149

China Profile (as of 1997)

1. Total Area of Territory: 9 600 000 square kilometres

2. Administrative Divisions:

� Four municipalities directly under central administration: Beijing, Tianjin,Shanghai and Chongqing

� Twenty two provinces: Hebei, Shanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang,Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Auhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Shandong, Henan, Hubei,Hunan, Guangdong, Hainan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Gansuand Qinghai

� Five autonomous regions: Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Tibet, Ningxia andXinjiang

� One special administrative region: Hong Kong

3. Population:

� Total population: 1 236 260 000� Sex composition: male 631 310 000 (51.07%); female 604 950 000 (48.93%)� Rural–urban division: urban population 369 890 000 (29.92%), rural popu-

lation 866 370 000 (70.08%)� Birth rate: 16.57 per thousand� Death rate: 6.51 per thousand� Natural growth rate: 10.06 per thousand

4. Economy:

� Gross National Product (GNP): 7345 250 million yuan� Gross Domestic Product (GDP): 7 477 240 million yuan� Per capita GDP: 6079 yuan� GDP composition: primary industry 18.7%, secondary industry 49.2%,

tertiary industry 32.1%� Total volume of exports: 1 515 280 million yuan� Total volume of imports: 1 180 580 million yuan� Trade balance: 334 700 million yuan

5. People’s Livelihood:

� Per capita annual net income of rural household: 2090.1 yuan� Per capita annual disposable income of urban household: 5160.3 yuan� Annual average wages of staff and workers: 6470 yuan� Annual per capita consumption: 2936 yuan (1930 yuan for agricultural

residents and 6048 yuan for non-agricultural residents)� Balance of savings deposit of rural and urban residents: 4 627 980 million

yuan (3762.36 yuan per capita)

6. Labour:

� Number of people employed: 696 million people� Employment composition: primary industry 49.9%, secondary industry

23.7% and tertiary industry 26.4%; urban 202 070 000 (29.03%), rural493 930 000 (70.97%)

� Number of urban registered unemployed: 5 700 000� Unemployment rate: 3.1%

7. Education:

� Number of schools: 1020 regular institutions of higher education, 92 832secondary schools, 628 840 primary schools

� Number of students enrolled: institutions of higher education 3 174 000,secondary schools 69 952 000, primary schools 139 954 000

� Number of full-time teachers: institutions of higher education 405 000,secondary schools 4 186 000, primary schools 5 794 000

� Students per teacher: institutions of higher education 7.8, secondaryschools 16.7, primary schools 24.2

8. Health:

� Number of health institutions: 315 033 (67 911 hospitals)� Number of beds: 3 135 000 (2 903 000 hospital beds)� Number of hospital beds per 1000 population: 2.35� Number of personnel engaged: 5 516 000 (1 985 000 doctors)� Number of doctors per 1000 population: 1.61

9. Welfare:

� Number of social welfare institutions: 42 385� Number of beds: 1 031 022� Number of people housed: 785 199� Number of social welfare enterprises: 55 509� Total amount of social welfare and relief funds: 10 774 960 000 yuan

(4 617 100 000 yuan from the government and 6 157 860 000 yuan fromthe collective)

10. Housing:

� Per capita floor space of residential buildings: rural areas 22.4 squaremetres, urban areas 8.8 square metres

� Building construction: 1286.8 million square metres under construction,622.44 million square metres completed

11. Currency:

� 1 yuan�0.122699 US dollar

Source: State Statistical Bureau (1998) China Statistical Yearbook 1998, Beijing:China Statistical Publishing House.

150 Profile

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161

adjusters 4All-China Federation of Trade Unions

32American International Assurance

Company 59Amity Foundation 53Anhui 20Anshan Iron and Steel Corporation

15army demobilization 35Asian Development Bank 75, 145Association for the Handicapped 19Association of Young Chinese

Volunteers 53Australasia 145

Ball, S.J. 89, 90bankruptcy 21, 81‘barefoot doctors’ 66, 75Beijing 18, 20, 29, 36

health policy reform 71, 72, 73, 77, 82, 84, 144

housing reform 112Ministry of Civil Affairs 60Talent Exchange Centre 18, 24welfare policy reform 40

‘blue chop’ 36Bo, X.F. 74Bray, M. 91, 95, 96Britain 1, 8–9, 70, 89, 146

National Health Service 56Broaded, C. 36–7Buchbinder, H. 89, 109Byrd, W. 15

‘cadres’ 36, 46Cai, G.X. 79Cai, R.H. 65, 66, 68, 78–9Cao, Zhongde 36–7catastrophic insurance 82Central Military Commission 80Central Organization Department 36Cerny, P. 10

Chai, C.H. 91Chan, D. 97, 100, 101, 106, 109Chang, Zhor Ji 23Changzhou 115Chapman, M. 122Chen, G. 113Chen, M.Z. 66Chen, Quanfu 98–9Cheng, K.M. 92, 93–4, 95, 97,

105–6, 110Cheng, T. 14Chengdu 18, 71, 72Cheung, A.B.L. 63–87, 140Child, J. 16childcare 14Chile 60China Academy of Social Science

132China Charity Federation 55China Disabled Persons’ Federation

53China Social Workers’ Association 53China Youth Development

Foundation 53Chinese Communist Party 2, 3, 13,

26, 34, 57, 86Central Committee 92, 93; Third

Plenum 3–4, 15–16, 42education policy reform 91, 94,

104, 106, 109–10Fifteenth National People’s

Congress 46Fourteenth Party Congress 42, 94,

96housing reform policy 112, 124‘Project 211’ 101–2

Chiu, R. 113choice 89Choko, M.H. 113Christiansen, F. 25, 26, 101Chu, D.K.Y. 113citizenship status (hukou) 14, 25clinics 139

Index

collectively-owned enterprises 3, 5,21, 22, 23, 25, 114

collectivization 67, 76colleges 139comfortable living housing projects

(gongcheng) 122commercial operators and volunteers

8commercialization 74, 77commodification 57, 76, 129, 146communalization 76communes 3

abolition 4Communism, collapse of 1Communist Youth League 53community groups 8community services 40, 49community-run programmes 50community-run schools (minban) 7,

93, 97, 98–9comparative social policy analysis

141–5competition 89, 109Confucianism 142, 143, 144Constitution 17, 21consumer choice 109consumerism 91consumption 91Contractual Responsibility System

21, 51cooperative healthcare 65, 66, 68, 83counselling 19, 20Cultural Revolution 3, 7, 37, 52,

112, 141health policy reform 66, 67, 68

Dai, Guangqian 25Dalian 71‘danwei’ (work-unit) 14, 34, 35, 38,

44, 45, 142, 143health policy reform 64–5, 76, 85

Daqing 121Davis, D. 5, 6, 15, 106Deacon, B. 11, 56, 138–48decentralization 104, 106, 108‘Decision of the Central Committee

of the Communist Party of Chinaon the Reform of the EducationalStructure’ 93

‘Decision on Deepening the UrbanHousing Reform’ 118–19

‘Decision to Reform the EducationalSystem’ 92

Deng, Xiaoping 3, 50, 60, 112–13Department of Teaching, People’s

University of China (Renda) 103development loans 51Director Responsibility and Contract

Responsibility Systems 16dismissal 15, 20–1, 30, 40diversification 104, 108, 109diversity 89, 110domestic charities 6Dong, J.Z. 74Dong, Richen 126, 128Doyal, L. 3, 142

East Asia 142, 144–5welfare model 147

East China Normal University 99Eastern and Central Europe 1, 56,

60, 122, 142, 148‘eating from the same pot’ 38Economic Structure Reform

Commission 144education policy reform 4–5, 7, 81,

88–111, 139, 140–1consequences 106–8; development

disparity 106; equality 107;ownership 107–8

economic growth and educationaldevelopment 91

institutional origins ofmarketization 91–3

and labour policy reform 14, 37marketization 93–105;

competition amongeducational institutions101–3; consumer choice103–4; private education96–101; revenue generation104–5; user charges 93–6

rationales, assumptions and features88–91

and welfare policy reform 39, 41Eighth Five Year Plan 118, 126Enterprise Law (1988) 16Esping-Andersen, G. 10, 11, 147

162 Index

Europe see Eastern; WesternEuropean Union 11, 147excess demand 15

farm produce market prices 4fee-charging 91Feng, Lanrui 12, 15, 17–18Feng, T.Q. 42finance 109First Five Year Plan (1953–7) 67Flynn, N. 1–11for-profit nursing homes 9foreign enterprises 30former Soviet Union 1, 142, 143Francis, C.-B. 31Fu, Chonglan 126full employment 15funding 89

gender issues 28Germany 19globalization 11Gong, S. 134Goodman, D.S.G. 2Goodman, R. 142Gough, I. 3, 142government sectors 74government workers 46government-funded health care 65Grace, G. 88grain purchase monopoly abolition

4grain rationing system 14Great Leap Forward 3Gu, Guozhi 97Guangdong 40

Bigui Yuan School 100Chaoshan College 98education policy reform 95, 102,

108Educational Reserves model 96housing reform policy 120, 121,

127Hualian Private College 97Nanhua Industrial and Business

College 97Nanling College 98Private Yinghao School 106Zhonghua Yinhao School 100

Guangxi 121Guangzhou 18, 30

Central Education Science Institute97

College of Arts and Law 102College of Finance 102education policy reform 102, 106health policy reform 71, 74, 77–9,

80–1Housing Provident Fund 129–31Housing Provident Fund

Management Centre 120, 130Housing Provident Fund Ordinance

131housing reform policy 112, 113,

114, 120, 122, 125–6, 132–3,134

Industrial and Business College 102Information Centre on Housing

and Real Estate 127Institute for Education 102Jiaotong College 102Medical College 102Normal University 102Pei Zheng Business College 97Residential Housing Construction

Office 130Teacher College 102Trade Union 97University 102‘University City’ 102–3Vocational College 102welfare policy reform 40, 50Zhongshan University 94

Hading Chemical Industry Institute103–4

Hainan Province 71, 72Ham, C. 63–4, 70Hamer, A. 135Han, Jianwei 14, 17Harbin 17Hayhoe, R. 92, 94, 102Heady, C. 75–6health hospitals 80health insurance 20, 40, 43, 44, 45,

46health policy reform 4–5, 7–9, 14,

63–87, 139–40, 143–4

Index 163

health policy reform – continuedcosts 140impact and limitations 77–83;

community insurance coverageonly for major illnesses 82–3;conflicting institutionalinterests and motives 81–2;failure to address providerproblems 80; hospitalgrievances 80–1;improvements 77; lack ofmomentum in rural healthreforms 83; transferability ofreform experience 77–9

pre-reform system 65–8; features65–6; funding problems 67–8;policy goals and achievements66–7

programme 69–77; economicreform-inducing redefinition ofcollective welfare 76–7;economic transformationimpact 74–5; previoushealthcare system collapse75–6; village health financereforms 73; Zhenjiang andJiujiang 69–70

and welfare policy reform 39, 41,43–5, 61

Heilongjiang 33Henan 73, 115, 121Henderson, G. 5hidden unemployment 28Hills, J. 56Holliday, I. 1–11, 138–48home ownership 121Hong Kong 2, 54, 61

Community Chest 55Mark Six betting 52

Hood, C. 10hospitalization insurance 71, 73hospitals 74, 139household registration (hukou) 14,

35, 36household responsibility system 4Housing Bonds 131housing funds 117Housing Provident Fund 113, 117,

119, 121, 134

housing reform 7–8, 14, 41, 81,112–37, 139, 141, 143

de-collectivization andcommodification 133–5

development 114–22; firsthousing reform experiment(1979–81) 115; housingmonetarization (1998)119–22; National HousingReform Plan (1988) 117–18;second housing reformexperiment (1982–5) 115–16;State Council housing reformdecision (1994) 118–19; thirdhousing reform experiment(1986–8) 116–17; UrbanHousing Reform Resolution(1991) 118

Housing Provident Fund 128–33;Guangzhou and Shanghai129–31; sustainable housingfinance 131–3

impact 122–8; affordabilityproblem 126–7; inequalityand segregation 122–5; landshortage for public housing127–8; social costs 125–6

Housing Reform Office 116housing savings bank 117housing savings system 117housing segregation 124–5housing subsidy 116, 117, 120Howe, C. 15Hu, Tehwei 91Hu, Xiaoyi 44Hua Du City 97, 98Hubei 73, 115Huen, Wai-po 25, 36Hulse, M. 142Hunan 121Hungary 60Hussain, A. 4

illness 44income distribution 61income protection scheme 48independent agencies 8individual workers’ association

17–18

164 Index

Inkeles, A. 36–7integrated health insurance 71international agencies 6International Labour Organization

41International Monetary Fund 2, 143Ip, King-ming Olivia 22‘iron rice-bowl’ 3, 15, 16, 19, 20,

33, 141

Japan 2Jiangsu 73, 115Jiangxi 73Jiaoda 99Jilin 18Jing, Lin 91Jiujiang 7, 69–70

health policy reform 76, 77–9, 82, 84

welfare policy reform 40job placement 37job referrals 20Johnson, N. 56Jones, C. 142Julius, D. 105jurisdiction and household

registration system 26

Kaple, D. 15Kernen, A. 28Kornai, J. 15Korzec, M. 21Kwok, R.Y.W. 113Kwon, H.J. 142Kwong, J. 100, 104–5

‘labour’ 36Labour Administration Division 19labour contracts 40labour insurance healthcare 65labour market 139labour policy reform 12–37

impact 21–9; flexible employmentsystem 22–4; labour mobility24–6; unemployment 26–9;work options, broadening of21–2

pattern of change 29–34;blockages in society 32–4;

blockages within the state31–2; inherent problems29–31

pre-reform system 13–15process of change 16–21;

diversification of labourallocation channels 17–20;labour contract system 20–1;role of the state, redefinition of17

reform programme 15–16labour service companies 18Labour and Social Security Bureau

19Lau, Kwok Yu 112–37, 141Le Grand, J. 10, 56, 85, 145Lee, G.O.M. 12–37, 139, 140Lee, J. 112–37, 141Lee, P.N.S. 74, 80–1Lee, W.O. 106Leung, S.M. 21, 24Li, Peilin 42Li, Peng 104Li, Teiying 120, 121, 122–3Li, Zibiao 106Liannan 106Liaoning 28Lieberthal, K. 4Liu, A. 75Liu, Xiaoling 124Liu, Z.F. 86Lupton, M. 113

McCormick, B.L. 142management style 41–2Mao era 3, 38, 41, 91, 104,

109, 138Mao Tse tung 3, 26, 91, 148market housing 9, 125marketeers 4marketization 57, 146, 148

education policy reform 89–91,107, 108, 109, 110

housing reform 112maternity 43

insurance 43, 44Meisner, M. 4mergers 101–2military hospitals 80

Index 165

Ministry of Civil Affairs 142, 144housing reform policy 123welfare policy reform 40, 46,

48–51, 53–5, 60Ministry of Education 91Ministry of Finance 69, 82Ministry of Health 66, 67, 69, 73,

80, 81, 144Ministry of Labour 21, 27, 36, 42,

46, 69, 72, 82, 144Ministry of Labour and Social Security

28, 32, 46, 144Ministry of Personnel 35, 36, 46,

144Ministry of Public Health 46, 144Ministry of Railway and the Civil

Aviation Administration 80Mishra, R. 56Mok, K.-H. 88–111, 140–1monetarization 128–9, 133, 146Morishima, Motohiro 14, 17Murie, A. 113–15, 122, 134Murray, R. 142Musgrove, P. 85mutual aid 42

Naifu, Cui 55Nangang district (Harbin) 17Nanhua Industrial and Business

College 98Nanjing 25, 26, 121Nanking 30Nanning 115Naschold, F. 147National Talent Fair 18–19National Working Conference of

Widening Pilot Spots forEmployee Health InsuranceSystem Reform 69

nationalization 67neighbourhood agencies 6nepotism 15new public management 10–11Newson, J. 89, 109Ngok, Kinglun 42Ningbo 71Ningxia 73Niu, Xianmin 98non state-owned enterprises 24

non-governmental organizations6–7, 8, 11, 61

North America 145see also United States

nutrition 39

occupational hospitals 80occupational inheritance 15occupational injury 43, 140

insurance 44one-child policy 39open unemployment 27organization 89Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development63–4, 146–7

‘Outline of Education Reform andDevelopment in China’ 93

overstaffing 14–15Oxfam 11Oyen, E. 56

Pearson, V. 5Pei Zheng Business College 98Peking University (Beida) 105Peng, R.C. 66, 67, 68, 75pensions 81, 139–40, 143, 144

labour policy reform 14, 20, 21,32

welfare policy reform 39, 40, 43,44, 45–6, 60, 61

Pepper, S. 94, 105, 106personal savings 42Pierson, P. 10plurality 110‘Points Regarding How to Expedite

Reforms and Vigorously DevelopOrdinary Higher Education’96

Poole, T. 33–4preferential treatment 42private home-ownership 114private medicine 9private schools 9privatization 57–9, 64, 76–7, 85,

109, 145–6‘Programme for Reform and the

Development of China’sEducation’ 92, 96–7

166 Index

‘Provisional Regulations for theEstablishment of People-RunSchools of Higher Education’ 96

‘Provisional Regulations on theEstablishment of Schools bySocietal Forces’ 92

public sector housing 114, 115, 117

Qian, Professor 99–100Qingdao 71, 72Qinghua University 105Qixia Zhen 25quality assurance 109

ration coupons 14re-training 19, 20Reagan, R. 1recruitment 21, 40‘Reform Programme in the Job

Assignment System ofUniversity/College Graduates’17

Regulations on Placement Service 19religious groups 6Ren, Yanshen 105rent 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122‘Report on National Social and

Economic Development for1993’ 26–7

retirement 43see also pensions

risk-pooling scheme 82, 83, 84, 86Robinson, R. 10, 56, 85, 145Rosen, S. 101Rural Health Insurance Experiment

73rural industry development 4rural sector 67, 68rural welfare 39

Save the Children Fund 11savings accounts 82Scandinavia 61segmentation of labour 35, 36Selden, M. 14self-employment 17self-financing 91Shandong province 2, 116, 120,

122

Shanghai 18, 21, 24, 25Baoshan Talent Fair 19Civil Affairs Department 60District Labour Bureau 19education policy reform 94, 97,

104, 108employment agencies 20Fudan University 99Guang Qi College 98–9health policy reform 71, 73, 76,

77Housing Authority 118Housing Provident Fund 129–31,

132housing reform policy 112–14,

118, 121, 128–9, 131, 133–4Hua Xia College 99–100Jiaotong University 99Labour Bureau 19, 20University 101welfare policy reform 40, 47, 50,

55Shanxi 121–2Shashi 115Shenkar, O. 14Shenyang 18, 28Shenzhen 32, 40

Health Insurance Bureau 71health policy reform 71, 76, 84Housing Bureau 123, 126, 127–8housing reform policy 112, 113,

121, 125, 131, 133, 134Shekou Industrial Area 124Social Insurance Bureau 71Special Economic Zone 22–3,

124‘shingle-hanging’ 104Shunde 120Sichuan 2, 33, 73, 115

Rural Health Insurance Experiment77

Singapore 2, 147Central Provident Fund 60, 128,

131Housing Provident Fund 114Medisave 70, 82

Siping 115Social Coordinating Fund 69social insurance 45, 47, 59, 61

Index 167

Social Insurance Funds SupervisionDepartment 32

social relief 42social security 21, 35social welfare 42socialization 146societalization 73, 77, 86, 146Solinger, D. 4South China Construction College

102South Korea 2Special Economic Zones 21, 40special funds 52special health insurance 72Spring Labour Fair 18stability 35State Commission for Reform of the

Economic System 46, 60State Council 69, 82, 91, 93

housing reform 113Housing Reform Steering Group

116‘State Council Circular on Building a

Subsistence Protection System inAll Cities’ 47

‘State Council Circular on theProblem of Peasants’ Settlementin Market Towns’ 25

State Council directive 71State Council Housing Reform Office

126State Council Housing Reform

Steering Group 118–19State Economic System Reform

Commission 69, 82, 144State Education Commission 94, 96,

97, 102State Statistical Bureau 26, 27, 28state-owned enterprises 3, 5, 40,

112, 139, 141health policy reform 66, 74, 79,

81, 84, 85labour policy reform 21, 22, 23,

24, 25, 32, 35Stubbs, P. 142subsidies 120subsistence allowance 20subsistence protection line 47Sun, G. 74

Sun, Ying 53Szalai, J. 56

Taiwan 2‘talents’ 36Taylor, J.R. 5Teaching Material Working

Committee 103Temporary Regulations on the

Implementation of LabourContracts in State-ownedEnterprises 6

Temporary Regulations on theRecruitment of Workers in State-owned Enterprises 6

Temporary Regulations onUnemployment Insurance forWorkers in State-ownedEnterprises 6

Temporary Regulations on the Use ofLabour Contracts in State-runEnterprises 29

tertiary education 8‘Textbook Revolution’ 103Thatcher, M. 1three-in-one combination 17–18, 129Tianjin 18, 121Tidrick, G. 15township and village enterprises 4,

22, 23, 25, 139township (zhen) and village (xiang)

councils 4trade unions 19, 42, 53

unemployment 43, 140benefit 45, 81insurance 40, 44protection 44

Unger, J. 142United Nations 11, 54

Children’s Fund 54Development programme 54Population fund 54

United States 1, 142, 146United Way 55

urban welfare 39

voluntary organizations 6von Glinow, M. 14

168 Index

wages 23‘waiting for employment’ (daiye) 26Wakabayashi, M. 94, 95Walder, A. 14, 28Wang, Ya Ping 113–15, 134Warner, M. 18, 32Wat, K.Y. 104Wei, Feng 103–4, 105Wei, Yitong 92Weihai 71welfare housing 123–4welfare lotteries 52welfare policy reform 4–5, 7, 38–62

agenda 42–55; philanthropy 55;social insurance re-invention42–6; social relief expansion inurban areas 47–8; statefunding reduction 50–3; stateprovision reduction 50; stateregulation reduction 53–4;urban community services54–5

‘old’ welfare system transformation39–42

socialization/privatization 55–61West, A. 95–6Western Europe 56, 61, 142, 143, 145Western theories of social policy

change 145–8Westwood, R.I. 21, 24White, C. 142White, G. 13, 15, 16, 29, 32, 38,

60–1, 89, 96, 104, 142, 144–5,147

Women’s Federation 19, 53Wong, C.P.W. 75–6Wong, L. 1–11, 25, 28, 36, 38–62,

91, 109, 138–48Woo, W.T. 75–6workers 46World Bank 2, 11, 41, 54, 60, 135,

141, 143, 147–8health policy reform 63, 66, 76,

82, 83Rural Health Insurance Experiment

73South-west Poverty Reduction

Project 61

World Health Organization 41, 54,73

World Trade Organization 59, 144Wu, Nianxiang 98Wu, Yechun 94–5Wu, Ziyan 102–3Wuhan 18, 40

Xiamen 71Xian 18, 19, 115Xiang, Binjin 97Xie 107

Yan, H. 70, 79Yan, Mingfu 55Yantai plan 116, 117Yao, Ruobing 91Yin, O. 89, 96, 104Young Men’s and Women’s Christian

Associations 53Yuan, Zhenguo 94, 95Yue, Songdong 60Yuen, P.P. 70, 79

Zhang, Deijiang 49Zhang, Guixia 125, 126Zhang, Guocai 92Zhang, Minqiang 94Zhang, Xing Quan 134, 135Zhang, Zhaofeng 97Zhang, Zhiyi 91Zhao, Lukuan 17–18Zhao, Ziyang 104Zheng, G.C. 68, 70, 71Zheng, H.R. 13Zhengzhou 115Zhenjiang 7, 40, 69–70, 121

health policy reform 73, 76, 77–9,82, 84

Zhongshan University: Department ofHistory 103

Zhou, C.M. 66, 68, 75Zhou, Nanzhao 105, 110Zhu, Qingfang 47Zhu, Rongji 47, 87, 119, 120,

131–2Zhu, Yiming 92Zhuhai 71

Index 169