Chapter SixChapter SixLanguage and Language and

CognitionCognition

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1. What is Cognition?1. What is Cognition?

Mental processes, Mental processes,

information information

processingprocessing Mental process or Mental process or

faculty of knowing, faculty of knowing,

including awareness, including awareness,

perception, reasoning, perception, reasoning,

and judgment.and judgment.

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The formal approach:The formal approach: structural structural patterns, including the study of patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure. lexical structure.

The psychological approach:The psychological approach: language from the view of general language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.memory, attention, and reasoning.

The conceptual approach:The conceptual approach: how how language structures (processes & language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.patterns) conceptual content.

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2. Psycholinguistics2. Psycholinguistics

Psychological aspects of Psychological aspects of language.language.

Psychological states and mental Psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.activity with the use of language.

Language acquisition, language Language acquisition, language production & comprehension.production & comprehension.

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Structural linguisticsStructural linguistics Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology AnthropologyAnthropology Neurosciences Neurosciences

Related fieldsRelated fields

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Language acquisition (L1 / Language acquisition (L1 / L2)L2)

Language comprehensionLanguage comprehension Language productionLanguage production Language disordersLanguage disorders Language and ThoughtLanguage and Thought NeurocognitionNeurocognition

Six subjects of researchSix subjects of research

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2.1 Language Acquisition2.1 Language Acquisition

Holophrastic stageHolophrastic stage Language’s sound patternsLanguage’s sound patterns Phonetic distinctions in parents’ Phonetic distinctions in parents’

language.language. One-word stage: objects, actions, One-word stage: objects, actions,

motions, routines.motions, routines.

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Two-word stage: around 18mTwo-word stage: around 18m

Child Child utteranceutterance

Mature speakerMature speaker PurposePurpose

Want Want cookiecookie

I want a cookieI want a cookie RequestRequest

More milkMore milk I want some more I want some more milkmilk

RequestRequest

Joe seeJoe see I (Joe) see youI (Joe) see you InformiInformingng

My cupMy cup This is my cupThis is my cup WarninWarningg

Mommy Mommy chairchair

This chair belongs to This chair belongs to MM

WarninWarningg

Big boyBig boy I am a big boyI am a big boy BragginBraggingg

Red carRed car That car is redThat car is red NamingNaming

That carThat car That is a carThat is a car NamingNaming

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Child Child utteranceutterance

Mature speakerMature speaker PurposePurpose

No sleepNo sleep I don’t want to go to I don’t want to go to sleepsleep

RefusalRefusal

Not tiredNot tired I am not tiredI am not tired RefusalRefusal

Where Where doll?doll?

Where is the doll?Where is the doll? QuestioQuestionn

Truck tableTruck table The truck is on the The truck is on the tabletable

InformiInformingng

Daddy runDaddy run Daddy is runningDaddy is running InformiInformingng

Joe pushJoe push I (Joe) pushed (the I (Joe) pushed (the cat)cat)

InformiInformingng

Push catPush cat I pushed the carI pushed the car InformiInformingng

Give candyGive candy Give me the candyGive me the candy RequestRequest

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Three-word-utterance stageThree-word-utterance stage Give doggie paper.Give doggie paper. Put truck window.Put truck window. Tractor go floor.Tractor go floor.

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Fluent grammatical conversation Fluent grammatical conversation stagestage Embed one constituent inside Embed one constituent inside

another:another: Give doggie paper. Give doggie paper. Give big doggie paper.Give big doggie paper.

Use more function words: missing Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of age of 3, with a full range of sentence types.sentence types.

All parts of all language are acquired All parts of all language are acquired before the child turns four.before the child turns four.

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2.2 Language 2.2 Language comprehensioncomprehension Mental lexicon:Mental lexicon: information about information about

the properties of words, retrievable the properties of words, retrievable when understanding languagewhen understanding language For example, we may use For example, we may use

morphological rules to decompose a morphological rules to decompose a complex word like complex word like rewritable rewritable the first the first few times we encounter it and after few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. access it as a unit or word.

It means that frequency of exposure It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall determines our ability to recall stored instances.stored instances.

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Connectionism:Connectionism: readers use the readers use the same system of links between same system of links between spelling units and sound units to spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of generate the pronunciations of written words like written words like tove tove and to access and to access the pronunciations of familiar words the pronunciations of familiar words like like stove, stove, or words that are or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like exceptions to these patterns, like lovelove. .

SimilaritySimilarity and and frequencyfrequency play play important roles in processing and important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known on their similarity to the known ones. ones.

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Cohort theory:Cohort theory: Marslen-Wilson & Welsh Marslen-Wilson & Welsh

(1978)(1978) The first few phonemes The first few phonemes

of a spoken word of a spoken word activate a set of word activate a set of word candidates that are candidates that are consistent with the consistent with the input. input.

Word recognitionWord recognition

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Interactive model:Interactive model: Higher processing levels have a direct, Higher processing levels have a direct,

“top-down” influence on lower levels. “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the Lexical knowledge can affect the

perception of phonemes. There is perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units. units.

In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.speech signal and replaced by noise.

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Race model:Race model: Pre-lexical route:Pre-lexical route: computes computes

phonological information from the phonological information from the acoustic signalacoustic signal

Lexical route:Lexical route: the phonological the phonological information associated with a word information associated with a word becomes available when the word becomes available when the word itself is accesseditself is accessed

When word-level information When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. lexical route won the race.

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Factors involved in word Factors involved in word recognition: recognition: Frequency effect:Frequency effect: the ease with which the ease with which

a word is accessed due to its more a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.frequent usage in the L.

Recency effects:Recency effects: the ease with which the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or occurrence in the discourse or context.context.

Cotext:Cotext: We recognize a word more We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.provide an appropriate context for it.

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Lexical ambiguityLexical ambiguity

All the meanings related All the meanings related to the word are accessed.to the word are accessed.

Only one meaning is Only one meaning is accessed initially.accessed initially.

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Are you engaged ?Are you engaged ? My friend drove me to the bank.My friend drove me to the bank. They passed the port at midnight.They passed the port at midnight. Please give me a camel.Please give me a camel. 上课上课 做手术做手术

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The clerkThe clerk (entering): Are you engaged? (entering): Are you engaged?

AugustusAugustus: What business is that of : What business is that of yours? However, if you will take the yours? However, if you will take the trouble to read the society papers for trouble to read the society papers for this week, you will see that I am this week, you will see that I am engaged to the Honourable Lucy engaged to the Honourable Lucy Popham, youngest daughter of. . .Popham, youngest daughter of. . .

The clerkThe clerk: That isn’t what I mean. Can : That isn’t what I mean. Can you see a female?you see a female?

AugustusAugustus: Of course, I can see a female : Of course, I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you suppose I as easily as a male. Do you suppose I am blind?am blind?

(George Bernard Shaw: (George Bernard Shaw: Augustus Does His BitAugustus Does His Bit))

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Comprehension of sentencesComprehension of sentences Serial models:Serial models: the sentence the sentence

comprehension system continually and comprehension system continually and sequentially followssequentially follows constraints of a constraints of a language’s grammarlanguage’s grammar

Describe how the processor quickly Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. grammatical information.

Any such representation is then quickly Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be range of information that might be relevant.relevant.

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Parallel models:Parallel models: emphasize that the emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in speaker/writer and of the world in general. general. Describe how the processor uses all Describe how the processor uses all

relevant information to quickly evaluate relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. of a sentence.

It is generally acknowledged that It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.in understanding a sentence.

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Comprehension of written and Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to because it is not always easy to identify the constituentsidentify the constituents (phrases) (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. which they relate to one another. Psycholinguists have proposed Psycholinguists have proposed

principles interpreting sentence principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints.grammatical constraints.

Structural factors in Structural factors in comprehensioncomprehension

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Minimal attachment:Minimal attachment: the “structurally the “structurally simpler”--structural simpler”--structural simplicity guides all simplicity guides all initial analyses in initial analyses in sentence sentence comprehension.comprehension. The second wife will The second wife will

claim claim the inheritancethe inheritance belongs to her.belongs to her.

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Garden path sentencesGarden path sentences

The horse raced past the barn The horse raced past the barn fell.fell.

The man who hunts ducks out on The man who hunts ducks out on weekends.weekends.

The cotton clothing is usually The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi.made of grows in Mississippi.

Fat people eat accumulates.Fat people eat accumulates.

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Lexical factors in Lexical factors in comprehension comprehension

The human sentence processor is The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the specific words that is stored in the lexicon. lexicon. The salesman glanced at The salesman glanced at

a/the customer a/the customer with with suspicion/ripped jeanssuspicion/ripped jeans..

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Syntactic ambiguitySyntactic ambiguity

Different possible Different possible ways in which ways in which words can be fit words can be fit into phrases. into phrases.

Ambiguous Ambiguous category of some category of some of the words in of the words in the sentence.the sentence.

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John painted the car in the garage.John painted the car in the garage.

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May likes the vase on May likes the vase on the cupboard the cupboard which she which she bought yesterday.bought yesterday.

The students will The students will discuss their plan to discuss their plan to hold a dancing party hold a dancing party in in the classroomthe classroom..

I know Simon I know Simon better better than youthan you..

Tell me Tell me if you have timeif you have time..

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My brother My brother wasn’t reading all the wasn’t reading all the

time.time. The chairman The chairman appointed Mr. appointed Mr.

Brown an assistant.Brown an assistant. The scholar wrote long thesis The scholar wrote long thesis andand

books.books. FlyingFlying planes can be dangerous. planes can be dangerous.

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Comprehension of textComprehension of text

Resonance model:Resonance model: information in long-information in long-term memory is term memory is automatically automatically activated by the activated by the presence of material presence of material that apparently bears that apparently bears a rough semantic a rough semantic relation to it.relation to it.

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Discourse interpretationDiscourse interpretation

Schemata and drawing inferencesSchemata and drawing inferences Schema:Schema: a pre-existing knowledge a pre-existing knowledge

structure in memory typically structure in memory typically involving the normal expected involving the normal expected patterns of things.patterns of things.

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[RESTAURANT] Schema:[RESTAURANT] Schema:

Entering, ordering, eating and Entering, ordering, eating and exiting.exiting.

Entering Scene:Entering Scene:

The customer enters a The customer enters a restaurant,restaurant,

looks for a table,looks for a table,

decides where to decides where to sit,sit,

walks to the walks to the table…table…

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1.1. John went into a John went into a restaurant. He asked restaurant. He asked the waitress for coq the waitress for coq au vin. He ate it, paid au vin. He ate it, paid the bill and left. the bill and left. (perfectly (perfectly understandable)understandable)

2.2. John went into a John went into a restaurant. He saw a restaurant. He saw a waitress. He got up waitress. He got up and went home. and went home. (does not seem to (does not seem to make sense)make sense)

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3.3. Apartment for rent. Apartment for rent. $500.$500.

4.4. I stopped to get some I stopped to get some groceries but there groceries but there weren't any baskets weren't any baskets left so by the time I left so by the time I arrived at the check-arrived at the check-out counter I must out counter I must have looked like a have looked like a juggler having a bad juggler having a bad day.day.

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5.5. A: Would you A: Would you like a coffee?like a coffee?

B: Yes, please.B: Yes, please.

……

B: No and no.B: No and no.

A: Right.A: Right.

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6.6.一天，我在看中央三台的一天，我在看中央三台的中国音乐电视。我正看得中国音乐电视。我正看得津津有味的时候，老妈回津津有味的时候，老妈回来了说：“这是谁啊？”来了说：“这是谁啊？”当时正是龙宽九段在唱歌。当时正是龙宽九段在唱歌。我就说：“龙宽九段。”我就说：“龙宽九段。”这时，老妈一本正经的问：这时，老妈一本正经的问：“九段？下围棋的啊？她“九段？下围棋的啊？她还能唱歌啊？”还能唱歌啊？”

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Pragmatic ambiguityPragmatic ambiguity

There is a fly in my soup.There is a fly in my soup. Today is Sunday.Today is Sunday.

““Do you enjoy sitting beside Do you enjoy sitting beside me?” she asked coldly.me?” she asked coldly.

““Oh, no, ”I said.Oh, no, ”I said. ““Well, you are not wanted here. Well, you are not wanted here.

””

(W. E. B. DuBois, “On Being (W. E. B. DuBois, “On Being Crazy”)Crazy”)

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2.3 Language production2.3 Language production

Access to wordsAccess to words Conceptualization:Conceptualization: what to express what to express Word selection:Word selection: a competitive a competitive

processprocess Morpho-phonological encoding:Morpho-phonological encoding:

target wordstarget words

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Generation of sentencesGeneration of sentences Conceptual preparation:Conceptual preparation: deciding deciding

what to say – a global plan is neededwhat to say – a global plan is needed Word retrieval and application of Word retrieval and application of

syntactic knowledgesyntactic knowledge Processes of sentence generationProcesses of sentence generation

Functional planning:Functional planning: assigning assigning grammatical functionsgrammatical functions

Positional encoding:Positional encoding: getting into getting into positions for each unitpositions for each unit

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Written language Written language productionproduction Similar to spoken Similar to spoken

language.language. Orthographic form instead Orthographic form instead

of phonological form.of phonological form. However, phonology plays However, phonology plays

an important role in this an important role in this process.process.

Writers have more time Writers have more time available for conceptual available for conceptual preparation and preparation and planning.planning.

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3. Cognitive Linguistics3. Cognitive Linguistics

CognitionCognition is is the way we thinkthe way we think. . Cognitive linguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific is the scientific

study of the relation between the way study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we we communicate and the way we think.think.

It is an approach to language that is It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.conceptualize it.

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Three main approachesThree main approaches

The Experiential ViewThe Experiential View The Prominence ViewThe Prominence View The Attentional ViewThe Attentional View

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Experiential viewExperiential view Car:Car: a box-like shape, wheels, a box-like shape, wheels,

doors, windowsdoors, windows

comfort, speed, mobility, comfort, speed, mobility, independence, independence,

social statussocial status

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Prominence viewProminence view

The selection and The selection and arrangement of the arrangement of the information that is information that is expressed.expressed. The car crashed into The car crashed into

the tree.the tree. The tree is hit by the The tree is hit by the

car.car.

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Attentional viewAttentional view What we actually express reflects What we actually express reflects

which parts of an event attract which parts of an event attract our attention.our attention. The car crashed into the tree.The car crashed into the tree.

a.a. How the car started to swerve;How the car started to swerve;

b.b. How it skidded across the road;How it skidded across the road;

c.c. How it rumbled onto the verge.How it rumbled onto the verge.

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3.1 Construal3.1 Construal

ConstrualConstrual: the ability to conceive : the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in and portray the same situation in different waysdifferent ways

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1. Attention / salience1. Attention / salience We activate the most We activate the most

relevant concepts more relevant concepts more than concepts that are than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.thinking about.a.a. We drove the road.We drove the road.

b.b. She ran across the road.She ran across the road.

c.c. The workers dug through The workers dug through the road.the road.

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2. Judgment / Comparison, Figure / 2. Judgment / Comparison, Figure / GroundGround

We cannot attend to all facets of a We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time. scene at the same time.

We cannot pay attention to We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience.events of particular salience.

Figure-ground organizationFigure-ground organization The ground seems to be placed behind The ground seems to be placed behind

the figure extending in the background. the figure extending in the background. The figure is thus more prominent, or The figure is thus more prominent, or

even more interesting, than the ground.even more interesting, than the ground.

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Figure-ground reversalFigure-ground reversal

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Figure-ground also seems Figure-ground also seems to apply to our perception to apply to our perception of moving objects.of moving objects.

In order to distinguish In order to distinguish between stationary and between stationary and dynamic figure-ground dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term Langacker) use the term trajectortrajector for a moving for a moving figure and figure and landmarklandmark for for the ground of a moving the ground of a moving figure.figure.

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There’s a catThere’s a cat[figure][figure] on the on the matmat[ground][ground]

There are still some There are still some peanutspeanuts[figure][figure] in the bag in the bag[ground][ground]

BatmanBatman[figure][figure] was standing on was standing on the roofthe roof[ground][ground]

The computerThe computer[figure][figure] under the under the tabletable[ground][ground] is mine is mine

The spacecraftThe spacecraft[figure][figure] was was hovering over hovering over MetropolisMetropolis[ground][ground]

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TarzanTarzan[trajector][trajector] jumped into jumped into the riverthe river[landmark][landmark]

SpidermanSpiderman[trajector][trajector] climbed up climbed up the wallthe wall[landmark][landmark]

The birdThe bird[trajector][trajector] winged its winged its way out the windowway out the window[landmark][landmark]

WeWe[trajector][trajector] went across the went across the fieldfield[landmark][landmark]

II[trajector][trajector]’m going to ’m going to LondonLondon[landmark][landmark]

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3. Perspective3. Perspective generally depends generally depends on two things. on two things.

where we are situated in relation where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewing. to the scene we're viewing.

how the scene is arranged in how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. relation to our situatedness. The man is in front of the tree. The tree is behind the man.

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The tree is in front of the man.

The man is behind the tree.

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3.2 Categorization3.2 Categorization The process of classifying our The process of classifying our

experiences into different categories experiences into different categories based on commonalities and based on commonalities and differencesdifferences A major ingredient in the creation of A major ingredient in the creation of

human knowledgehuman knowledge Allows us to relate present experiences to Allows us to relate present experiences to

past onespast ones Three levels:Three levels:

basic levelbasic level superordinate levelsuperordinate level subordinate level.subordinate level.

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Basic level Basic level Superordinate Superordinate levellevel

Animal Animal

Horse Horse Dog Dog CatCat

Chihuahua Chihuahua German German dachshunddachshund

shepherd shepherd

Subordinate levelSubordinate levelVertical organizationVertical organization

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3.3 Image Schema3.3 Image Schema

Johnson, Mark. 1987.Johnson, Mark. 1987.The The body in the mind: The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason.imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Chicago Press.

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An An image-schemaimage-schema is a “skeletal” is a “skeletal” mental representation of a mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.experience. They are highly schematic They are highly schematic

representations of perceptually representations of perceptually grounded experience.grounded experience.

They emerge from our embodied They emerge from our embodied interactions with the world.interactions with the world.

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Center-periphery schemaCenter-periphery schema Involves Involves

a physical or metaphorical a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and core and edge, and

degrees of distance from the degrees of distance from the core. core.

Examples (English):Examples (English): The structure of an apple The structure of an apple An individual’s perceptual An individual’s perceptual

sphere sphere An individual’s social sphere, An individual’s social sphere,

with family and friends at the with family and friends at the core and others having core and others having degrees of peripherality degrees of peripherality

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Containment schemaContainment schema

Involves a physical Involves a physical or metaphorical or metaphorical boundary boundary enclosed area or enclosed area or

volume, or volume, or excluded area or excluded area or

volume.volume.

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Bodily experience: human bodies as Bodily experience: human bodies as containers.containers.

Structural elements: interior, Structural elements: interior, boundary, exteriorboundary, exterior

Basic logic: For all A, X, either IN Basic logic: For all A, X, either IN (X,A) or not.(X,A) or not.

For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) and CONTAINER (B) and IN (A, B) and CONTAINER (B) and IN (A, B) and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B). and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B). The ship is coming into view.The ship is coming into view. She’s deep in thought.She’s deep in thought. We stood in silence.We stood in silence.

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Cycle schemaCycle schema Involves repetitious events and event Involves repetitious events and event

series. Its structure includes the series. Its structure includes the following:following: A starting point A starting point A progression through successive events A progression through successive events

without backtracking without backtracking A return to the initial state A return to the initial state

The schema often has superimposed The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a climax and then goes through a release or decline.release or decline.

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Examples Examples (English)(English) Days Days Weeks Weeks Years Years Sleeping and Sleeping and

waking waking Breathing Breathing Circulation Circulation Emotional buildup Emotional buildup

and release and release

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End-of-path schemaEnd-of-path schema An image schema in which a An image schema in which a

location is understood as the location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path termination of a prescribed path

Example (English): In the Example (English): In the following sentence, it is following sentence, it is understood that one must understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching traverse the hill before reaching Sam’s home, which is at the end Sam’s home, which is at the end of the path:of the path: Sam lives over the hill.Sam lives over the hill.

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Force schemaForce schema Involves physical or metaphorical Involves physical or metaphorical

causal interaction. It includes the causal interaction. It includes the following elements: following elements: A source and target of the force A source and target of the force A direction and intensity of the force A direction and intensity of the force A path of motion of the source and/or A path of motion of the source and/or

target target A sequence of causation A sequence of causation

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Examples (English): Examples (English): Physical: Wind, GravityPhysical: Wind, Gravity Structural elements: force, path, Structural elements: force, path,

entity, etc.entity, etc. Interaction, directionality, causalityInteraction, directionality, causality CompulsionCompulsion BlockageBlockage CounterforceCounterforce DiversionDiversion Removal of restraintRemoval of restraint

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Link schemaLink schema

Consists of two or more entities, Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond metaphorically, and the bond between them.between them.

Entity AEntity A Entity BEntity B

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Examples (English):Examples (English): A child holding her A child holding her

mother’s hand mother’s hand Someone plugging a Someone plugging a

lamp into the wall lamp into the wall A causal “connection” A causal “connection” Kinship “ties”Kinship “ties”

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Part-whole schema Part-whole schema Involves physical or metaphorical Involves physical or metaphorical

wholes along with their parts and wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.a configuration of the parts.

Examples (English):Examples (English): Physical: The body and its parts Physical: The body and its parts Metaphorical: The family; Metaphorical: The family;

The caste structure of India The caste structure of India

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Path schemaPath schema Involves physical or metaphorical Involves physical or metaphorical

movement from place to place, movement from place to place, and and

consists of a starting point, a consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate goal, and a series of intermediate points. points.

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Examples (English):Examples (English): Physical: Paths; Trajectories Physical: Paths; Trajectories Metaphorical: The purpose-as-Metaphorical: The purpose-as-

physical-goal metaphor, as physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following expressed in the following sentences:sentences: Tom has Tom has gone a long waygone a long way toward toward

changing his personality. changing his personality. You have You have reached the midpointreached the midpoint of of

your flight training. your flight training. She's just She's just starting outstarting out to make her to make her

fortune. fortune. Jane was Jane was sidetrackedsidetracked in her search in her search

for self-understanding.for self-understanding.

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Scale schemaScale schema Involves an increase or decrease of Involves an increase or decrease of

physical or metaphorical amount, physical or metaphorical amount, and and

consists of any of the following:consists of any of the following: A closed- or open-ended A closed- or open-ended

progression of amount progression of amount A position in the progression A position in the progression

of amount of amount One or more norms of amount One or more norms of amount A calibration of amount A calibration of amount

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Examples:Examples: Physical amounts Physical amounts Properties in the number system Properties in the number system Economic entities such as supply Economic entities such as supply

and demand and demand

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Verticality schemaVerticality schema

Involves “up” and “down” Involves “up” and “down” relations.relations.

Examples:Examples: Standing upright Standing upright Climbing stairs Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub Watching water rise in a tub

A

B

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3.4 Metaphor3.4 Metaphor

George Lakoff and George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live Metaphors We Live By.By. University of University of Chicago Press. Chicago Press.

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Conceptual Metaphor TheoryConceptual Metaphor Theory

Metaphors are actually cognitive Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the thoughts and experiences in the world around us.world around us.

Metaphor is a conceptual Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from one domain to another, not from a word to another.from a word to another.

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Target domain - what is actually Target domain - what is actually being talked about.being talked about.

Source domain - the domain used Source domain - the domain used as a basis for understanding targetas a basis for understanding target

Ontological correspondenceOntological correspondence Epistemic correspondenceEpistemic correspondence

Target domainTarget domain Source Source domaindomain

RATIONAL ARGUMEN

T

WAR

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The epistemic The epistemic correspondencecorrespondence

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Example: LIFE IS A Example: LIFE IS A JOURNEYJOURNEY

Ontological correspondence:Ontological correspondence:

source: JOURNEYsource: JOURNEY target: LIFEtarget: LIFE

STARTING POINTSTARTING POINT BIRTHBIRTH

TRAVELERTRAVELER PERSONPERSON

PATHPATH AGINGAGING

DESTINATIONDESTINATION DEATHDEATH

OBSTACLESOBSTACLES PROBLEMS IN PROBLEMS IN LIFELIFE

CROSSROADSCROSSROADS CHOICESCHOICES

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Epistemic correspondenceEpistemic correspondence

TRAVELER LEAVES TRAVELER LEAVES STARTING POINTSTARTING POINT

PERSON IS BORNPERSON IS BORN

TRAVELER TRAVELS TRAVELER TRAVELS ALONG PATHALONG PATH

PERSON AGESPERSON AGES

TRAVELER FACES A TRAVELER FACES A CROSSROADCROSSROAD

PERSON MUST PERSON MUST TAKE A CHOICETAKE A CHOICE

TRAVELER FACES TRAVELER FACES AN OBSTACLEAN OBSTACLE

PERSON HAD PERSON HAD PROBLEMS IN PROBLEMS IN LIFELIFE

TRAVELER REACHES TRAVELER REACHES DESTINATIONDESTINATION

PERSON DIESPERSON DIES

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Structural MetaphorStructural Metaphor

Provides rich highly structured, Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain.to structure target domain.

The nature of the mapping:The nature of the mapping: The The mapping involves two types of mapping involves two types of correspondence between target correspondence between target and source domain, which are and source domain, which are both grounded in our experiences both grounded in our experiences in the world.in the world.

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Example: Example: ARGUMENT IS WAR: ARGUMENT IS WAR:

Your claims are Your claims are indefensibleindefensible.. He He attackedattacked every weak point in my every weak point in my

argument.argument. His criticisms were right on His criticisms were right on targettarget.. I I demolisheddemolished his argument. his argument. I’ve never I’ve never wonwon an argument with him. an argument with him. You disagree? OK, You disagree? OK, shootshoot!! If you use that If you use that strategystrategy, he’ll , he’ll wipe you wipe you

outout.. He He shot downshot down all of my arguments. all of my arguments.

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Orientational MetaphorOrientational Metaphor Gives a concept a spatial Gives a concept a spatial

orientationorientation Characterized by a co-occurrence in Characterized by a co-occurrence in

our experienceour experience Grounded in an experiential basis, Grounded in an experiential basis,

which link together the two parts of which link together the two parts of the metaphorthe metaphor

The link verb “is”, part of the The link verb “is”, part of the metaphor, should be seen as the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring link of two different co-occurring experiences. experiences.

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For example, For example, MORE IS UPMORE IS UP This metaphor is This metaphor is

grounded in the co-grounded in the co-occurrence of two occurrence of two different kinds of different kinds of experiences: experiences: adding more of a adding more of a

substance, andsubstance, and perceiving the level of perceiving the level of

the substance rise.the substance rise.

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Examples:Examples: HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS

DOWNDOWN That boosted my spiritsThat boosted my spirits I’m feeling downI’m feeling down I’m depressedI’m depressed

CONSCIOUS IS UP; CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWNDOWN Wake upWake up He fell asleepHe fell asleep He’s under hypnosisHe’s under hypnosis

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3.5 Metonymy3.5 Metonymy It is a cognitive process in which It is a cognitive process in which

one conceptual entity, one conceptual entity, the the vehiclevehicle, provides mental access to , provides mental access to another conceptual entity, another conceptual entity, the the targettarget, within the , within the same domainsame domain..

The reference point The reference point activatesactivates the the target.target.

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It is modeled as It is modeled as idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by

Lakoff (1987), Lakoff (1987), conceptual mappings by Radden & conceptual mappings by Radden &

Kovecses (1999), Kovecses (1999), domain highlighting by Croft (2002), domain highlighting by Croft (2002), combinations of mappings and combinations of mappings and

highlighting by Ruiz de Mendoza highlighting by Ruiz de Mendoza (2000), (2000),

scenarios by Panther & Thornburg scenarios by Panther & Thornburg (1999) and (1999) and

more generally as reference-point more generally as reference-point activation by Langacker (1999) and activation by Langacker (1999) and Barcelona (2000).Barcelona (2000).

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On the basis of the ontological realms, On the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories: we may distinguish three categories: the world of “concept”the world of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events”the world of “things” and “events”

They roughly correspond to the three They roughly correspond to the three entities that comprise the well-known entities that comprise the well-known semantic triangle. semantic triangle. The interrelations between entities of the The interrelations between entities of the

same or from different ontological realms same or from different ontological realms lead to various ICMs and possibilities for lead to various ICMs and possibilities for metonymy. metonymy.

Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological realms: Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and realms: Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and Concept ICMs. Concept ICMs.

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Two general conceptual Two general conceptual configurations: configurations: whole ICM and its part(s)whole ICM and its part(s) parts of an ICM. parts of an ICM.

(1) Whole ICM and its part(s)(1) Whole ICM and its part(s)

(i) (i) Thing-and-Part ICMThing-and-Part ICM, which may , which may lead to lead to

two metonymic variants:two metonymic variants: WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE

THING: THING: AmericaAmerica for “United States” for “United States” PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE

THING: THING: EnglandEngland for “Great Britain” for “Great Britain”

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(ii) (ii) Scale ICM.Scale ICM. Scales are a special Scales are a special class of things and the scalar class of things and the scalar units are parts of them. units are parts of them. Typically, a scale as a whole is Typically, a scale as a whole is used for its upper end and the used for its upper end and the upper end of a scale is used to upper end of a scale is used to stand for the scale as a whole: stand for the scale as a whole: WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF

THE SCALE: THE SCALE: Henry is speeding Henry is speeding againagain for “Henry is going too fast.” for “Henry is going too fast.”

UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR WHOLE SCALE: WHOLE SCALE: How old are you?How old are you? for “what is your age?”for “what is your age?”

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(iii) (iii) Constitution ICM.Constitution ICM. It involves It involves matter, material or substances matter, material or substances which are seen as constituting a which are seen as constituting a thing. thing. OBJECT FOR MATERIAL OBJECT FOR MATERIAL

CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT: CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT: I I smell skunksmell skunk. .

MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT: OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT: woodwood for for “forest” “forest” 

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(iv) (iv) Event ICM.Event ICM. Events may be Events may be metaphorically viewed as things metaphorically viewed as things which may have parts. which may have parts. WHOLE EVENT FOR SUBEVENT: WHOLE EVENT FOR SUBEVENT:

Bill smoked marijuanaBill smoked marijuana. . SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT: SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT:

Mary speaks SpanishMary speaks Spanish. .

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(v) (v) Category-and-Member ICM.Category-and-Member ICM. A A category and its members stand category and its members stand in a kind of relation. in a kind of relation. CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF

THE CATEGORY: THE CATEGORY: the pillthe pill for “birth for “birth control pill”control pill”

MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY: THE CATEGORY: aspirinaspirin for “any for “any pain-relieving tablet” pain-relieving tablet”

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(vi) (vi) Cateory-and-Property ICM.Cateory-and-Property ICM. Properties may either be seen Properties may either be seen metaphorically as possessed metaphorically as possessed objects (PROPERTIES ARE objects (PROPERTIES ARE POSSESSIONS) or metonymically POSSESSIONS) or metonymically as parts of an object. as parts of an object. CATEGORY FOR DEFINING CATEGORY FOR DEFINING

PROPERTY: PROPERTY: jerkjerk for “stupidity” for “stupidity” DEFNING PROPERTY FOR DEFNING PROPERTY FOR

CATEGORY: CATEGORY: blacksblacks for “black for “black people”people”

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(vii) (vii) Reduction ICM.Reduction ICM. A final type of A final type of a PART FOR WHOLE metonymy a PART FOR WHOLE metonymy is found in the reduction of the is found in the reduction of the form of a sign. form of a sign. PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE

FORM: FORM: crudecrude for “crude oil” for “crude oil”

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(2) Parts of an ICM(2) Parts of an ICM

(i) (i) Action ICM.Action ICM. It involves a variety It involves a variety of participants which may be of participants which may be related to the predicate related to the predicate expressing the action or to each expressing the action or to each other. other. AGENT FOR ACTION: AGENT FOR ACTION: to authoto author a r a

new book;new book; to butcher to butcher the cow the cow ACTION FOR AGENT: ACTION FOR AGENT: writerwriter, , driverdriver

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INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: to skito ski, , to hammer to hammer

ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil sharpenersharpener; screw; screwdriverdriver

OBJECT FOR ACTION: OBJECT FOR ACTION: to blanketto blanket the the bed; bed; to dustto dust the room the room

ACTION FOR OBJECT: the best ACTION FOR OBJECT: the best bitesbites; ; thethe flight flight is waiting to depart is waiting to depart

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RESULT FOR ACTION: RESULT FOR ACTION: to landscapeto landscape the gardenthe garden

ACTION FOR RESULT: ACTION FOR RESULT: the the production; the productproduction; the product

MANNER FOR ACTION: MANNER FOR ACTION: to tiptoeto tiptoe into into the roomthe room

MEANS FOR ACTION: He MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezedsneezed the tissue off the table. the tissue off the table.

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TIME FOR ACTION: TIME FOR ACTION: to summerto summer in in ParisParis

DESTINATION FOR MOTION: DESTINATION FOR MOTION: to to porchporch the newspaper the newspaper

INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: the penthe pen for “writer”for “writer”

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(ii) (ii) Perception ICM.Perception ICM. Perception Perception plays such an outstand role in our plays such an outstand role in our cognitive world that it merits an cognitive world that it merits an ICM of its own. Since perceptions ICM of its own. Since perceptions may also be intentional, the may also be intentional, the Perception ICM may cross-Perception ICM may cross-classify with the Action ICM. classify with the Action ICM. THING PERCEIVED FOR THING PERCEIVED FOR

PERCEPTION: PERCEPTION: There goes my kneeThere goes my knee for “There goes the pain in my knee”for “There goes the pain in my knee”

PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED: PERCEIVED: sightsight for “thing seen” for “thing seen”

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(iii) (iii) Causation ICM.Causation ICM. Cause and effect Cause and effect are so closely interdependent that are so closely interdependent that one of them tends to imply the other. one of them tends to imply the other. Moreover, they probably account for Moreover, they probably account for the fact that people often confuse the fact that people often confuse causes and effects. In principle, the causes and effects. In principle, the causation ICM may give rise to causation ICM may give rise to reversible metonymies:reversible metonymies: CAUSE FOR EFFECT: CAUSE FOR EFFECT: healthy complexionhealthy complexion

for “the good state of health bringing for “the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion”about the effect of healthy complexion”

EFFECT FRO CAUSE: EFFECT FRO CAUSE: slow roadslow road for “slow for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of traffic resulting from the poor state of the road”the road”

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(iv) (iv) Production ICM.Production ICM. It involves It involves actions in which one of the actions in which one of the participants is a product created participants is a product created by the action. The production of by the action. The production of objects seems to be a particularly objects seems to be a particularly salient type of causal action. salient type of causal action. PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT: I’ve PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT: I’ve

got a got a FordFord for “car” for “car”

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INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT: Did INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT: Did you hear you hear the whistlethe whistle? For “its sound”? For “its sound”

PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT: to PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT: to turn up turn up the heatthe heat for “the radiator” for “the radiator”

PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE: PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE: china, mocha, camembertchina, mocha, camembert

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(v) (v) Control ICM.Control ICM. It includes a It includes a controller and a person or object controller and a person or object controlled. It gives rise to controlled. It gives rise to reversible metonymic reversible metonymic relationships:relationships: CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED: CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED:

NixonNixon bombed Hanoi. bombed Hanoi. CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER:

The MercedesThe Mercedes has arrived. has arrived.

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(vi) (vi) Possession ICM.Possession ICM. The The possession ICM may lead to possession ICM may lead to reversible metonymies:reversible metonymies: POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED: POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED:

That’s meThat’s me for “my bus”; for “my bus”; I am parked I am parked therethere for “My car” for “My car”

POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR: POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR: He He married moneymarried money for “person with for “person with money”money”

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(vii) (vii) Containment ICM.Containment ICM. The image- The image-schematic situation of schematic situation of containment is so basic and well-containment is so basic and well-entrenched that it deserves to be entrenched that it deserves to be treated as an ICM of its own treated as an ICM of its own among locational relations. among locational relations. CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS: CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS: The The

bottle is sourbottle is sour for “milk” for “milk” CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER: CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER: The The

milk tipped overmilk tipped over for “the milk for “the milk container tipped over”container tipped over”

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(viii) (viii) Location ICMs.Location ICMs. Places are often Places are often associated with people living there, associated with people living there, well-known institutions located well-known institutions located there, events which occur or there, events which occur or occurred there and goods produced occurred there and goods produced or shipped from there. Hence, we or shipped from there. Hence, we find the following metonymies: find the following metonymies: PLACE FOR INHABITANTS:PLACE FOR INHABITANTS: The whole The whole

town showed uptown showed up for “the people” for “the people” INHABITANTS FOR PLACE: INHABITANTS FOR PLACE: The The

French hosted the World Cup Soccer French hosted the World Cup Soccer GamesGames for “France” for “France”

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PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Cambridge won’t publish the bookCambridge won’t publish the book for “Cambridge University Press”for “Cambridge University Press”

INSTITUTION FOR PLACE: INSTITUTION FOR PLACE: I live I live close to the Universityclose to the University. .

PLACE FOR EVENT: PLACE FOR EVENT: WaterlooWaterloo for for “battle fought at Waterloo”“battle fought at Waterloo”

EVENT FOR PLACE: EVENT FOR PLACE: BattleBattle, name of , name of the village in East Sussex where the the village in East Sussex where the Battle of Hastings was fought.Battle of Hastings was fought.

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(ix) (ix) Sign and Reference ICMs.Sign and Reference ICMs. They lead to metonymies cross-They lead to metonymies cross-cutting ontological realms. In cutting ontological realms. In sign metonymy, a (word-)form sign metonymy, a (word-)form stand for a conventionally stand for a conventionally associated concept; in reference associated concept; in reference metonymies, a sign, concept or metonymies, a sign, concept or (word-)form stands for the real (word-)form stands for the real thing. thing. WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY

EXPRESS: a self-contradictory EXPRESS: a self-contradictory utteranceutterance

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(x) (x) Modification ICM.Modification ICM. It It mainly applies to mainly applies to variant forms of a sign variant forms of a sign apart from reduction. apart from reduction. SUBSTITUTE FORM SUBSTITUTE FORM

FOR ORIGINAL FORM: FOR ORIGINAL FORM: Do you still love me? — Do you still love me? — Yes, I do.Yes, I do.

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3.6 Blending Theory3.6 Blending Theory

Also known as the Also known as the integration theory, proposed integration theory, proposed by Gilles Fauconnier & Mark by Gilles Fauconnier & Mark Turner (1994, 1995).Turner (1994, 1995).

A cognitive operation A cognitive operation whereby elements of two or whereby elements of two or more “mental spaces” are more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into integrated via projection into a new, blended space which a new, blended space which has its unique structure. has its unique structure.

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Blending operates on two input Blending operates on two input mental spaces to produce a third mental spaces to produce a third space, the blend. space, the blend.

The blend inherits partial The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces structure from the input spaces and has emergent structure of its and has emergent structure of its own. own.

There are some conditions There are some conditions needed when two input spaces Ineeded when two input spaces I11 and Iand I22 are blended: are blended:

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Cross-Space Mapping:Cross-Space Mapping: there is a there is a partial mapping of counterparts partial mapping of counterparts between the input spaces I1 and between the input spaces I1 and I2.I2.

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Generic Space:Generic Space: It maps onto each It maps onto each of the inputs. of the inputs.

It reflects some common, usually It reflects some common, usually more abstract, structure and more abstract, structure and organization shared by the inputs. organization shared by the inputs.

It defines the core cross-space It defines the core cross-space mapping between them.mapping between them.

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Blend:Blend: the inputs I1 and I2 are the inputs I1 and I2 are partially projected onto a fourth partially projected onto a fourth space, the blend.space, the blend.

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Emergent StructureEmergent Structure: the blend has : the blend has emergent structure not provided by emergent structure not provided by the inputs. This happens in three the inputs. This happens in three interrelated ways: interrelated ways: CompositionComposition: Taken together, the : Taken together, the

projections from the inputs make new projections from the inputs make new relations available that did not exist in relations available that did not exist in the separate inputs. the separate inputs.

CompletionCompletion: Knowledge of background : Knowledge of background frames, cognitive and cultural models, frames, cognitive and cultural models, allows the composite structure projected allows the composite structure projected into the blend from the inputs to be into the blend from the inputs to be viewed as part of a larger self-contained viewed as part of a larger self-contained structure in the blend. structure in the blend. ElaborationElaboration: The : The structure in the blend can then be structure in the blend can then be elaborated. elaborated.

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