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i
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOME LESSER-KNOWN WILD
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CONSUMED IN AYAMELUM LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA OF ANAMBRA STATE
BY
ONUEKWE MONICA EKWUTOSI
REG. NO: PG/M.Sc /03/34109
DEPARTMENT OF HOME SCIENCE, NUTRITION AND DIETETICS
FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA.
MARCH, 2012
i
APPROVAL PAGE
THIS PROJECT REPORT HAD BEEN APPROVED FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN HUMAN NUTRITION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, NSUKKA
BY
__________________________ ________________________
Professor N.M. Nnam Date
Supervisor
_________________________ ________________________
Professor N.M. Nnam Date
Head of Department
__________________________ _______________________
External Examiner Date
ii
CERTIFICATION
Onuekwe Monica Ekwutosi a post graduate student of Home Science, Nutrition and
Dietetics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with registration number
PG/M.Sc/03/34109 has satisfactorily completed the project report for the award of Master of
Science (M.Sc) degree in Human Nutrition. The work embodied in this project is original and
has not been submitted in part or in full to any other institution in part or in full to a degree or
diploma.
___________________________ ___________________________
Professor N. M. Nnam Professor N. M. Nnam
(Supervisor) (Head of Department)
Date_______________________ Date_______________________
iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my husband and children and to God to whom alone belong all
praise and glory.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher wishes to acknowledge with humility and profound gratitude of her
supervisor, Professor N. M. Nnam for her invaluable guidance, patience, useful criticism,
encouragement for the success and completion of this research.
Her thanks and gratitude also go to all the lecturers in the Department of Home
Science, Nutrition and Dietetics, especially Prof. (Mrs.) E. C Okeke, Prof. Obizoba and Miss
Udenta E. A. for their encouragement and concern in her research.
Her appreciation also goes to her lovely husband Mr. Ignatius Onuekwe, her brother, Mr.
Paul Nwunonye and her sister and her husband Mr. and Mrs. Obodoeze for their unending
love, moral. Spiritual, and financial support without which her education and stay in the
University of Nigeria and the pursuit of her dream would have been impossible. Her
appreciation also goes to her brother-in-laws, Mr. Stephen Onuekwe and Benchuks Onuekwe,
they have been a source of encouragement. She also wishes to appreciate the wonderful
encouragement of her friends Mrs. E. N. Chukwuemeka and Mrs. B. N. Obi-Agunwa. You
are the best anyone can have.
Above all she gives thanks to Almighty God for giving her life, strength, grace, mercy to
pursue her education.
v
ABSTRACT
The study identified some edible fresh wild green leafy vegetables and fruits and determined
their nutrients, antinutrients and food toxicants content. The proximate, micronutrients,
antinutrients and food toxicants contents of these fruits (Olax viridis (“Osenga”),
Gongronema species (“Aado”), Ficus carpensis (“Akankolo”), Napoleona/imperialis
(“Ukpodikili”), Afromonum species) (“Okwocha”) and vegetables Vitex doniana (“Uchkulu”)
and Ficus carpensis) were determined using standard methods. The moisture content of the
fruits ranged from 59.83 to 75.40% in Olax viridis (“Osenga”) and Gongronema species,
(“Aado”) respectively. Olax viridis (“Osenga”) fruits had high levels of protein (6.52%),ash
(12.52%),and fibre (13.58%).Fiscus crapensis (“Akankolo”) fruit contained appreciable
quantities of ascorbate (36.mg).Gongronema species fruit is rich in iron (23.50mg),
phosphorus (44.66mg), copper (14.06mg) and zinc(12.43mg). The fruits equally contained
high levels of phytate (12.60-108mg) in Gongronema species (“Aado”) and Olax viridis
(“Osenga”). Afromonum species (“Okwocha”) had high oxalate (127.22mg). Tannins and
saponins levels of the fruits were low (0.05-0.12mg and 0.02-0.30mg), respectively. Ficus
carpensis (“Akankolo”) leaf had high moisture (60.44%) and low protein (2.18%), fat
(3.42%), ash (10.5%),fibre(8.91%) .Vitex doniana (“Uchakulu”) had less than 50%
carbohydrate (35.74%) and high fibre(11.45%). Vitex doniana (“Uchakulu”) leaf contained
appreciable amounts of β-carotene (67.83mg), and Fiscus carpensis (“Akankolo”) leaf had
lower B-carotene (27.94mg) relative to that of Vitex doniana (“uchakulu”) .07.83mg. The
ascorbate level (67.83mg) was high in Vitex doniana. Vitex doniana leaf had appreciable
quantities of phosphorus (28.63mg) and high oxalate level (128.56mg). Saponins (0.02mg)
and tannins (0.12mg) were low in the two vegetables. The edible lesser-known wild fruits and
vegetables can contribute much more nutrients especially micro nutrients to the diet of
families in Ayamelum Local Government Area of Anambra State. The antinutrients phytate,
oxalate, tannin and saponin levels of the fruits and vegetables were at safe levels. Increased
consumption of these foods is advocated.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- i
Approval page -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii
Certification -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii
Dedication -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iv
Acknowledgement -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- v
ABSTRACT -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vi
Table of contents -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vii
List of Tables -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- xi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --1
1.1 Background of the study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1
1.2 Statement of the problem -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 2
1.3 Objectives of the study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3
1.4 Significance of the study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 3
CHAPTER ONE
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --4
2.1 Micronutrients -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 4
2.2 Importance of fruits and vegetables in diet -- -- -- -- -- 5
2.3 Mineralizing effect -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7
2.4 Laxative effect -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7
2.5 Vegetables -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 8
2.5.1 Leaves of the annuals and shrubs -- -- -- -- -- -- 9
2.5.2 Leaves of trees -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9
2.6 Green leafy vegetables -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 9
2.7 Nutrient composition of green leafy vegetables -- -- -- -- -- 10
2.8 Composition and nutritional quality of vegetables -- -- -- -- 10
2.8.1 Carbohydrate -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11
2.8.2 Moisture -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11
2.8.3 Energy -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11
2.8.4 Protein -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 11
2.8.5 Ether extract -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12
2.8.6 Mineral composition -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12
2.9 Vitamins in vegetables -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 12
vii
2.10 Antinutrient content of green leafy vegetable -- -- -- -- -- 13
2.10.1 Phytate -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 13
2.10.2 Oxalate -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 13
2.10.3 Tannins -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- 14
2.10.4 Saponins -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 14
2.11 Some commonly consumed vegetables in Nigeria -- -- -- -- 15
2.11.1 Fluted pumpkin: (Telferia occidentails) -- -- -- -- -- 15
2.11.2 Water leave -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 15
2.12 Fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 17
2.13 Nutrient composition of fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 17
2.13.1 Protein -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18
2.13.2 Moisture -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- 18
2.13.3 Fats -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18
2.13.4 Fibre -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18
2.13.5 Minerals -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- 18
2.14 Vitamins in fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 18
2.15 Commonly used fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 19
2.15.1 Guava -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 19
2.15.2 Pineapple -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 21
2.15.3 Mangoes -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 25
2.15.4 Pawpaw -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 28
2.15.5 Orange -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 28
2.15.6 Avocado -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 30
2.15.7 Apple -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 33
2.15.8 Banana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 34
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -39
3.2 Pilot Study -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 39
3.2.1 Identification of samples -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 39
3.2.2 Preparation of materials -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 45
3.3 Chemical analysis -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- 45
3.3.1 Fat determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 45
3.3.2 Moisture determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 46
3.3.3 Ash determination -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- 46
viii
3.4 Crude fibre determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 47
3.4.1 Method -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 47
3.5 Crude protein determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 47
3.5.1 Digestion -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 48
3.5.2 Distillation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 48
3.5.3 Titration -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 48
3.6 Carbohydrate determination -- -- -- -- -- - -- 48
3.7 Determination of iodine, iron, copper, calcium and zinc, phosphorus -- -- 49
3.8 Pro-vitamin A (RE) determination -- -- -- -- -- -- 49
3.8.1 Principle -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 49
3.8.2 Method -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50
3.8.3 Calculation -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50
3.9 Ascorbic acid determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 50
3.10 Determination of antinutrients -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51
3.10.1 Phytate -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51
3.10.2 Tannins -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51
3.10.3 Saponins -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51
3.10.4 Oxalate determination -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 51
3.11 Statistical analysis -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 52
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 53
4.1 Proximate composition of fresh wild fruits -- - -- -- -- 53
4.2 Vitamin composition of fresh wild fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- 54
4.3 Mineral composition of wild fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- 54
4.4 Antinutrient composition of fresh wild fruits -- -- -- -- -- 55
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 59
5.1 Proximate composition of wild fresh fruits -- -- -- -- -- 59
5.2 Vitamin composition of wild fresh fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- 60
5.3 Mineral composition of wild fresh fruits -- -- -- -- -- -- 61
5.4 Ant nutrient composition of wild fresh fruits -- -- -- -- -- 62
5.5 Vitamin composition of lesser-known fresh wild green leafy vegetables -- 64
5.6 Mineral composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables -- -- -- 64
5.7 Antinutrient composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables -- -- -- 65
ix
Conclusion -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 65
Recommendations -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 65
REFERENCES
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Some wild fruits and indentified for use in Ayamelum local government area
Table 2: Nutrients composition of commonly used fresh green vegetables in Nigeria, (per
100g) -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 16
Table 2: 2: vitamin composition of commonly used green leafy vegetables (mg/100g) 17
Table 3: Proximate composition of guava, raw: Psidium guajava -- -- -- 20
Table 4: Mineral composition of guava -- -- -- -- -- -- 21
Table 5: Vitamin composition of guava -- -- -- -- -- -- 21
Table 6: Nutrients composition of pineapple, raw: Ananus comosus -- -- -- 23
Table 7: Mineral content of pineapple -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 24
Table 8: Vitamin content of pineapple -- -- -- -- -- -- 25
Table 9: Proximate composition of mangoes, raw Mangifera idica -- -- -- 26
Table 10: Mineral composition of mangoes -- -- -- -- -- -- 27
Table 13: Vitamin content of mangoes -- -- -- -- -- -- 27
Table 14: Proximate composition of orange, raw, Citrus sinersis -- -- -- 29
Table 15: Mineral content of orange -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 30
Table 16: vitamin content of orange -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 30
Table 17: Avocado, raw, Persea american -- -- -- -- -- -- 31
Table 18: Mineral content of avocadoes -- -- -- -- -- -- 32
Table 19: Vitamin content of avocados -- -- -- -- -- -- 33
Table 20: Proximate composition of banana, raw: Musa paradisiacal -- -- 34
Table 21: Mineral content of banana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 35
Table 22: Vitamin content of banana -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 35
Table 23: Proximate content of pears, raw; Pyrus communis -- -- -- 36
Table 24: Mineral content of peers -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 36
Table 25: vitamin composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (mg/100g) -- 37
Table 26: Proximate composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (%) -- -- 37
Table 27: Mineral composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (mg/100g) -- 38
Table 1: Some wild fruits and vegetables in Ayamelum local government area identified for
use. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 39
Table 1: Proximate composition of fresh wild fruits (%) -- -- -- -- 53
Table 2: Vitamin composition of fresh wild fruits (mg /100g) -- -- -- 54
Table 3: Mineral composition of wild fruits (mg/100g) -- -- -- -- 55
Table 4: Antinutrient composition of fresh wild fruits (mg/100mg) -- -- -- 56
xi
Table 5: Proximate composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables -- -- 56
Table 6: Vitamin composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables (mg/100g) -- 57
Table 7: Mineral composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables (mg/100g) -- 57
Table 8 Antinutrient composition of fresh wild green leafy vegetables (mg/100g) -- 58
1
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Micronutrient deficiency is still a public health problem in Nigeria despite the effort
that has been made to eliminate it. World Health Organization (WHO) (2002) reported that
about 30% of the population in developing countries suffer currently from one or more of the
multiple forms of nutritional deficiencies, especially that of micronutrient. Nnanyelugo
(1983) stated that incidence of malnutrition is higher in the rural areas than urban slums,
particularly protein and micronutrient deficiencies.
Onyezili et al., (2005) observed that in most developing countries three micronutrient
deficiencies are common. These are vitamin A deficiency (VAD); iron deficiency anemia
(IDA) and iodine deficiency disease (IDD). Nnanyelugo (1983) observed that deficiency
diseases were caused partly because of the food gap seasonality in which people experience
food abundance, especially vegetables during the rainy season and severe scarcity during the
dry season.
Fruits and vegetables provide people with a range of compounds, many of which have
more than one role, being involved both with immediate good health and with protection
against disease that can develop over a long period of time, such as cancer, heart conditions,
stroke, hypertention, birth defects, cataracts and diabetes.(Tenny and Barrett, 1997). Fruits
and vegetables are generally acceptable as good sources of nutrient and supplement for food
in a world faced with scarcity .They are known to be excellent source of nutrients such as
minerals and vitamins (Nhar et al., 1990)
The high incidence of malnutrition, especially in children has been seen as the core
cause of major forms of anemia in children and pregnant /nursing mothers (that is nutritional
deficiency and haemolytic anemia) (Trumb and Yates, 2001). Pamploma-Rogres (2004)
stated that fruits and vegetables have been linked to the management of anemia because of
2
they are rich in vitamins and minerals. Some of these vitamins are not directly involved in red
blood cell production but they promote the absorption of other important minerals, example
ascorbic acid promotes the absorption of iron from the small intestine.
In Anambra State, most staple foods are consumed without vegetables especially
during the dry season. There are many wild vegetables and fruits wasting in forest. Uzo
(1989) reported that such vegetables as Geotum Africana (“Okazi”), Pterocarpas milbreadi
(“ora”), Pterocarp sp (“Uturukpa”) grow wild. There are many fruits and tender leaves of the
wild vegetables that are readily available in the forest and farmlands during the dry season.
They could be utilized to provide protein and micronutrient needs of the populace. In
Ayamelum local government area of Anambra State, many leafy vegetables and fruits are
grown wildly and there has been little or no work on their nutrient composition.
Documentation of the nutrient potentials of these wild fresh fruits and vegetables would be
valuable in the food-based approach to eliminating micronutrient deficiencies.
1.2 Statement of the problem
There are many wild fruits and vegetables in Ayamelum local government area of
Anambra State which were popular in the past but are no longer popular in the present time.
The fruits and vegetables are not owned by a particular individual, they could be collected
freely and consumed by the populace to increase nutrient intake. Some of the wild vegetables
are available during dry season when many domestic fruits and vegetables are scare and very
expensive. Thus, they could fill the gap experienced in vegetable consumption in rural
community during dry season. Despite the abundance of these fruits and vegetables, there is
still problem of micronutrient deficiency in Nigeria. There is need to identify and evaluate the
nutrient, antinutrients and food toxicant levels of some of the wild vegetables and fruits. The
fruits and vegetables could be integrated in the food-based approach for fighting
micronutrient deficiency in Nigeria.
3
1.3 Objectives of the study
The general objective of the study is to determine the nutrient, antinutrients and
toxicant levels of lesser-known wild fruits and vegetables consumed in Ayamelum local
government area. The specific objectives were to,
(i) identify some wild fruits and vegetables consumed in Ayamelum local
government area;
(ii) determine the proximate, minerals and vitamins levels of the wild fruits and
vegetables identified; and.
(iii) determine the antinutrients and food toxicant (phytate, oxalate, tannins and
saponins) levels of the wild fruits and vegetables identified.
1.4 Significance of the study
The study will directly benefit the inhabitants of Ayamelum local government. This is
because fruits and vegetables to be identified and analyzed are already available in their
locality. They could be sensitized to the availability of the fruits and vegetables for
integration in their dietary plan. The study will provide base-line information on the nutrient
and antinutrient composition of the wild fruits and vegetables found in Ayamelum local
government area. The information will be of use to Dieticians, Nutritionists and Home
Economic Extension Staff in their nutrition Education programme to popularize the fruits and
vegetables. The study will assist help in the estimation of dietary requirement of the fruits and
vegetables. The accurate information on the nutrient and antinutrients composition of these
fruits and vegetables will also help to integrate them in the food based approach for fighting
micronutrients deficiency.
4
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Micronutrients
Calcium: Calcium is one of most minerals found in the human body. The teeth and
bones contain most of calcium (about 99%). Nerve cells, body tissues, blood and other body
fluids contain the remaining calcium.(Hamrick and Count, 2002). Calcium helps in
maintaining healthy bone and teeth. Proper levels of calcium over a lifetime can prevent
osteoporosis. Calcium assists in blood clotting, nerve signaling, muscle contraction and
relaxation, and the release of certain hormones. It is also needed for normal heart beat.
Calcium is one of the minerals believed to be an important factor governing fruit storage
quality (Lech et al., 2005). It has been reported to delay ripening senescence and reduce
storage disorder in fruits (Fergusan, 1984).
Institute of Medicine (IOM) (1997) reported the following to be daily dietary intake
of calcium, 210mg-270mg for infants, 500mg-1,300mg for children, 1,300mg for male and
female adolescents (14-18years), 1000mg for adults males and females 19 to 50 years.
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a mineral that makes up 1% of a person‟s total body weight,
(IOM, 1997). It is present in every cell of the body but most of the phosphorus in the body is
found in bone and teeth. Phosphorus is needed in the formation of bone and teeth. It plays a
vital role in the body in the utilization of carbohydrates and fats and in the synthesis of
protein or the growth, maintenance and repair of tissue. It is crucial for the production of
ATP, a mode to store energy in the body.
Phosphorus works with vitamin D, assists in the contraction of muscles, in the
functioning of kidneys, in maintaining the regularity of the heat beat, and in nerve conduction
(IOM, 1997).They reported the recommended dietary intakes of phosphorus to be 700mg/day
for adults, 1,250mg per day for pregnant and lactating women who are younger than 18 years,
5
500mg per day for children who are between four to five years, 275mg per day for children
who are 7 to 12 months, 100mg per day for children birth to 6 months old.
Iron: Iron is an essential nutrient. Iron occurs in two forms in foods, heme („organic‟) and
non-heme („inorganic‟).The body require iron for the oxygen synthesis, transport of proteins
heamoglobin and myoglobin, and other iron containing enzymes which participate in electron
transfer oxidation –reduction reactions (IOM, 2000).They recommended the following daily
dietary intake of iron, 10mg for adults males, 18mg for adolescents 11years and above, 6-
10mg for infants, 15mg for six months to three years old,
Zinc: Zinc is needed for the body‟s defensive system (immune) to work properly. It plays a
role in cell division, cell growth, wound healing and break down of carbohydrates. Zinc is
also needed for senses of smell and taste (IOM, 2000). The following recommended daily
dietary intake were given by (IOM, 200), 2mg for infants 0-6 months, 3mg for infants 7-12
months, 3mg for children 1-3 years, 5mg for children 4-8 years, 8mg for children 9- 13 years,
11mg for male adolescents and adults 14 years and over, 9mg for female adolescents and
adults 14- 18 years, 8mg for female adolescents and adults 19 years and over.
Iodine: Iodine is a trace mineral and an essential nutrient found naturally in the body. Iodine
is needed for normal metabolism of cells. Human needs iodine for production of thyroid
hormones.
Vitamin A: Vitamin A occur in forms. The first is retinol, vitamin A from animal sources,
another one is carotenes, a yellow pigment found in fruits and vegetables (Leslie and Lendal,
1989). They stated that carotene is not absorbed or utilized as efficiently as retinol, but it is an
important source. Vitamin A is essential for maintaining healthy eyes and preventing
nightblidness. Vitamin A is involved in bone and teeth development. Vitamin A keeps the
6
tissue linings of the respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts healthy. Vitamin A is also
necessary for healthy skin.
2.2 Importance of fruits and vegetables in diet
Fruits and vegetables are highly beneficial in human diet. The main physiological action of
fruits and vegetables are as follows:
(i)Hydrating effect
Fruits and fruit juice, vegetables and vegetable juice are the most pleasant way of hydrating
the organism (Getahum, 1994). The water absorbed by sick person in this manner has added
advantage of supplying sugar and minerals at the same time.
(ii)Diuretic effect
Clinical observations have showed that potassium, magnesium and sodium contents of fruits
and vegetables act as diuretic. The diuretic frequency of the urination is considerably
increased when fruits and vegetable juice are taken (MacGee and Harold, 2004). They lower
the urine density and thereby accelerate the elimination of nitrogenous waste and chloride.
The diuretic effect of vegetables like potatoes, beans, spinach, radish, turnip are specially
important in cases of edema or swellings, kidney and heart conditions (Getahum, 1974).
(iii)Alkalinizing effect
The organic acids of the salts in fruits and vegetables provide alkaline carbonates when
transformed within the organism, which alkalize the fluids. All the fruits and leafy vegetables
promote intestinal elimination. This keep the body free from toxic wastes, which creep into
blood system from an overloaded, sluggish intestinal tract. Fibre in vegetables act as
mechanical intestinal expanders, draws more water and protein in them. Carbohydrates of
vegetables are chiefly in the form of sugar, dextrin and acids, which are easily digestible and
are completely absorbed. On account of this, they are very useful for sick and invalids for
quick energy and heat. Fibres inform of cellulose help, elimination of cholesterol. Fibre
7
lowers serum cholesterol by reducing the absorption of dietary cholesterol. Fibre complex
with bile acids, which are compounds manufactured by the liver from cholesterol that are
necessary for the proper digestion of fat. After complexing with bile acids, the components
are removed from circulation and do not make it back to the liver as a result the liver must
use additional cholesterol to make new bile. Bile acids are necessary for normal digestion of
fat, American Dietetic Association (ADA, 1997).
2.3 Mineralizing effect
Fruit furnish minerals to the body. Some are rich in calcium and iron. These minerals
are essentials for strong bone and teeth, respectively (Adam and Wiles, 2004). Two important
minerals, calcium and iron, found in vegetables are specially useful, calcium is for strong
bone and teeth, iron is needed for blood formation and an essential constituent of hemoglobin
(Okigbo, 1990).
2.4 Laxative effect
Cellulose, the fibrous matter in fruit and vegetables, aids in the smooth passage of
food in the digestive tract and easy bowel action. The sugar and organic acids contained in
fruits also increase their laxative effect. Hence, regular use of fruits and vegetables prevent
and cure constipation (Jannic, 1990). He stated that certain types of fibre are referred to as
fermentable because they are fermented by the “friendly” bacteria that live in the large
intestine. The fermented dietary fibre in the large intestine produces a short-chain fatty acid
called butyric acid which serves as the primary fuel for the cells in the large intestine and
help in maintaining the health and integrity of the colon. Fibre that are not fermentable in the
large intestine help maintain bowel regularity by increasing the bulk of the faeces and
decreasing the transit time of faecal matter through the intestine. Bowel regularity is
associated with a decreased risk for colon cancer and hemorrhoids when the hemorrhoids are
related to screening and constipation.
8
Tonic action: Fruit and vegetables are dependable sources of vitamins, exert a tonic effect in
the body (Farrell, 1999).Guava, apples and citrus fruits, like lemons and oranges, are
particularly valuable sources of vitamin C. These fruits are usually eaten raw and fresh, thus
making the vitamins fully available to the body. Several fruits contain good amounts of
carotene which gets converted to vitamin A in the body. He further stated that a medium-
sized mango can provide as much as 15,000 international units of vitamin A which is
sufficient for full one week and this vitamin can be stored in the body, Common papaya is an
excellent source of vitamin A and carotene.
Fruit cure: Fruits are highly beneficial in maintaining acid-alkaline balance in the body.
They neutralize the toxic condition of the body resulting from excessive intake of acid-
forming foods and restore its alkalinity (Farrell, 1999). They clear the system of morbid
waste and cater to the body‟s requirement of natural sugar, vitamins and minerals.
Vitamins, minerals, enzymes and trace elements contained in fresh fruits juices are
extremely beneficial in normalizing all the body processes. They supply needed elements
for the body‟s own healing activity and cell regeneration and speed up the recovery.
2.5 Vegetables
Vegetables are edible parts of plants, which are usually cooked or salted prior to
consumption. Vegetables are important protective food for the maintenance of health and
prevention of diseases they contain valuable food nutrients which can be successfully utilized
and repair the body (Enwere, 1998). There are different kinds of vegetables. They may be
edible leafy vegetables for examples lettuce, stem vegetables (asparagus), root vegetables
(carrot), flower vegetables (broccoli) and bulbs (garlic). There are botanical fruits such as
cucumbers and pumpkins as well as legumes such as green, beans and fleshy immature seeds
such as those of peas or beans. They may be cultivated or wild, may be trees, herbs, shrubs or
9
erect plants that cut across the plant kingdom. Certain fruits such as tomatoes and beans are
used as vegetables (Enwere, 1998).
2.5.1 Leaves of the annual and shrubs
Although accurate statistics on the production these leaves are unavailable, data from
several food intake studies (Oguntona et al., 1989; Addo and Eka, 1982) indicate that leaves
of annuals and shrubs constitute the bulk of green leafy vegetables consumed in Nigeria. In
general, however, these are cultivated plants that grow fairly rapidly and are harvested within
weeks of cultivation.
2.5.2 Leaves of trees
If the statistics on production and utilization of leaves of annuals and shrubs are
scarce, those on use of tree leaves as vegetables are much more scarce (Oguntona, 1998).
This is because trees are generally considered important only as source of fruits rather than
leaves for human consumption. Several communities in Nigeria utilize the leaves of many
shrubs and trees. They constitute the group usually referred to as „„lesser- known‟‟ (Temple,
1998).
2.6 Green leafy vegetables
Green leafy vegetables constitute an indispensible constituent of human diet in Africa,
generally and West Africa in particular (Oguntona, 1986). Generally they are consumed as
cooked complements of major staples like cassava, cocoyam, guinea corn, yam, maize,
millet, rice, unripe plantain and banana. Indeed, most of the meals based on these staples are
considered incomplete without a generous serving of cooked vegetables.
The variety of green leafy vegetables utilized are as diverse as both the staples, they
are used in Nigeria alone (Okoli et al., 1988). These range from leaves of annual and shrubs
of the consumed within the localities. There are over sixty species of green leafy vegetables
that are (Amaranthecea, Composite, Portulaceae and Solanacea) to leaves of trees. Many of
10
these leafy vegetables (eg Amaranth) are common in all parts of Nigeria. However, some are
restricted to their natural distribution and mostly found in northern Nigeria. The seasonal
variation affects the availability of these green leafy vegetables. These vegetables grow
abundantly in rainy season when they are much more readily available than in the dry season.
This is particularly true of the annual. Seasonal variation in production and availability
naturally decide the quantities to be consumed by the local consumers.
2.7 Nutrient composition of green leafy vegetables
Green leafy vegetables are good sources of micronutrients (Rajyalashms, 2001; FAO,
1997). There are a lot of green leafy vegetables in Nigeria ecosystem. These could provide
adequate quantities of micronutrient in the diet. In spite of these, Nigerians still suffer from
micronutrient deficiencies (OMNI and USAID, 1993; NDHS, 1990).
Green leafy vegetables consumed in Nigeria have been the subject of many analytical
studies, especially during the 1970‟s (Oke, 1967; Oke, 1968; Fafunso and Bassir, 1977; Ifon
and Bassir, 1979). The nutrient composition of tropical green leafy vegetables and other
groups of tropical foods are available, an excellent compilation (West et al., 1988) exists for
food commonly consumed in East Africa, However, information on green leafy vegetables is
not extensive. Oguntona (1998) reported that the wide variation in nutrient content of green
leafy vegetables are due to (a) a problem of taxonomy or proper identification of samples,
especially given the ever increasing range of strains and hybrids available, (b) variation in the
nutrient and fertilizer status of the soil in which the crop is grown, sample preparation
procedures prior to analysis cause considerable problem and (c) analytical procedures vary in
techniques and quality (Oguntona, 1998).
2.8 Composition and nutritional quality of vegetables
Vegetables contain non-volatile acids, organic acids, mineral salts, volatile sulphur
compounds and tannin, which impart flavour in diets. The colours of vegetables depend on
11
the pigments they contain. Arthocyanin imparts purple and red to vegetables such as reddish
and red cabbage Chlorophyll colours vegetables green, especially leafy ones, green beans
and cucumber while carotenoids are responsible for the yellow colour of ripe tomatoes,
carrots, sweet potatoes and maize (Uwaegbute, 1989).
2.8.1 Carbohydrate: The carbohydrates in vegetables consist mainly of indigestible fibrous
materials such as cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. These are in addition to small
quantities of sugars such as glucose, fructose and sucrose. However, the proportion of fibre in
vegetables depends on stages of maturity. (Ifon and Bassir 1989 Uwegbute, 1989).
Carbohydrates are the main component of fruits and vegetables and represent more than 90%
of their dry matter. From an energy point, carbohydrate represents the most valuable of the
food components. Daily adult intake should contain about 500g carbohydrate (Kurczek,
2005). Carbohydrate plays a major role in biological system and in foods,
2.8.2 Moisture: Green leafy vegetables are high in moisture that ranges from 72% in cassava
leaves to 92.93% in India spinach and waterleaf. The turgidity or rigidity of vegetables
depends on the water content. The amount of individual sample depends on several factors
including (a) age (b) agronomic practices prevailing during cultivation and (c) freshness
(Oguntana, 1988). Freshness is a function of time between harvest and analysis as well as the
condition under which the samples are kept during time lag.
2.8.3 Energy: Green leafy vegetables are not good sources of dietary energy. This is a
reflection of low dry matter (DM) content of many of these leaves (Oguntana, 1998)
2.8.4 Protein: Fresh green leafy vegetables have crude protein content ranging from 1.5 to
1.7%. However, Aletor and Adeogun, (1995) however, reported that a mean of 4.2% for
seventeen of such vegetables, when dried samples were used , crude protein range from 15.0
to 30%. Shmidt, (1971) indicated that 75% of total nitrogen in most vegetables were protein.
12
Many reports indicated that leafy vegetable protein is low in sulphur amino acids (Oguntona,
1998).
2.8.5 Ether extract: Leafy vegetables are low in fat and none contain cholesterol (Okigbo,
1977). Among the proximate component, fat content is lowest. The level of ether extract
scarcely exceeds 1.0% in fresh leafy vegetables.(Oguntona, 1998)
2.8.6 Mineral composition: The amount of minerals contained in fruits and vegetables
depend on variety, climate, cultivation and soil type (Teny, Pawn, Mathew and Barrett,1997).
This is the reason for the reported wide variation in some of the published data for green
leafy vegetables in the study of twelve Nigerian vegetables(Oguntona, 1998). Latande and
Dada (1990) reported that the total iron content differed significantly. It ranged from 29.4 to
92mg|kg.
Most of the earlier studies (Oke, 1968: Oyenuga, 1968) showed that Nigerian green
leafy vegetables contain appreciable amount of minerals. This was confirmed by more recent
studies (Ifon and Bassir, 1979; Faboya, 1983; Aletor and Adegun, 1995)
2.9 Vitamins in vegetables
As with other nutrients many factors influence the composition of vitamins in green
leafy vegetables. Cultivars and maturity are important factors as well as light. It is known that
crops mature during autumn contain high pro-vitamin A precursor than those that mature in
poorer light of winter (Selman, 1994).
Many vegetables contain a substance known as carotene, which is converted to
vitamin A. Green leafy vegetables are good sources of ascorbate (Oguntona, 1998). Plants
contain its vitaminA precursor, beta-carotene. Beta-carotene is found in orange and yellow
vegetables as well as green leafy vegetables. Vitamin C is contained in good amounts in
several vegetables such as tomatoes and leafy vegetables such as spinach, cabbage. Fresh
13
vegetables are better sources of vitamin C. Green leafy vegetables are good sources of
micronutrients (Raiylakshims, 2001 and F.A.O., 1997).There are a lot of leafy vegetables in
Nigeria. These could provide adequate micronutrients in the diet when properly processed
and utilized.
2.10 Antinutrient content of green leafy vegetable
The major antinutrients commonly found in green leafy vegetables are phytic and
oxalic acids. These are important because of their significant adverse effect on nutritional
value of these vegetables (Oguntona 1998). High levels of either phytate and oxalate inhibit
the absorption and utilization of minerals in animal and man (Osagie,1998).
2.10.1 Phytate: Phytate is an important storage form of phosphorus in plants. It is insoluble
and cannot be absorbed in the intestine (Osagie, 1998). Phytate has 12 replaceable hydrogen
atoms which it could form insoluble salts with metals such as calcium, iron, zinc, and
magnesium. The formation of these insoluble salts renders the metals unavailable for
absorption. Phytate can also affect availability by chelating with calcium or by binding with
substrate or protolytic enzymes. Heaney, Weaver, Fitzsimmons, (1991) reported that calcium
absorption increases with low phytate (3.01mg/g).
2.10.2 Oxalate: These are naturally occurring substance found in plants, and in humans. In
chemical terms oxalate belong to a group of molecules called organic acids and are routinely
made by plants and humans. Our bodies always contain oxalate, and our cells routinely
convert other substances into oxalates. For example, vitamin is one of the substances that our
cells convert into oxalates. In addition to the oxalates that are made inside the body, oxalates
can enter at our body from the outside from certain foods that contain them (Sienera, 2006).
14
Parivar, Low, and Stoller (1991) observed that low oxalate content foods have less
than 2mg per serving and moderate oxalate food has from 2-10mg per serving and should be
limited to 2-3 serving per day.
2.10.3 Tannins: Tannins are astringent, bitter plant polyphenols that either binds and
precipitate shrink proteins and various other organic compounds. The astringency from the
tannins is what cause the puckrey feeling in the mouth following the consumption of
unripened fruits or red wine (MacGee, 2004). Tannins have traditionally been considered
antinutritional but it is now known that their beneficial or antinutritional properties depend
upon their chemical structure or dosage. Studies have demonstrated that products containing
chestnut tannins included at low dosage in diet (0.15-0.2%) can be beneficial (Schiavone, et
al., 2008)
If ingested in excessive quantities, tannins inhibit the absorption of minerals such as
iron which may if prolonged, lead to anemia (Brien, Rossander, Hallberg, 1989).This because
tannins are metal ion chelators, and tannins chelated metal ions are not bioavailable. Tannins
have been shown to precipitate protein (Bate-Smith and Swain, 1962). Tannins do not affect
absorption of either trace minerals such as zinc, copper, and manganese in rats (Afsanak,
Shiga, Ishizka, Hara, 2003).Large quantity of tannins may cause bowel irritation, kidney
irritation, liver damage, irritation of the stomach and gastrointestinal pain.
2.10.4 Saponins: Saponins are steroid or treerperoid glycosides which are characterized by
their bitter or astringent tastes, foaming properties and their hemolyptic effect on red blood
cells They are widely distributed in the plant kingdom being found in over 500 genera
(Nandy,1991; Birk and Peri, 1980). Saponins have been shown to posses beneficial
(cholesteole lowering, and deleterious (cytotoxic, permeabilization of the intestine) properties
and to exhibit structure dependent biological activities (Peri et al., 1987; Oarkenful and
Sidhum 1989).
15
There are suggestions that the consumption of saponins should be encouraged because
of their nutritional importance. Forage saponins have been reported by Ceake et al., (1978) to
cause toxic and anorexic effects in rats and swine thereby limiting the feeding value of high
animals‟ feeds such as alfalfa. Cassidy and Dalaise, (2003) reported 146mg of saponin to be
safe level, this implies that saponin levels above 146mg is toxic.
2.11 Some commonly consumed vegetables in Nigeria.
2.11.1 Fluted pumpkin: (Telferia occidentails)
The leaves of this crop are important food vegetables for many people, especially in
the mid-western parts of Nigeria. The local names include “Ugu‟‟ (Igbo and “Iroko‟‟
Yoruba).The crop is a member of Cucubitaceae family. It is a perennial vine its stem is as
long as 10 meters. The male plant produces leaves that are similar to the female plants. It has
been estimated that approximately 0.5 kg leaves and hoots are obtained from one plant per
harvest (Tindall, 1983) and up to 15 harvests are obtained between 3-4 months. The leaves
are highly cherished as cooked vegetables and the seeds are used in soups.etc.
The leaf was found to contain in (g/100) 30.5% dry weight, 2.5% crude protein, 3.0 ±
0.15% crude lipid, 8.3 ± 0.50% crude fiber and 8.4 ± 0.50% total ash. The potassium,
calcium, magnesium and iron contents of ash were 594,144, 100 and 120mg/100g dry net
respectively. The leaf was found to contain high level of tannic acid but the levels of phytic
acid and oxalate were within the normal range (Food chemistry, 1985).
2.11.2 Water leave: Water leaf vegetables are rich sources of vitamins A, C and minerals
such as iron, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and many other carotene content of
water leaf vegetables varied from ponnanganni greens to water convolvulus, vitamin C from
17 ponnanganni green) to 247mg (checkurmanis) and iron from 0.9 (water leaf) to 34.8mg
(water convolvulus) per 100g edible portion phytochemicals were oxalate, saponin, tannin
and phytate and alkaloid.
16
Water leaves have great nutritional value. They contain very high amount of zinc,
important in many enzyme functions and keeping the skin fresh. They also contain saponins
and tannin (glycosides), as well as alkaloids. At least 13 other new compounds or vital
ingredients have been found in these leaves after a 40 years of study, and have the following
benefits, anti-malaria, anti-bacteria, anti-parasites, anti-cancer, scurvy sciatica and
reheumatism. Bitter leaf has high protein (33.3%) fat (2.1%), crude fiber (29.2%), ash
(11.7%), minerals (sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron, phytate (10.54mg/100g) and
tannin (0.6%) content, and it contains low cyanide (1.1mg/kg).(Food chemistry, 1995)
Table2: Nutrients composition of commonly used fresh green vegetables in Nigeria (per
100g)
Vegetables Moisture Carbohydrate Protein Fat Fibre Ash
Amaranth
Aramanthus
hybridus
84 7.0 4.6 0.2 1.8 2.9
Bitter leaf
mygdaluina
21.6 64.4 22.2 2.7 10.9 10.00
Indian spinach
Basella alba
93.4 2.9 1.6 0.3 0.6 11.00
Water leaf
Trangulane
90.8 4.4 2.4 0.4 1.4 2.00
Fluted
pumpkin
Telfera
occidentalis
86.0 Trace 4.3 0.8 2.3 6.00
Source: Oguntona (1988)
17
Table 2: 2: vitamin composition of commonly used green leafy vegetables (mg/100g)
Vegetables Ascorbate B-carotene
Amaranth 40.5(a)
Bitter leaf, Vernonia amygdalina 34.5(a)
Indian spinach, Basella alba 62(a)
Water leaf ,Talinum triangulane 280(a)
672, (b)
Fluted pumpkin Telfere occidentalis 340(a)
Sources: (a) Oguntona (1988), (b) Pamploma -Rogers (2006)
2.12 Fruits
The term fruits have different meaning. Botanically, a fruit is the ripened ovary
together with seeds of a flowering plant. In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened
ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruit are the means by which flowering plant disseminate
seeds (Lewis ,2002), in cuisine fruits that are sweet and fleshy, examples of which include
apple and orange (MacGee, and Harold, 2004). However a great many common fruits as well
as nuts and grins are the fruit of the plant species they come from (MacGee and
Harold,2004). Majority of the fruit are fleshly or juicy (Umoh, 1995).
2.13 Nutrient composition of fruits
Fruits are found to be rich in vitamins, especially vitamin C, minerals, sugar
(Achinewu, 1983; Oguntona, 1991). However, higher values for carbohydrate have been
reported in various fruits (Ose, 1971). The main sugar in fruits are glucose and fructose and
sucrose. Some fruit are low in carbohydrate and consequently low in calorie.
2.13.1 Protein: The protein constituents of fruits are low. They serve as components of
nuclear and cytoplasmic structures that take part in determining and maintaining cellular
organization, including the full components of enzymes involved in the metabolism during
18
growth and maturation of the fruit (Umoh, 1998). He further reported that fruits are low in
nitrogenous components as compared to seeds, leaves and some other plant parts and tissues.
2.13.2 Moisture: The moisture content of fresh fruits at maturity is generally high (Umoh,
1998). Moisture content of fruits determines how fresh the fruits were at harvest, or for how
long they have been stored before analysis ( Sheila,1978).
2.13.3 Fats: Fruits are not good sources of fat and are usually recommended as part of weight
reduction diet (Sheil, 1978; Platt, Umoh and Oke, 1978), reported on the nutritional value and
chemical composition of fruits such as lesser-known fruit and seeds. Their reports showed
that oil fruit and seeds contain oils and fats.
2.13.4 Fiber: Fruits and vegetables as sources of dietary fibre normalizes blood glucose
levels. Fibre slows the rate at which food leaves the stomach and by delaying the absorption
of glucose following a meal. Fibres also increase insulin sensitivity. As a result, high intake
of fiber plays a role in the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. In addition, by
slowing the rate at which food leaves the stomach, fibres promotes a sense of satiety, or
fullness, after a meal, which prevents overeating and weight gain (Lom, 2001).
2.13.5 Minerals: Fruits contain mineral elements in low quantities. Gibson, (1997) reported
that plants tend to concentrate calcium in their leaves and phosphors in the seeds. Fruits, like
dried fruits are rich in calcium and iron (Mauseth and James, 2003).
2.14 Vitamins in fruits
Umoh (1998) stated that the main contribution of fruits and their products to nutrition
is their supply of vitamins most, especially the antiascorbic vitamins (Mopson, 1970). Fruits
and vegetables are the main sources from which primates derive their vitamins. Ascorbic
19
acid alongside with other vitamins performs useful functions in the body. Drugs such as
asprin and the contraceptive pills affect the plasma levels of ascorbic acid (Kilgour, 1987).
Ascorbic acid in the body aids in iron absorption from the intestines. It is required for
connective tissue metabolism especially the scar tissue, bones and teeth. It is also necessary
as an anti-stress and protector against cold, chills and damp. It prevents muscle fatigue and
scurvy. It is thought to be necessary for metabolism of cholesterol, reduces the degree of
formation of carcinogenic nitrosamsin from their preculsors and is required in the
hydrocylation of proline to hydroxyperoline of the collagen in the body.
2.15 Commonly used fruits
2.15.1 Guava: Guava is a rich source of vitamin c. It contains a far higher amount of vitamin
C than most of the imported and local fruits. It contains three to six time more than vitamin C
than in orange, 10-30 times more than bananas and about 10 times more than papaya (USDA,
2001). Most of the vitamins C is concentrated in skin and outer mesocarp, reaching a
maximum green fully mature fruit and declining as the fruit ripens.
Guava is very good source of vitamins, fibres as well as minerals. Being rich in
vitamin c, guava is effective in treating male infertility caused by sperm duping, adhension
and other abnormalities. Guava has been associated with treating of wounds, when applied
externally. Guava has general haemostatic properties and can be used for treating bleeding
nose, gums and minor internal hemorrhaging. Guava helps cures dysentery by inhibiting
microbial growth and removing extra mucus from the intestines. Guava helps the body in
combating free radicals produced during metabolism and aids in preventing age-related
chronic diseases such as alchenimers cataractoid and arthritis. Guava is one of the richest
sources of dietary fibre and thus good for those suffering from constipation. Guava
strengthens bones up the digestive system and even disinfect the same.
Guava having high content roughage no cholesterol and less digestible carbohydrate
20
is good for those trying to lose weight. Guava can improve the texture of skin and helps avoid
skin problems. For this purposes guava can either be eaten raw or wash skin with decoction
of guava leaves is known to bring relief in cough and cold. Research has shown that guava is
pretty effective in preventing cancer and even heart diseases in people.
The present complex carbohydrates and dietary fibres in guava make it effective in
lowering cholesterol and blood sugar levels. The presence of vitamin c and phytoutire
carotenoids, isoffavonoids and polyphenols, in guava has led to it being an effective
antioxidant. Guava has been found to be beneficial to people suffering from the following
ailments: (1) Acidosis, (2) Asthma, (3) Bacterial infections (4) Catarrh (5) Convulsion (6)
Congestion of lungs (7) Epilepsy (8) High blood pressure and (9) Obesity, (10) Oral ulcers
(11) Poor circulation (12) prolonged menstruation (13) scurvy (14) swollen gums and (15)
toothache.
Table 3: Proximate composition of Guava, raw: Psidium guajava
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Sample count Std error
Proximate Units
Water G 86.10 2
Energy Kcal 51 0
Energy Kj 213 0
Protein G 0.82 1
Total lipid (fat) G 0.60 0
Carbohydrate G 11.88 0
Fiber G 5.4 0
Ash G 0.60 0
Source: USDA (2006)
21
Table 4: Mineral composition of Guava
Minerals Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 20 32 1.971
Iron Mg 0.31 12 0.022
Magnesium Mg 10 12 0.216
Phosphorus Mg 25 33 1.465
Potassium Mg 284 16 16.710
Sodium Mg 3 15 0.417
Zinc Mg 0.23 12 0.047
Copper Mg 0.103 12 0.020
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 5: Vitamin composition of Guava
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 183.5 112 15.120
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 792 25 285.960
Vitamin I U. IU 79 25 28.596
Source: USDA (2006)
2.15.2 Pineapple: Pineapples nutrients include calcium, potassium, fibre, vitamin. It is low
in fat and cholesterol. It is also a good source of vitamins B1, B6, and fiber. Pineapple is a
digestive and a natural anti-inflammatory fruits. A group of sulfur containing protolytic
enzyme in pineapple aid digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain. Bromelain has
demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory conditions such as acute smusitis, sorethroat
22
arthritis and gut and speeding recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple should be eaten
alone between meals (USDA, 2001).Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat
rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries diabetic ulcers and
general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plague from arterial
walls. Studies request that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with
narrowed arthritis such as argina sufferers.
Pineapple are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the
treatment of arteriosclerosis and anemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner, it combats
loss of memory, sadness and melancholy have exceptional juice and exceptional health
benefits. It is rich in manganese and just one cup of pineapple provide 73% of the daily
recommended amount of manganese. This aids the growth of bones in young people and the
strengthening of bones in older people.
Due to its high vitamin c content, pineapples are good for oral health. Vitamin c can
reduce risk of gingivitis and paridental disease. Vitamin c also increases the body‟s ability to
fight invading bacteria and other toxins that contribute to gum disease. Pineapple has been
thought good for the heart conditions and indeed should not be used by people with
haemophillia or by those with disease of the kidneys and liver. This is because it seems to
reduce the time taken to coagulate the blood – which is why it can be useful for heart
patients.
Pineapple could be useful for women suffering from painful periods. Ripe fruits of
good colour should be chosen. Pineapple are not sweeter on storage if they are picked unripe.
This is because the starch in the stem is taken up into the fruit and converted to sugar only at
the final stage of ripening. Pineapple has been shown to be important in maintaining good eye
health and helping to protect against age-related eye problems. There are even some
beneficial molecules hidden in the stems of pineapple. These molecules haven been seen to
23
act as a defence against certain types of cancer.
Aside from fiber, there are many other essential nutrients. Vitamins that can be found
in pineapple are vitamin and nutrients that can be found in pineapple include vitamin C,
vitamin A, calcium and potassium. It is believed that the best source for these nutrients is
fresh pineapple. Pineapple contains bromelain, which is known to help relieve or even stop
coughs altogether. The main reason is because it is anti-inflammatory and ultimately, it is
known to help with the loosening of mucus.
Table 6: Nutrients composition of Pineapple, raw: (Ananus comosus)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Sample count Std error
Proximate 86.50 37 0.300
Water g 49 0
Energy kcal 205 0
Energy kj 0.39 17 0.012
Protein g 0.43 15 0.148
Total lipid (fat) g 12.39 0
Fibre, total dietary g 12 0
Ash g 0.29 32 0.010
Source: USDA (2006)
24
Table 7: Mineral content of Pineapple
Minerals Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 7 10 0.778
Iron Mg 0.37 15 0.025
Magnesium Mg 14 11 0.529
Phosphorus Mg 7 10 0.365
Potassium Mg 113 12 5.626
Sodium Mg 1 11 0.074
Zinc Mg 0.08 15 0.007
Copper Mg 0.110 15 0.009
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 8: Vitamin content of Pineapple
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 15.4 11 0.550
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 23 22 5.188
Vitamin I U. IU 2 22 0.519
Source: USDA. Nutrition database for standard reference, release (14 July, 2006)
2.15.3 Mangoes: Mangoes contain several important phytochemicals including
cryptoxanthin, lutein, galic acid and anacardic acid. Mangoes are an incredibly healthy
snack. The entire fruit can be eaten for just over hundred calories. High in fibre, virtually fat
free and mangoes contain numerous vitamins.
Mangoes contain, B – carotene which may slow the aging process, reduce the risk of
certain forms of cancers, improve lung function, and reduce complications associated with
diabetes. Mangoes are rich in antioxidants such as beta carotene (44.5g/100g fruit) and
25
vitamin C (27.79/100g fruit). Mangoes contain vitamin A (equivalent 38g/100g fruit),
vitamin E. Mangoes also contain vitamin B6, (0.134mg/100g fruit), other vitamins B1and B12.
Mangoes supply nutrients such as potassium (15.6mg/100g fruit), calcium (10mg/100g fruit),
Magnesium (10g), iron (0.12mg) and zinc (0.04mg/100g) and fibre and are low in calories.
Mango peels and pulp also contain carotenoids, polyphenols, and antioxidant. The edible
peel of the mango is a good source of fibre (USDA, 2001). Mango is considered as an
energizer in Ayurved as 100g mango fruit provides about 17.0g carbohydrates.
The fruit is rich in pre-biotic dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and polyphenol and
flavonoids and antioxidant compounds. Mango is a very good sources of vitamin A and
flavornoid like beta carotene, alphacarotene and beta cryptoxanthin. These compounds are
known to have antioxidant properties and are essential for vision. Vitamin A is also required
for maintaining healthy mucus membranes and skin. Consumption of natural fruits rich in
carotene are known to protect from lung and oral cavity cancers.
Fresh mango is a very rich source of potassium. Potassium is an important
component of cells and body fluids that helps in controls heart rate and blood pressures. It is
also a very good source of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), vitamin C and copper. Consumption of
food rich in vitamin c helps body develop resistance against infectious agent and scavenge
harmful oxygen free radicals. Copper is a co-factor for many vital enzymes including
cytochrome c-oxidase and superoxide dimutaser. Copper is also required for the production
of red blood cells. Mango peels are also rich in phytonutrient such as the pigment
antioxidants like carotenenoids and polyphenols (USDA, 2001).
26
Table 9: Proximate composition of Mangoes, raw( Mangifera idica)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g` of edible
portion
sample count Std error
Proximate
Water g 81.71 108 0.323
Energy kcal 65 0
Energy kj 272 0
Protein g -0.51 79 0.025
Total lipid (fat) g 0.27 47 0.039
Carbohydrate g 17.00 0
Fiber g 1.8 0
Ash g 0.50 66 0.033
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 10: Mineral composition of Mangoes
Minerals Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 10 27 0.850
Iron Mg 0.13 21 0.021
Magnesium Mg 9 20 0.580
Phosphorus Mg 11 41 0.746
Potassium Mg 156 24 8.441
Sodium Mg 2 24 0.624
Zinc Mg 0.04 1
Copper Mg 0.110 17 0.009
Source: USDA (2006)
27
Table 13: Vitamin content of mangoes
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 27.7 162 1.740
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 389 91 24.817
Vitamin I U. IU 3894 91 24.417
Source: USDA (2006)
2.15.4 Pawpaw: Pawpaw is very nutritious fruits. They are high in vitamin C, magnesium,
iron, copper and manganese. They are good sources of potassium and several essential amino
acids .They also contain significant amount of riboflavin, niacin, calcium, phosphorus, and
zinc. Pawpaw contain these nutrients in amounts that are generally about the source or greater
than those found in bananas, apples, or oranges (USDA, 2001)
Pawpaw has a higher protein and fat content. Banana exceeds pawpaw in food energy
and Carbohydrate content in pawpaw is most similar in overal composition.
Pawpaw has three times as much vitamin C as apple, twice as orange. Pawpaw has six times
as much as riboflavin as apple, and twice as much as orange. Niacin content of pawpaw is
twice as high as bananas, fourteen times as high as apple and four times as high as orange.
Pawpaw and banana are both high in potassium having about twice as orange and three times
as much as apple. Pawpaw has one and half times as much calcium as orange and about ten
times as much phosphorus, four to twenty times as much iron, five to twenty times as much
zinc five to twelve times as copper, and sixteen to one hundred times as much as manganese,
as do banana, apple or orange.
Protein in pawpaw contains all of the essential amino acids and it exceeds apple in all
amino acids. It exceeds or equals banana and orange in most of them.
28
2.15.5 Orange: Orange like other citrus fruits is known for vitamin C content. Due to this
high amount of vitamin C, orange helps in absorbing calcium into the body and maintaining
the health of teeth and bones. It also contains vitamin A and vitamin B. 100g of orange
contains about 60 calories. This energy is available in form of sugar which can be absorbed
by the body easily. Hence orange juice is often fed to people who have become weak due to
some illness. Orange juice is also a good refresher after a long exhaustive day.
The nutritional value of orange makes good for indigestion constipation, bowel
disorder, dyspeosia, dental care, pyorrhea, bone health, heart diseases, respiratory problems,
cold, cough influenza, skin care, pimples, acne, fever measles, typhoid and tuberculosis
(USDA, 2001).
Table 14: Proximate composition of Orange, raw,( Citrus sinesis)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Sample count Std error
Proximate
Water g 86.75 88 0.121
Energy kcal 47 0
Energy kj 197 0
Protein g 094 69 0.014
Total lipid (fat) g 0.12 4 0.010
Carbohydrate g 11.75 0
Fiber g 2.4 0
Ash g 0.44 79 0.006
Source: USDA (2001)
29
Table 15: Mineral content of Orange
Minerals Units Value per 100gm of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 40 0
Iron Mg 0.10 64 0.004
Magnesium Mg 10 212 0.171
Phosphorus Mg 14 68 0.439
Potassium Mg 181 180 1.408
Sodium Mg 0 72 0.029
Zinc Mg 0.07 3
Copper Mg 0.045 64 0.003
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 16: Vitamin content of Orange
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 53.2 148 5.890
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 205 148 0.890
Vitamin I U. IU 21
Source: USDA (2006)
2.15.6 Avocado: Avocado is a fat-rich fruit, its fat content is about 23%. It contains dietary
fibre. It is rich in minerals such as copper magnesium, manganese and moderate in iron,
calcium, iodine, selenium, zinc and phosphorus. Avocado is well known for its high vitamins
K and A content. It also contains small amount of vitamins B C, vitamin E, thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, biotin and folate. Fruits are normally not rich in calories and
are eaten for their ability to provide vitamins, minerals and digestive fibre content. However,
30
avocado owing to its high fat content provides good quantity of calories. A -100g of edible
portion of the fruit provides about 215 calories.The nutritional value of avocado makes it
good for indigestion, hair care, heart health, skin care, psoriasis and bad breath (USDA,
2001).
Table 17: Avocado, raw,( Persea American)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Scruple count Std error
Proximate 0.817
Water G 74.27 58
Energy kcal 161 0
Energy Kj 674 0 0.042
Protein G 1.98 58
Total lipid (fat) G 15.32 54
Carbohydrate g 7.39 0
Fiber g 5.0 0 0.093
Ash g 1.04 57
Source: USDA (2006)
31
Table 18: Mineral content of Avocadoes
Minerals Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 11 6 1.610
Iron Mg 1.02 54 0.122
Magnesium Mg 39 54 3.062
Phosphorus Mg 41 54 2.996
Potassium Mg 599 30 57.306
Sodium Mg 10 30 1.146
Zinc Mg 0.42 1
Copper Mg 0.262 54 0.020
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 19: Vitamin content of Avocados
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 7.9 6 1.528
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 612 6 70.839
Vitamin I U. IU 61 6 7.084
Source: USDA.(2006)
32
2.15.7 Apple: The health benefits of apple are enormous. These makes it one of the most
valuable and savored fruits throughout the world. Apple contains minerals such as
magnesium, copper, manganese, calcium, iron, potassium and phosphorus in small quantities.
Apple also contains dietary fibre, which helps in reducing the bad cholesterol level.
Apple is rich in vitamin A and C. Vitamin A concentration is higher in the outer skin
than the flesh. Like potatoes, vitamin C concentration is higher just below the skin in apples
also. Based on this the skin should not be discarded. Other vitamins present in apple include
vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin and B6.
Apple does not have calories as high as avocado or olives. It is an excellent source of
energy. The calorie content varies as per the type of apple. Apple contains sugar which is
easily absorbed by the body. The weak and ill are often advised to eat apples for gaining
weight and fast recovery. The nutritional value of apple makes it useful for digestion,
stomach disorders, anemia, weakness, dental care, dysentery, heart disease, reheumatism, eye
disorders, cancers, gouts, and skin care (USDA, 2001).
2.15.8 Banana: Banana is rich in potassium, it also contains other minerals such as calcium,
iron, magnesium and phosphorus in large quantities. It is rich in fibRE making it useful
laxative and good for easing constipation. Bananas contains about 90 to 93 calorie per 100g.
This energy is easily absorbed by the body. Consumption 3-4 bananas daily, especially with
milk, is often recommended to gain weight, banana is useful for 100mg, weight because it has
only 90 calories per 100g (USDA, 2001). The nutritional value of banana makes it useful for
weight gain as well as weight loss, constipation, bowel problems, anemia, blood pressure,
heart problems, ulcers, brain stimulation, depression, nervous disorders, stress and morning
sickness.
33
Table 20: Proximate composition of Banana, raw (Musa paradisiacal)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Sample count Std error
Proximate
Water G 74.26 116 0.381
Energy Kcal 92 0
Energy Kj 385 0
Protein G 1.03 111 0.026
Total lipid (fat) G 0.48 11 0.135
Carbohydrate G 23.43 0
Fiber G 2.4 0
Ash G 0.80 110 0.016
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 21: Mineral content of Banana
Minerals Units Value per 100gm of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 6 5 0.374
Iron Mg 0.31 108 0.015
Magnesium Mg 29 103 1.265
Phosphorus Mg 20 102
Potassium Mg 396 55 6.356
Sodium Mg 1 61 0.141
Zinc Mg 0.16 13 0.008
Copper Mg 1.104 109 0.009
Source: USDA (2006)
34
Table 22: Vitamin content of Banana
Vitamins Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Vitamin C Mg 9.1 14 0.339
Vitamin, A, RE Mcg RE 81 5 10.050
Vitamin I U. IU 8 5 1.005
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 23: Proximate content of Pears, raw;( Pyrus communis)
Nutrients Units Value per 100g of edible
portion
Sample count Std error
Proximate
Water G 8381 44
Energy Kcal 59 0
Energy Kj 247 0
Protein G 0.39 40 0.021
Total lipid (fat) G 0.40 5 0.121
Carbohydrate G 15.11 0
Fiber G 2.4 0
Ash G 0.28 44 0.008
Source: USDA (2006)
35
Table 24: Mineral content of Pears
Minerals Units Value per 100g of
edible portion
Sample count Std error
Calcium Mg 11 6
Iron Mg 0.25 42 0.014
Magnesium Mg 6 38 0.287
Phosphorus Mg 11 38 0.269
Potassium Mg 125 22 3.920
Sodium Mg 0 21 0.043
Zinc Mg 0.12 5 0.026
Copper Mg 0.113 45 0.006
Source: USDA (2006)
Table 25: Vitamins A & C composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (mg/100g)
Fruits Ascorbate B-carotene
7.90 61.0
Guava Psidum guajava 180 79.0
Orange citrus species 53.2 21.0
Mango, Magnifera indica 27.7 38.9 765 IU
Pineapple Ananas comosus 15.4 1.20
Pawpaw, Carica papapya 61.8 17.5
Source Pamploma-Roger (2006)
36
Table 26: Proximate composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (%)
Fruits Moisture Carbohydrate Protein Fat Ash Fiber
Avocado peer 2.39(a)
1.98(a)
5(a)
Guava 6.07(a)
0.82(a)
5.40(a)
Orange, Citrus
species
91(c)
9(a)
0.42(a)
0.12(a)
0.08(c)
2.40(a)
Pineapple
Ananas
cosmosus
94(c)
11.20(a)
0.39(a)
1.20(a)
Pawpaw
Carica papaya
87(c)
8.01(a)
0.6(a)
4.83(c)
1.80
Sources: a = Pumploma – Roger (2006)
b = Umoh (1998)
c = Muncro and Bassir (1969)
37
Table 27: Mineral composition of commonly used fruits in Nigeria (mg/100g)
Fruits Calcium Phosphorus Iron Zinc Copper
Avocado peer 11.0 41.0 1.02 0.42
Guava 20.0 25.0 0.31 0.23
Orange 40.00 46.0 0.10 0.07 0.04
Mango Magrifera
indica
10.0 11.0 0.13 0.04
Pineapple, Ananas
cosmosus
7.00 7.00 0.37 0.08
Pawpaw Carica
papaya
24.00 5.0 0.10 0.07 0.5
Sources: Pamploma – Roger (2006)
38
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fruits and vegetables used in this study were identified and collected from forests
in Ayamelum local government area. Ayamelum local government comprises eight
communities (Omor,Umumbo, Omasi, Ifite-Ogwari, Umueje, Umerum, Igbakwu, and
Anaku)
3.2 Pilot study
3.2.1 Identification of samples
Three men and two women (Ayamelum indigenes) assisted the researcher to collect and
identify some of the wild fruits and vegetables are consumed in the locality. The fruits and
vegetables were collected from forests in two communities (Omor and Umumbo) in
Ayamelum local government area of Anambra State. They identified the wild fruits and
vegetables with their local names. Subsequently the researcher took samples of the fruits and
vegetables to the Department of Botany, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, for characterization
and identification with their botanical names. The result is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Some wild fruits and vegetables identified for use in Ayamelum local
government area.
Local names Botanical names Common names Parts of the plant
1 “Osenga” Olax viridis - Fruits
2 “Uchakulu” Vitex deniana black plum Leafy vegetable
3 “Akankolo” Ficus carpensis Fig trees in
general
Fruits & vegetable
4 “Aado” Gongronema Sp - Fruits
5 “Ukpodikili” Napoleona imperialis Tree species Fruits
6 “Okwocha” Afromomum Sp Monk‟s or
malaqueta
pepper
Fruits
39
All the fruits and vegetables collected were analyzed fresh for various nutrients and anti
nutrients
Vitex doniana
40
Napoleona imperalis
41
Afromonum specie
42
Ficus carpensis
43
Gongronema sp
44
3.2.2 Preparation of materials
Polyethylene bags were used for collecting and storing of samples to avoid
contamination. The leaves were picked to remove unwanted materials. The leaves and fruits
were washed with iodized water and excessive water was dripped off. Edible portions of the
vegetables and fruits were cut into pieces and homogenized using a blender. The
homogenized samples were transferred into an air tight container. The leaves and fruits were
analyzed fresh.
3.3 Chemical analysis
The samples were weighed to the nearest gram and transferred to the laboratory for
analysis. Each sample was homogenized separately and aliquots were taken from each
sample for moisture analysis. All analysis were done in triplicate. Proximate, mineral,
vitamin, antinutrient and food toxicant composition of the samples were determined using
AOAC (1995) methods.
3.3.1 Fat determination
Fat was estimated by the Soxhlet extraction (AOAC, 1995) procedure
1. Two (2y) grammes of samples were weighed into dry Soxhlet thimbles
2. The thimbles were suspended in a beaker and dried to a constant weight in an oven
and then placed in a soxhlet condenser containing ether.
3. A reflux condenser was attached to the contracted tube and heated, the ether was
returned to the flask with fat when the thimble was full.
4. The extraction was continued for about 6 hours at 120.c
5. The flask and fat were drained in air to vaporiate the ether and weighed to a constant
weight.
6. Fat was washed off with a fat solvent , dried and weighed again.
45
%fat =
Where X1 = initial weight of flask
X2 = final weight of flask
W = weight of samples
3.3.2 Moisture determination
This was done by hot air oven method of Pearson (1976).
1. Two (2a) grammes of samples were weighed into an empty aluminum dish with a
known weight.
2. The dish and samples were dried in an air oven at 1000C for 24 hours and cooled in
dessicator and re-weighed.
3. This process was repeated until weight is obtained.
% Moisture =
Where X = weight of empty dish
Y = initial weight of dish + weight of sample
3.3.3 Ash determination
1. One (1g) of sample was placed in a clean crucible of known weight. The crucible was
placed in a muffle furnace (6000C) over night or 24 hours.
2. The crucible and content were cooled in a dessicator and weighed again
%Ash =
Where X = weight of crucible
Z= weight of crucible and ash
46
3.4 Crude fibre determination
The crude fibre content of the samples were determined by using (AOAC) (1995).method
3.4.1 Method
1. Two (2g) grammes of the sample was placed in a 250ml beaker, boiled for 30 minutes
with a 100ml 0.12 MH2SO4 and filtered through a funnel.
2. The filtrate was washed with boiling water until the washing was no longer acidic.
3. The solution was boiled for another 30 minutes with 100ml of 0.12m sodium
hydroxide solution filtered three times with hot water and methylated spirit.
4. The residue was transferred into a crucible and dried in an oven for 1 hour. The
crucible and its content were cooled in a dessicator, and re-weighed (w2). The crucible
and its contents were taken to a furnace for ashing for 1 hour.
5. The ash sample was removed from the furnace after temperature had cooled and put
into a dessicator and later re weighed (w3). The crude fibre content was obtained
between the weight before and after incineration. The percent of the crude fibre was
calculated thus.
%Crude fibre =
Where W1 = weight of crucible
W2 = initial weight of sample and crucible
W3 = final weight of sample and crucible
100 = percentage
3.5 Crude protein determination
The micro-kjedahl method (AOAC,) (1995) involve digestion, distillation and
titration was used to obtain the crude protein content of the samples.
47
3.5.1 Digestion
1. One (1g) gramms of each sample was weighed into a 100ml Kjeldahl flask.
2. Twenty five (25) grammes of anhydrous sodium sulphate, 05g copper sulphate
(catalyst) and 5ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was added.
3. The flask was placed in fume chamber and heated gently until the solution turns
black, then the heat was cooled, washed and transferred into a 250 volumetric flask
and rinsed down with distilled water.
3.5.2 Distillation
1. A combination of boric acid and methyl red indicator was poured into conical flask
and placed under a condenser in such a way that the condenser tip was under the
liquid.
2. About 5ml of the digest plus 10ml of 60% concentrated sodium hydroxide was placed
in a Markham distillation apparatus.
3. Steam was let down through the distillation apparatus for 5 minutes. Ammonia was
evolved, which changed the color of the indicator from purple to green characteristics
of alkaline gas.
3.5.3 Titration
1. The distillate was titrated with 0.1 hydrochloric acid (HCl) until a neutral point was
reached (faint purple)
2. Titre value (T) = final biuret reading-initial biuret reading.
%Crude protein =
3.6 Carbohydrate determination
This was determined by difference ie. % carbohydrate = 100- (%protein + % fat + fibre + %
ash + % moisture).
48
3.7 Determination of iodine, iron, copper, calcium, zinc and phosphorus
AOAC (1995) wet digestion procedure was used in estimating iron (Fe), iodine, (12),
copper, calcium, zinc and phosphorus.
1. Five millitres (5ml) of perchloric acid and 10ml of neuric acid were heated under
fume chamber until the solution turned colourless and free of nitrogen. One (1g)
gramme of the sample was weighed into a 100ml round bottom flask and diluted into
a known volume before used for absorption spectrophotometer.
2. A spectrometric atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used on a general principle
that minerals are absorbed at different wavelength, Fe (248.30), 12(353.0, Cu(324.70),
Zn(213.90) , Ca(230.0) and P(470)
3. Readings were obtained against standard for each mineral and distilled water was
used to zero the spectrophotometer after each reading. Calibration curve was
constructed for each mineral and used to calculate its concentration.
3.8 Pro-vitamin A (RE) determination
Provitamin A was determined using the method adopted from IVACG (1982). The
vitamin A activity, as retinol equivalent (RE) was calculated based on the vivo concentration
factor (WHO, 1982).
Caratenoids (RS) (U-V-spectrophotometric method
Reagents
Cyclohexane
Carotenoids (RS)
3.8.1 Principle
The principle was based on the use of U-V- spectrophotometric method as ashing
with cyclohexane.
49
3.8.2 Method
The samples or prepared portions were dissolved in cyclohexane such that it contains
9-15 units per ml and obtained the wavelength of maximum absorption. The extinctions at
the wavelength were measured and calculated as fractions relative to that at 328nm. The
Eicm figure was calculated at 328nm if the wavelength of maximum absorption is 326 –
329nm and observed relative extinction was within 0.02.
3.8.3 Calculation
Potency (units 1g) = 1900x E328nm. The following correction was applied if the
maximum lies in the same range, but the relative extinction are not within 0.02 E238
(corrected 3.52(2E328 – E328 – E316 – E340).
3.9 Ascorbic acid determination
AOAC (2005) official methods of analysis was used. Ascorbic acid was determined
by using a dye solution of 2.6 dichophenol, indophenol (4 tablets of dye were dissolved in
little water and transferred to stopered measuring cylinder making volume to 100cm3 and
mixing well and labeled 1cm3 = 0.4mg AA. The quantity of samples was weighed, mashed
and liquidized with 50cm3 dilute acetic acid and transferred to stopered measuring cylinder
and made to 100cm3 .with water. The sample was homogenized, allowed to settle and the
supermatant liquid was decanted off. This was filtered with a muslin cloth and labeled
10cm3. An aliquot was transferred to a small conical flask using a pipette and titrated against
the dye solution to pale pink that pointed persisting for 15 seconds. Ascorbic acid content was
calculated in mg per 100g of sample. If average titration result = Vcm3dye (0.4mg Aacm
3).
100 extract contains V x 0.4 x 100 x100/wmg- AA =40v/wmg AA.
50
3.10 Determination of antinutrients
3.10.1 Phytate
The method described by Latta and Eskin (1980) was adopted. About 0.5g of each
sample was extracted with 100ml of 24% of hydrochloric acid. The diluted extract was
passed through the amberite resin. Inorganic phosphate was eluted with 0.1ml of sodium
chloride and 0.7m sodium chloride. Colour was developed with 1ml of modified Wade
reagent, 0.03% Fecl,6 Hz 0 and 0.3% sulphur salicylic acid. The absorbance was read at
500m in a CE 2343. Digital grading spectrophotometer was made up to mark 25ml 30%
HCL.
3.10.2 Tannins
Tannins was determined by using the spectrophotometric method described by Price
and Butter (1977). About 0.5g of each sample was extracted with 3ml methanol. The extract
was mixed with 5.0ml water 3ml of 1.0ml (Fecl2 in 0.1N and 0.8 ml2 Fe (w2) was added to
0.1ml of the solution. The extract was read at 720nm on a spectrophotometer.
3.10.3 Saponins
About 0.1g of the sample was boiled and filtered with Whatman No.1. Five (5)ml of
the titrate was pipetted into a test tube and 2ml of olive oil was added. The solution was
shaken vigorously