CHONG WAH KIAT - eprints.utm.myeprints.utm.my/id/eprint/257/1/ChongWahKiatMFKE2006.pdf · line 900 hybrid coupler lumped element 900 coupler and 1800 rat race coupler. The The purpose

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ACTIVE INTEGRATED ANTENNA WITH IMAGE REJECT MIXER

CHONG WAH KIAT

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

iii

To my parents and girlfriend, with love

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Mohamad Kamal

Bin A. Rahim who helped me throughout my project by guiding me in preparing my

project and providing me with necessary ideas and suggestions in improving my project.

I am grateful to all my seniors which are Mr. Haizal, Mr. Openg and Mr. Thelaha

who unconditionally provides me with guidance, suggestions and support in every

possible aspects during the execution of the project.

Special gratitude goes to my beloved Lynette Er Juok See for the moment spent

with me inspiring ideas as well as in the form of support along the way to carry out the

study.

Last but not least, my heartfelt appreciation goes to all friends who have or

indirectly contributed in completing this study.

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ABSTRACT

Active integrated antenna (AIA) with image reject mixer (IRM ) operating at

licenseless frequency of 2.4 GHz and intermediate frequency (IF) of 50 MHz is proposed.

The opted IF of 50 MHz proves to yield satisfactory result in previous rather similar

work. In this work, IRM is integrated with microstrip patch antenna on the similar

substrate to attain size, weight and cost reduction. The suitable substrate that serves as the

common platform for all integral components is FR-4 with dielectric constant of 4.7 and

thickness of 1.6mm. This AIA with IRM employs at different phase manipulation

approach from that of the previous research in which the RF signal from the antenna feed

is initially fed to an 1800 rat race coupler instead of a 900 coupler. Practically, this system

is able to achieve image suppression with an isolation of approximately 20 dB between

the image and desired frequency with 7 dBm LO drive at 2.35 GHz. The method of

moment (MoM) and lumped circuit element simulation using Agilent’s ADS software are

employed in this work. The integral components of AIA with IRM consist of microstrip

2-elements patch antenna, singly balanced schottky diode mixers, low pass filter, branch-

line 900 hybrid coupler lumped element 900 coupler and 1800 rat race coupler. The

purpose and significance of this research emerge from the disadvantages that

superheterodyne receiver presents in achieving image suppression. Relatively, IRM can

reasonably suppress image at a lower size, weight, complexity and cost by means of

phase cancellation. The design of AIA with IRM requires the achievement of balance

between several inevitable design trade-offs involved. Generally, the trade-offs in this

design are between size, simplicity and performance.

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ABSTRAK

Antenna padat (AIA) dengan penghapus frekuensi bayang(AIA with IRM) telah

dicadangkan dengan frekuensi kendalian 2.4 GHz iaitu frekuensi tanpa lesen. Frekuensi

pertengahan (IF) sebanyak 50 MHz yang dipilih membuktikan menghasilkan keputusan

yang memuaskan pada kajian-kajian lepas. Dalam kajian ini, IRM digabungkan dengan

antenna jalur pada substrat yang sama untuk mencapai pengurangan saiz, keberatan dan

kos. Substrat yang dipilih merupakan FR-4 yang mempunyai pemalar dielektrik 4.5 dan

ketebalan 1.6 mm. Antenna padat dengan penghapus frekuensi bayang memanipulasi fasa

dengan cara yang berlainan daripada yang digunakan dalam kajian-kajian lepas di mana

isyarat radio dialurkan ke penggading 1800 terlebih dahulu dan bukannya penggading

900. Secara praktikal, sistem ini berupaya mencapai penghapusan bayang dengan isolasi

sebanyak lebih kurang 20 dB di antara frekuensi bayang dan frekuensi yang dikehendaki

dengan pemacuan LO sebanyak 7 dBm pada 2.35 GHz. Simulasi secara momen (MoM)

dan elemen litar menggunakan perisian ADS dari Agilent. Komponen gabungan bagi

projek ini ialah antenna microstrip 2-elemen, penggabung, penapis laluan rendah dan

penggading 900 , penggading 900 unsur tergumpal dan penggading 1800. Haluan dan

kepentingan bagi kajian ini adalah susulan kelemahan yang dipamerkan oleh penerima

superheterodyne dalam mencapai penghapusan frekuensi baying. Penghapus frekuensi

bayang boleh mencapai penghapusan bayang pada kos, keberatan, kompleksiti dan size

yang lebih rendah. Perekaan antenna padat dengan IRM (AIA with IRM) memerlukan

pencapaian keseimbangan antara beberapa kelemahan dan kebaikan. Secara keseluruhan,

keseimbangan antara kebaikan dan keburukan bagi projek ini adalah antara saiz,

keringkasan dan prestasi.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF TABLES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES xix

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Statement and Background of Problem 3

1.3 Objective 4

1.4 Scope of Project 4

1.5 Organization of Thesis 5

1.6 Summary 7

2 ACTIVE INTEGRATED ANTENNA 8

2.1 Introduction 8

2.2 Types of AIA 9

2.2.1 Oscillator Type 9

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2.2.2 Amplifier Type 10

2.2.3 Frequency Conversion Type 10

2.3 Microstrip Antenna 11

2.4 Summary 13

3 TYPES OF RECEIVER 14

3.1 Introduction 14

3.2 Image Frequency 14

3.3 Direct Conversion Receiver (DCR) 16

3.4 Superheterodyne Receiver 17

3.5 Image Reject Mixers (IRM) 19

3.5.1 Hartley Architecture 19

3.5.2 Weaver Architecture 21

3.5.3 Basic IRM 24

3.6 Summary 26

4 AIA WITH IRM SUBSYSTEMS 27

4.1 Mixer 27

4.1.1 Introduction 28

4.1.2 Conversion Loss 29

4.1.3 Noise Figure 29

4.1.4 Port-to-Port Isolation 29

4.1.5 Image Rejection Ratio (IRR) 31

4.2 Antenna 33

4.2.1 Characteristic Impedance 33

4.2.2 Reflection Coefficient 33

4.2.3 VSWR and Return Loss (RL) 34

4.2.4 Radiation Pattern 35

4.2.5 HPBW 37

4.2.6 Bandwidth 37

4.2.7 Polarization 38

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4.3 Summary 39

5 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 40

5.1 System Description 40

5.2 Design Flow Chart 43

5.2.1 General Design Flow Chart 43

5.2.2 2-Elements Patch Antenna Design 45

5.2.3 1800 Rat Race Coupler Design 49

5.2.4 900 Coupler Design 52

5.2.5 Lumped Element Low Pass Filter 55

Design

5.2.6 Lumped Element 900 Coupler 58

Design

5.2.7 AIA with IRM Design 62

5.3 Design and Selection of AIA with IRM 69

integral parts

5.3.1 2-Elements Patch Antenna 69

5.3.1.1 Substrate Selection 69

5.3.1.2 Element Width and Length 71

5.3.1.3 Position of Inset Feed 73

5.3.2 Mixer 76

5.3.3 Local Oscillator (LO) 78

5.3.4 Low Pass Filter (LPF) 79

5.3.5 900 Hybrid Coupler 82

5.3.6 1800 Rat Race Coupler 85

5.3.7 Lumped Element 900 Coupler 86

5.4 Gantt Chart 88

5.5 Summary 89

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6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 90

6.1 2-Elements Patch Antenna 90

6.1.1 Layout Dimensions 90

6.1.2 Return Loss 93

6.1.3 Radiation Pattern 95

6.2 900 Hybrid Coupler 98


6.1.2 S Parameters 102

6.3 1800 Rat Race Coupler 106



6.4 Lumped Element Low Pass Filter 108

6.4.1 Insertion Loss 109

6.5 Lumped Element 900 Coupler 110


6.6 AIA with IRM 112

6.6.1 Simulated Result 113

6.6.1.1 When 2.3 GHz 113

6.6.1.2 When 2.4 GHz 120

6.6.2 Measured Result 127

6.6.2.1 When 2.3 GHz 127

6.6.2.2 When 2.4 GHz is 129

6.7 Summary 132

7 CONCLUSION 133

7.1 Conclusion 133

7.2 Proposed Future Works 136

7.3 Summary 136

REFERENCES 137

Appendices A-B 140-153

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Microstrip antenna configuration 12

3.1 Superheterodyne receiver 18

3.2 Hartley architecture 21

3.3 Weaver architecture 22

3.4 Graphical analysis of Weaver architecture 23

3.5 Problem of secondary image 23

in Weaver architecture

3.6 Basic IRM circuit 24

4.1(a) Three-dimensional antenna radiation 36

polar pattern

4.2(b) Two-dimensional antenna radiation pattern 37

5.1 AIA with IRM 40

5.2(a) Part I of design flow chart 44

5.2(b) Part II of design flow chart 44

5.3 2-elements patch antenna design flow chart 46

5.4 Illustration of the W, L and 50 ohm position of 47

the inset feed of a rectangular patch antenna

5.5 Illustration of the half wavelength 50 ohm 47

microstrip cascading line

5.6 Illustration of the quarter wavelength 50 ohm 48

Microstrip extension line

5.7 Fabricated 2-elements patch antenna 48

5.8 1800 rat race coupler design flow chart 50

5.9 Illustration of the W of ring and feeds and radius 50

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of ring

5.10 1800 rat race coupler with output ports extended 51

Equally

5.11 Fabricated 1800 rat race coupler 51

5.12 900 coupler design flow chart 53

5.13 900 coupler 53

5.14 The three 900 couplers with input and output 54

ports extended equally

5.15 Fabricated 900 couplers 54

5.16 Lumped element low pass filter design 56

flow chart

5.17 Lumped element low pass filter with optimally 56

tuned values

5.18 Lumped element low pass filter with 57

approximated values

5.19 Fabricated lumped element low pass filter 57

5.20 Lumped element 900 coupler design flow chart 59

5.21 Optimally tuned lumped element 900 coupler 59

5.22 Approximated values lumped element 900 coupler 60

5.23 Fabricated lumped element 900 coupler 61

5.24 AIA with IRM design flow chart 64

5.25 Singly balanced mixer configuration 65

5.26 Simulated return loss at RF, LO and IF ports of 65

singly balanced mixer

5.27 VTO-8150 Power Output, Frequency and 66

Modulation Sensitivity vs Tuning Voltage

5.28 Typical conversion loss vs local oscillator power 66

of HSMS-8101 Schottky mixer diode

5.29 MixerIMT component 67

5.30 4-ports S-parameters file data item 67

5.31 Circuitry of AIA with IRM 68

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5.32 Fabricated AIA with IRM 68

5.33(a) Variation of normalized input resistance when 75

Moving from y=0 to y=L

5.33(b) Rectangular patch antenna 75

5.34 HSMS-8101 Schottky mixer diode selection 78

Factors

5.35 VTO-8150 selection factors 79

5.36 Dimension of 900 coupler 82

5.37 Lange coupler in layout microstrip form 83

5.38 A tapered coupled line 1800 coupler 86

5.49 Lumped element 900 coupler 87

5.40(a) Gantt chart for Sem I 88

5.40(b) Gantt chart for Sem II 88

6.1(a) Layout labels 92

6.1(b) Layout dimensions 92

6.2 Simulated return loss 94

6.3 Measured return loss 95

6.4(a) Simulated E-field radiation pattern 96

6.4(b) Simulated H-field radiation pattern 97

6.5(a) Measured E-field radiation pattern 97

6.5(b) Measured H-field radiation pattern 98

6.6(a) Circuit simulation element of 900 coupler 99

6.6(b) Layout dimensions of 900 coupler 100

6.7(a) 900 coupler for Schottky singly balanced mixer A 101

6.7(b) 900 coupler for Local Oscillator 101

6.7(c) 900 coupler for Schottky singly balanced mixer B 101

6.8(a) Schottky singly balanced mixer A 900 coupler 103

S parameter magnitudes versus frequency

6.8(b) Schottky singly balanced mixer A 900 coupler 103

S parameter phase versus frequency

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6.9(a) Local Oscillator 900 coupler S parameter 104

magnitudes versus frequency

6.9(b) Local Oscillator 900 coupler S parameter 104

phase versus frequency

6.10(a) Schottky singly balanced mixer B 900 coupler 105

S parameter magnitudes versus frequency

6.10(b) Schottky singly balanced mixer B 900 coupler 105

S parameter phase versus frequency

6.11 Layout label 106

6.12 S parameter magnitudes versus frequency for the 107

1800 rat race coupler

6.13 S parameter phase versus frequency for the 1800 108

rat race coupler

6.14 Lumped element low pass filter 108

6.15 S parameter magnitudes versus frequency for 109

lumped element low pass filter

6.16 Lumped element 900 coupler 110

6.17 S parameter magnitudes versus frequency for 111

the lumped element 900 coupler

6.18 S parameter phase versus frequency for the 111

lumped element 900 coupler

6.19 Circuitry of AIA with IRM 112

6.20 Fabricated AIA with IRM 113

6.21(a) Unfiltered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 114

branch A, VifA

6.21(b) Unfiltered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 114

branch B, VifB

6.22(a) Filtered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 115

branch A, ViffA

6.22(b) Filtered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 115

branch B, ViffB

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6.23(a) Filtered signal viewed from 10 MHz to 100 MHz 116

(before passing through the coupler) at

branch A, ViffA

6.23(b) Filtered signal viewed from 10 MHz to 100 MHz 116


branch B, ViffB

6.24(a) Signal after passing through lumped element 117

900 coupler at branch A, IFA

6.24(b) Signal after passing through lumped element 117

900 coupler at branch B, IFB

6.25(a) Filtered signal in time domain (before passing 118

through the coupler) at branch A, ViffA

6.25(b) Filtered signal in time domain (before passing 119

through the coupler) at branch B, ViffB

6.26(a) Signal after passing through lumped element 900 119

coupler in time domain at branch A, IFA

6.26(b) Signal after passing through lumped element 900 120

coupler in time domain at branch B, IFB

6.27(a) Filtered signal viewed from 10 MHz to 100 MHz 121


branch A, ViffA

6.27(b) Filtered signal viewed from 10 MHz to 100 MHz 121


branch B, ViffB





6.29(a) Filtered signal in time domain (before passing 123

through the coupler) at branch A, ViffA

6.29(b) Filtered signal in time domain (before passing 123

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through the coupler) at branch B, ViffB





6.31(a) Unfiltered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 125

branch A, VifA

6.31(b) Unfiltered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 125

branch B, VifB

6.32(a) Filtered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 126

branch A, ViffA

6.32(b) Filtered signal viewed from 0 to 5 GHz at 126

branch B, ViffB

6.33(a) Signal before passing through lumped element 900 128

coupler in time domain at branch A, ViffA


coupler in time domain at branch B, ViffB





6.35(a) Signal before passing through lumped element 900 130

coupler in time domain at branch A, ViffA


coupler in time domain at branch B, ViffB





xvii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

6.1 2-elements patch antenna layout dimensions 91

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADS - Advanced Design System

AIA - Active Integrated Antenna

AIA with IRM - Active Integrated Antenna with Image Reject Mixer

BW - Bandwidth

CAD - Computer Aided Design

DCR - Direct Conversion Receiver

dB - Decibel

GHz - Giga Hertz

IF - Intermediate Frequency

kHz - Kilo Hertz

L - Length

LAN - Local Area Network

LO - Local Oscillator

MHz - Mega Hertz

mm - millimeter 0C - degree Celcius 0K - degree Kelvin

R - Radius

RF - Radio Frequency

VTO - Voltage Tuned Oscillator

W - Width

Z0 - Characteristic Impedance

xix

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Varactor Tuned Oscillator 140

B Surface Mount Microwave Schottky 148

Mixer Diodes

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The terminology of “active integrated antenna” indicates specifically that

the passive antenna elements and the active circuitry are integrated on the same

substrate. Due to the mature technology of microwave integrated circuit (MIC)

and monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC), the active integrated

antenna (AIA) became an area of growing interest in recent years1. Incorporation

of active devices functions directly into active integrated antenna reduces the

size, weight, and cost of many microwave systems2.

Active integrated antenna can be categorized by the function of active

devices they integrate. Depending on the function of the active device, the active

integrated antennas can be categorized into the oscillator type, the amplifier type

and the frequency conversion type3, 4, 5, 6. An active integrated antenna is

classified as frequency conversion type when a microstrip antenna is integrated

with an active device for the intention of frequency translation.

In this work, Image Reject Mixer (IRM) is integrated with microstrip

patch antenna for the purpose of translating radio frequency (RF) to Intermediate

Frequency (IF) and provide isolation to two possible IF namely Upper Sideband

(USB) and Lower Sideband (LSB) in which USB or LSB might be the desired

2

frequency while the other one is the image frequency. Hence, active integrated

antenna (AIA) with Image Reject Mixer (IRM) can be categorized as frequency

conversion type active integrated antenna. The IF frequency chosen for this work

is 50 MHz which directly indicate that the LO frequency might be 2.35 GHz or

2.45 GHz depending on whether low or high side injection is utilized. The 2.35

GHz is the LO frequency of this work as low side injection is employed. The 50

MHz IF frequency is chosen with reference to several approximately similar IRM

work which prove to yield acceptable and good results by using this IF

frequency.

In heterodyne receiver, often, it is not practical to filter out the image

because the IF frequency is low, and the image is therefore too close to RF and

LO frequencies to filter out the image signal high-Q image-reject filter has to be

used between low noise amplifier (LNA) and mixer. The shortcomings of

utilizing external image-reject filter are increased cost, increased board area,

reduced reliability and increased weight7. Besides, double conversion is

employed in most of the superheterodyne receiver for better image suppression at

the expense of increased circuit complexity and cost As such, one cost effective

and practical way of rejecting image signal is to use IRM which remove the need

of external image-reject filter and one or more stages of up/down conversion8.

In this work, by integrating IRM with antenna, size reduction is achieved

by two means; the removal of space consuming external image-reject filter and

incorporation of IRM directly into active integrated antenna. Meanwhile, cost

reduction is achieved by removing the need of using external image-reject filter.

3

1.2 Statement and Background of the problem

In reducing the cost and the size of a communication system to meet the

growing demand in these aspect, active integrated antennas appear as one of the

ideal choices as they can reduce size, weight and cost of many communication

systems2. In this work, IRM is incorporated directly in AIA to achieve size,

weight and cost reduction. Moreover, using IRM instead of heterodyne

architecture which requires expensive and space-consuming external image-filter

has already served to reduce the cost and size.

In most of the previous research, IRM and antenna are two separate entity

connected via transmission line which consumes spaces and introduce losses.

J-M Mourant and S. Jurgiel9 has proposed a 6-18 GHz IRM that is

smaller and less expensive than the suspended stripline technology products. The

cost was reduced by designing a novel building blocks that could all coexist on a

single microstrip substrate. The whole IRM is put together and characterized.

P.B. Khannur and S.L Koh7 design a 2.45GHz IRM for Bluetooth

application using low-cost 0.35um, double-poly four-metal standarad CMOS

process with the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) capacitor option.

T.N. Ton, T.H. Chen, K.W. Chang, H. Wang, K.L. Tan, G.S. Dow, G.M.

Hayashibara, B. Allen and J. Berenz10 developed a W-band monolithic image

reject mixer utilizing pseudomorphic InGaAs/GaAs HEMT diodes. The

monolithic circuit integrated two single-balanced HEMT schottky diode mixers,

a W-band lange coupler, and a Wilkinson power divider on one chip.

The above-mentioned works share a common characteristic; there is no

direct integration with active integrated antenna which otherwise can further

reduce the size, cost and improve the performance.

4

1.3 Objective

To design, simulate and fabricate a compact Active Integrated Antenna

with Image Reject Mixer at RF of 2.4GHz and IF of 50MHz.

1.4 Scope of Project

The scope of this project comprises the design, simulation and fabrication

of a microstrip antenna integrated with image reject mixer (IRM). The integral

parts of IRM consist of 900 RF hybrids, local oscillator, low pass filters and

mixer. The frequency chosen is at 2.4GHz, which is of particular interest for

RFID application and wireless LAN. Besides, 2.4GHz frequency is chosen since

it is within the license free frequency bands, Industrial, Scientific and Medical

(ISM) bands. This design will be aided by simulation using Advance Design

System (ADS). Method of Moments (MoM) will be employed in executing the

simulation. A hierarchical approach will be used in this design. In other words,

the integral parts of the Image Reject Mixer Active Integrated Antenna (AIA

with IRM) will be designed, simulated and fabricated part by part at first before

integrating them onto one board. Mixer diodes and an oscillator with operating

frequency within 2.4GHz should be selected. This IRM AIA should be able to

detect 2.4GHz signal and isolate the two responses; upper sidebands (USB) and

lower sidebands (LSB) into separate output signals.

5

1.5 Organization of Thesis

This thesis is subsclassified into 7 chapters. Chapter I is introduction,

Chapter II is Active Integrated Antennas, Chapter III is Types Of Receiver,

Chapter IV is Elementary Parameters, Chapter V is Research Methodology,

Chapter VI is Preliminary Results and Discussions and lastly, Chapter VII is

conlcusion

Chapter I generally serves to introduce the problem and purpose of study.

Introduction consist of the basic issue of concern by indicating field of interest

which is active integrated antenna and image reject mixer with which the study is

associated.In statement and background of problem, the circumstances which

established the need and purpose of this research is presented on the basis of

referring to previous studies and researchs. The objective section defines the

specific research objectives. Last but not least, scope of project describes the

work and relevant issues or element covered in this project.

Chapter II serve to provide explanation on active integrated antenna and

the types of AIA associated with it which leads to define the category that this

design (AIA with IRM) falls in. Also, the advantages of microstrip antenna over

conventional antenna and its inherent limitation is covered which leads to the

reasoning behind choosing microstrip antenna

Chapter III provides discussion on the type of receiver available to

address image problem with definition on image frequency as the starter.

Superheterodyne receiver is revised with main discussion on the weaknesses of

superheterodyne receiver in suppressing image that prove IRM worthy of note.

Subsequent discussion on IRM begins with the long-well-known Hartley and

Weaver architecture before proceding to the more contemporary common basic

IRM.

6

Chapter IV touch on the related subsystem namely the regarding

parameters that ought to be given attention such as return loss of antenna and

conversion loss of mixers. This chapter is mainly categorized to elementary

parameters associated with mixer and antenna.

A discussion of the research design, method and procedures used is

provided in this chapter. It discusses on the how the project is implemented by

means of flow chart illustration. In this chapter, the block diagram of this system

is included which serve as a guide to the following discussion. Design

methodology of the integral parts of AIA and IRM is explained a step-by-step

approach. Also, selection methodology is discussed with the relevant factors

included. Nevertheless, Gantt chart is presented to show the general steps taken

in semester I and II.

Chapter VI present the results achieved and its corresponding discussion.

In this context, the layout dimensions and relevant circuit of the integral parts as

well as the whole system is presented. The integral parts or susbsystems of the

AIA with IRM are 2-elements patch antenna, 900 hybrid coupler, 1800 rat race

coupler, lumped element low pass filter are lumped element 900 coupler. The

simulation and measurement results are discussed for each and every integral part

before proceeding to the discussion on the final results achieved by the AIA with

IRM.

Finally in Chapter VII, presentation of the conclusions drawn from the

findings gathered and work done is focused. The conclusions is discussed

according to the studies and work done. And, few proposed future works are

make for future improvement of the project

7

1.6 Summary

This chapter generally serves to introduce the problem and

purpose of study. Introduction consist of the basic issue of concern by indicating

field of interest which is active integrated antenna and image reject mixer with

which the study is associated. In statement and background of problem, the

circumstances which established the need and purpose of this research is

presented on the basis of referring to previous studies and researchs. The

objective section defines the specific research objectives. Last but not least, scope

of project describes the work and relevant issues or element covered in this

project.

137

REFERENCES

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