrams, photos and other graphic material.

Some additional material could be included, such as:

models, exhibits, objects audiovisual displays take-away handouts (the summary or a CV) a container filled with business cards. Posters should also have considerable visual appeal. They need to be conceptually

appreciated from a distance of two metres, so the font should be at least 20 points and bold. The sections of the poster need to be arranged so that the sequence of reading is obvious, important details are highlighted, and details simplified.

Simplicity is the key to a successful poster. Keep your message as simple as possible. Ask yourself key questions and then design your poster to clearly and simply answer those key questions. Consider which medium best satisfies the needs of the message. Is a picture worth more than a thousand words? Is a graph or table a more efficient way to summarise your data? Which colours are most appropriate?

Use headlines and pointers to focus attention on key points. Graphics should probably take up more than half of the poster. Readers eyes should be directed through the poster in a natural progression. Guide them across rows and down columns. You can use arrows, hands, numbers or lines to help keep the viewers on track.

The text should be clear and concise. Short simple sentences are preferred. Use as little technical jargon as possible. Remember that others may not be expert in your field of research but may be interested in your findings for their own work.

The size of posters varies and you would probably be given explicit instructions from the conference organisers. It is usually best to keep to a standard size and consider the logistics of transporting the poster to the exhibition venue. Some authors seek help from graphic designers, but anyone should be able to prepare a reasonable poster. Posters can also be quite expensive, so students usually need to consider economical ways to present their work.

We have presented a sample of a poster layout in Exhibit 11.3 on the following page; however, you should use your imagination to design and create a poster that presents

your work in an impressive way. It is important to satisfy the criteria of the exhibition or assignment as well as highlight the key elements of your research. EXHIBIT 11.3 Typical layout of poster

Case studies Case studies are frequently used to help students see how theories operate in practice. By examining a story about an example organisation or incident, and being sure to include the details that are specifically relevant to the theories being studied, students can more easily understand the implications of applying their academic work in other contexts. As a student you may be asked to analyse a case that has been written by an academic, or you may be required to present your own case study of a typical or nominated organisation or event.

Case studies provide an opportunity to demonstrate that you can apply what you have learned throughout your studies to challenges you probably have not met firsthand. Because case studies are presented as narratives, you can role-play the different characters who are making decisions and feel their worry, confusion, determination and confidence. As a classroom activity, cases help students to appreciate different points of view and different ways to approach and solve problems. Often case studies are analysed by syndicates who exhaustively work through case problems and then report orally to a larger group.

An assignment set by your lecturer or tutor will often provide guidelines about how to write your case analysis, but there are also some generic suggestions to ensure that you achieve a high standard. Dont forget the basics of introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction should provide an overview of the case and show how you will analyse it. Each section of the body should concisely but comprehensively analyse the relevant issues under review. The conclusion should summarise the key issues and draw these together into a summary statement. If appropriate, you should make clear recommendations drawn from the evidence presented in the case. It is wise to ensure that these recommendations are well written and presented in a logical order, because they demonstrate your ability to make decisions based on careful analysis and your command of the underpinning theories.

Reflective journals

As a student you may be asked to reflect on an experience and submit that reflection as an assignment. This presents a challenge to both you and your teacher in identifying what makes a good reflection, what you should think about and how you should write it.

Reflection is part of the learning process. We have an experience, we reflect on it, draw some tentative theories about what occurred and what we could do to improve our performance. We then test those theories in action, and the learning cycle continues. So in a reflection we should be trying to make sense of the diverse issues we have observed. We are trying to relate what we already know to a new context or to new information. We are trying to think outside the square, being sure that we consider broad contextual issues as well as key technical issues.

Questioning is a fundamental activity in reflection. Why did a person react in a given way? Who were the leaders in an activity? When did things start to go wrong? What was the context for the event and how did it affect the outcome? Why was I angry, upset, determined or convinced?

A reflective journal is a useful tool to enhance your own learning. It is particularly helpful to students during internships or other unstructured learning experiences because it demands that you document your thinking in a somewhat structured way. As a general rule of thumb, the structure for a reflection is first to provide an overview of the experience, then detail key issues under review, relate the known to the unknown and draw conclusions. It is appropriate to write reflections in the first person, and while you are expected to examine your emotions and feelings, it is not considered appropriate to record defamatory comments about others. Conclusion As we take on different responsibilities in our lives, we are challenged to develop the writing skills that are appropriate for those roles. To succeed in tertiary study, we need to learn the writing conventions that are appropriate for the different discipline areas and fields of study. As we advance in our academic work, we are expected to refine and extend our writing skills so that we can become competent academic communicators. Comments on Case Studies

Case Study 11.1 Model Essay There are many on-line essay services offering model essays on almost any topic. It is interesting to compare the quality of these essays and to discuss which are effective and which are not. It is also a good opportunity to discuss issues of plagiarism and academic conduct. Each web-site deals with these issues differently and a comparison of their approach to academic honesty is a good foundation for some lively discussion.

Case Study 11.2 Concept Map For the concept map, we would suggest a number of themes that could justifiably be

explored. Here are some:

If Australia speeds up its export drive, the nation can look forward to becoming an equal trading partner with the great powers.

Australias creative talent, resources and world situation make export an important growth factor for the next 50 years.

Australias economic problems require a renewed and successful export drive in the areas of primary and secondary products, as well as service industries and the arts.

With the rapid growth of Asian economies, Australia is well placed to find niche markets in the East.

There are many more potential themes, and any one of them is sufficient to drive an interesting discussion. Notice that all the themes weve isolated are assertions suitable for an argument, capable of being supported by evidence. In fact, most tertiary writing is argument, and therefore logic-driven.

Case Study 11.3 Notes These notes are a form of brainstorming that is a common approach to gathering ideas for essays. It is interesting to discuss the differences between concept maps and this type of textual idea mapping and to determine which methods different writers prefer.

This case study also tests our ability to organize material into a logical order. A useful approach is to read through the entire list and determine the major issues and sub-topics to those issues. Some of the topics may not seem appropriate and may be discarded. At this point, it would be wise to determine the thesis statement what is the main message of the essay. Then the topics can be arranged in an order that addresses this thesis.

Case Study 11.4 - Extracts The opening sentence plays an important role in any written communication, and it should convince a reader that the paper will be interesting and relevant. While it is important to define terms, the choice of dictionary signals the level sophistication of the management of the topic. In tertiary work, terms are usually dealt with in a context, such as management, science, commerce and the meaning is affected by contextual issues.

The links between introductions and conclusions need to be clear. The introduction shows what the essay is about and the conclusion should clearly indicate that the essay has achieved the goals set in the introduction.

Discussion questions and exercises

1. Exhibits 11.x and 11.y below present additional examples of introductory and concluding paragraphs from student essays. Keep in mind the following:

the purpose of an introduction the purpose of a conclusion the relationship of the conclusion to the introduction.

Read the extracts and comment on their effectiveness. Suggest any improvements or alterations that you think may be necessary.

EXHIBIT 11.x

Extract from an essay on the principles of good communication in business correspondence

Introduction A good business letter is efficient and pleasant in conveying its message. This is extremely difficult to achieve since a combination of the major elements of good business correspondence, such as efficiency, pleasantness and clear and concise meaning, require detailed planning. The manner of the correspondence must be suitable with respect to the information being conveyed and the person or persons to whom it is directed. Different types of business correspondence require varied formats and wordings. They are dependent on the nature of the message being transmitted. Conclusion Clear, attractive presentation and the use of effective language are the most important parts of good business correspondence. Skilful use of grammar and tone may also create the desired impression on the reader. A brief, simple, well-presented summary is far more effective than a longwinded report on the same material.

EXHIBIT 11.y

Extract from an essay on the techniques of persuasive communication their application and dangers in business

Introduction Persuasive communication in business is practised in all areas of operation. It is practised within the organisation itself and in dealings with the economy generally. The objectives to be achieved range from encouraging interdepartmental cooperation to projecting a stable image or attracting sales for the companys products or services. Whatever its objectives in communicating, the organisation is operating in a specialised area that requires the services of qualified personnel in the same way engineers are necessary for the technical operation of a plant. Conclusion The communication of objectives and information cannot be effectively achieved if channels do not exist to facilitate such communication. These channels in turn cannot be used to their maximum effect unless positive efforts are made to maintain and encourage their use. An organisation will not develop communication facilities either within itself or with its public unless conscious steps are made to provide these within the organisation. Public relations therefore exist to safeguard the communication links of an organisation. Business must realise that effective communication cannot be assumed. It will occur only when it as been preceded by thorough planning and full consideration of all relevant information. The role of public relations is to facilitate these processes.

2. Read the following list of topics which have been set for a major essay of 1500 words. Each topic is general and covers a broad area.

Choose one of these topics, narrow it down and select and define one aspect: interviewing

globalisation medicine and technology communication breakdowns intercultural communication censorship modern propaganda mass communication Australian popular culture communication technology.

3. Brainstorm the topic to see as many different perspectives as possible. i. Choose one aspect that interests you.

4. Find at least three books, three journal articles and three websites on that aspect of the topic.

5. Outline one approach to writing an essay or research paper on the topic.

6. Write an introductory paragraph. Write a conclusion which shows you achieved your aim.

7. Prepare a correct bibliography. 8. Complete the essay; be sure to reference accurately throughout.

9. Select three articles from professional journals and present critical evaluations, keeping in mind the following guidelines:

a. Are ideas organised and developed logically? b. Are the main themes emphasised? c. What is the effect of technical terminology? d. Are statements expressed clearly and coherently? e. Do the authors arrive at the main point as quickly as possible? f. Is the information presented in an authoritative manner? g. What is the overall tone of each of the articles? Personal? Impersonal? h. Is the writing reader-oriented? Why or why not? i. How effective and appropriate is the overall vocabulary usage and sentence

structure? j. Is there a difference in style between the journals?

References and further reading

Barrass, R. 2002, Scientists must write: a guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students, Routledge, London.

Bate, D. & Sharpe, P. 1996, Writers handbook for university students, Harcourt Brace, Sydney.

Berkman, R. I. 2000, Find it fast: how to uncover expert information on any subject, 5th edn, Harper Resource, New York.

Bjork, L. & Raisanen, C. 1997, Academic writing: a university writing course, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden.

Crme, P. 2003, Writing at university: a guide for students, Open University Press, Philadelphia.

Kreml, N. M. 2001, The users guide to college writing: reading, analyzing, and writing, Longman, New York.

Littlejohn, S. W. 1992, Theories of human communication, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Infotrac Terms

Academic writing Essays Thesis Plagiarism Case Studies

Websites college.hmco.com/business/resources/casestudies/students/writing.htm freemind.sourceforge.net owl.english.purdue.edu/owl ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/asl/guides/bio/posters.html www.star.uts.edu.au www.utoronto.ca/writing/litrev.html