CHE Fall 2014 Nuclear 2X Grey Scale

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Nuclear

Energy Technology & PolicyFred C. Beach, Ph.D.

CHE 359/384 & EER 396, Fall 2014

U.S. Energy Use

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Nuclear History

1939: Nuclear fission discovered 1942: First nuclear chain reaction takes place in Chicago as part of thewartime Manhattan Project

1945: The first nuclear weapons test at Alamagordo, NM 1951: Electricity was first generated from a nuclear reactor in Idaho

EBR-I produced about 100 kW 1970s: Nuclear power grows rapidly (averaging 30% annually from 70 75) 1987: Nuclear power now generates ~15% of global electricity 1980s: Nuclear expansion slows because of environmentalist opposition,

high interest rates, energy conservation prompted by the 1973/1979 oilshocks, and Three Mile Island (1979, USA) and Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine,USSR)

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Nuclear Power Is Surrounded by Ironies

Nuclear power helps mitigate climate change Republicans like nuclear, but dont care about climate

change Democrats care about climate change, but dont like nuclear

Nuclear power is compatible with strong government Democrats are ok with govt, but not nuclear power Republicans are ok with nuclear power, but not govt

Professional Discipline France (run by engineers) has a lot of nuclear power USA (run by lawyers) has relatively less

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Nuclear Technology Overview

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235 U Chain Reaction

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Atomic Energy

Energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms Radioactive molecules release that energy during

nuclear reactions

Mass and energy are the same: E = mc 2c = speed of light = 3 ! 10 10 cm/s

Small changes in mass yield a lot of energy

Burning a tonne of coal: 0.3 mg disappears Reacting a tonne of 235 U: 6.6 g disappears

20,000 times better energy density than coal

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Uranium Resources Are Distributed Across

Friendly Countries

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Natural Uranium, Enriched Uranium

Naturally-occurring uranium consists of twoisotopes: 235 U (0.71%) and 238 U (99.29%)

LEU = low-enriched Uranium Less than 20% 235 U Commercial reactors in the U.S. need uranium enriched

to around 3-5% 235 U

HEU = high-enriched Uranium

More than 20%

235

U Weapons-grade is more than 80% 235 U

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235 U Is A Better Reactor Fuel Than 238 U

Enrichment is achieved by taking advantage ofthe small mass difference between 235 U and 238 U Use centrifuges to spin uranium gas (UF 6)

It also means that most (85%) of the uranium wemine never even sees the inside of a reactor

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Centrifuges Are Used to Enrich

UraniumEvery time you spin a salad dryer,you see that, when subjected torotation, heavier materials in amixture will concentrate near theouter wall, outside of the lighterstuff.

The same principle is operative in acentrifuge. UF6 gas is rotated atvery high angular speeds, with theresult that the heavier 238 UF 6 isconcentrated near the wall while thelighter 235 UF 6 is relatively moreprevalent near the center of thechamber.

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Thousands of Centrifuge Units, Connected inSeries and Parallel, Form a Cascade

i

i+1i+2

NN-1

i-1

21

( !! . )

( !! . )

Feed

Product

Tails

Stage

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Enriching Uranium with Centrifuges Is

Energy-Intensive

Primarily electricity needed for enrichment During WWII, at its peak, fuel enrichment

consumed ~15% of all electrical power in theUSA TVA dams powered the original centrifuges in TN

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Columbia River dams powered centrifuges in WA

Pacific Northwest National Labs

Leaves a detectable signature

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Nuclear Fuel Cycles Are Open or Closed

Open Fuel Cycle: what the US uses Ore mining, refining/enriching, reacting, disposing/

storing (end-to-end) Generates vast volumes of radioactive waste

Closed Fuel Cycle: what France uses After reacting, turn depleted uranium into plutonium

to burn again (close the loop) Create more plutonium than they burn

Aka breeder reactors Smaller volumes of waste Proliferation concerns because of plutonium

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Todays Nuclear Fuel Cycle Is OpenUranium Mining,Milling, Refining

Ore Tailings

Yellowcake(U3O 8)

Conversion

UF 6(gas)

Enrichment

DepletedUranium

EnrichedUO 2

FuelFabrication

Fuel Assemblies

Reactor

e -Irradiated

FuelOnsite CoolingStorage

Transportation

Disposal

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Closed Fuel Cycles with Breeding CreateMore Fuel and Less Waste

breeder reactors turn depleted uranium into plutonium they create more plutonium than they burn.

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Pressurized Water Reactor

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Boiling Water Reactor

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Pressurized Water Reactors Are the MostCommon in the US and Globally

Reactor Type Main Countries # GW Fuel Coolant Moderator

Pressurized WaterReactor (PWR)

US, France,Japan, Russia

252 235 Enriched UO2 Water Water

Boiling Water Reactor(BWR)

US, Japan,Sweden

92 83 Enriched UO2 Water Water

Gas-cooled Reactor(Magnox & AGR)

UK 34 13 Natural U (metal),enriched UO2

CO2 Graphite

Pressurized HeavyWater ReactorCANDU (PHWR)

Canada 33 18 Natural UO2 Heavywater

Heavywater

Light Water GraphiteReactor (RBMK)

Russia 14 14.6 Enriched UO2 Water Graphite

Fast Neutron Reactor(FBR)

Japan, France,Russia

4 1.3 PUO2 and UO2 Liquidsodium

None

Total 434 365

Source: Nuclear Engineering International handbook 1999,but including Pickering A in Canada (via Prof. Biegalski).

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Nuclear Power In The World

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While France Generates The GreatestPercentage of Its Electricity From Nuclear "

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" the United States Generates The GreatestAmount of Electricity From Nuclear

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Main Points About Nuclear Power

Nuclear is a major part of our fuel mix Nuclear has many advantages and

disadvantages Nuclear power has improved with time Nuclear economics are tricky The future of nuclear power is unclear

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Nuclear Energy Provides ~9% of US Energy


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Nuclear Provides One-fifth Of US Electricity

Total Energy Consumption for Electricity: 39.3 Quads

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Nuclear Energy is Only Used for Electricity

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In Total, 132 Nuclear Power Plants Have

Been Built in the United States

Source: EIA, AER (2009)

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1996 Was The Last Year A Nuclear Power

Plant Came Online

Source: EIA, AER (2009)Watts Bar (TVA) began constructionin 1973, and came online in 1996

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Nuclear Power Was Ramped Up in the 1970sand 1980s

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Nuclear Capacity Has Increased, Even AfterPower Plants Were No Longer Built

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Nuclear Power Has Several Advantages and

Drawbacks Advantages

Supreme energy density [energy output per unit mass offuel]

Minimal waste generation per kWh all waste is captured

Excellent capacity factor, maintenance & safety records Domestic or friendly sources of uranium

Disadvantages Waste is radioactive and long-lived

Public safety (accidents, attacks) Concerns about weapons proliferation

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Nuclear Energy Density is Remarkable

Fuel Gravimetric Energy Density [MJ/kg]Nuclear Fission 77,000,000

Hydrogen 120Natural Gas 59

Gasoline 44Ethanol 24Wood 16

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Nuclear Capacity Factors Have ImprovedOver Time

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The Total Generation Provided by NuclearPower Has Increased for Decades, Despite

Fewer Power Plants

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The Portion of Generation Provided byNuclear Power Has Stayed Level for Decades,

Despite Fewer Power Plants

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Nuclear Economics is Complicated

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Levelized Nuclear Power Costs Vary

From $0.03 to $0.14per kWh

Proponents cite thelow number

Opponents cite thehigh number

Source: Hultman, Koomey and Kammen, ES&T, 20079/24/14 41

Radiation Risks For Nuclear Power Are Low "Unless Theres An Accident

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Nuclear Power Must Consider Waste

Disposal In Its Economics Funds Committed for the Nuclear Waste Fund

$0.001/kWh for waste disposal Included in the fuel costs

$33.2 billion plus interest since 1983 $10.8 billion already spent

Estimated Cost of Decommissioning $300-500 million/plant (~$31 billion at low end) Decommissioning not included in production costs.

Same is true for dams, coal plants, etc.

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Designs for Waste Repositories Have Exist, but Yucca Mountain Has Been Killed Politically

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The Future of Nuclear is Unclear

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Energy Policy Act of 2005 Encourages

Nuclear Specific provisions to encourage the

development of nuclear in the UnitedStates

Some specific examples: Liability limits Cost-overrun support Tax credits

Research and development Steps up DoE work to address high-

level waste problem.

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Gen III Reactors Prioritize Pasive Safety

Source: Westinghouse Electric (via WSJ)9/24/14 47

Gen IV Reactors Prioritize Proliferation

Resistance

Hydrogen Production Breeding and Transmutation Proliferation Resistance Closed Fuel Cycle Simplification Increased safety

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Small Nuclear Is Growing As A Possibility

Babcock & Wilcox


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Obama Administration Is Supporting Small,

Modular Nuclear Reactors

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A Nuclear Renaissance Is Imminent " and HasBeen for Years

Sep 8, 2007

May 19, 2001

March 29, 2009

May 29, 2009

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The End of NuclearPower

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The Future of Nuclear Is Unclear

Many have declared a nuclear renaissance is underway, but Dozens of nuclear plants are being built Dozens are planned Hundreds are proposed

Will industrialized nations allow nuclear permits to expire? build more nuclear to mitigate CO2 emissions?

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Documents

CHE Fall 2014 Nuclear 2X Grey Scale