Chapter one Exploring Life. Inquiring About Life An organism’s adaptations to its environment are the result of evolution For example, the ghost plant

Chapter oneExploring Life

Inquiring About LifeAn organism’s adaptations to its environment are the result of evolution

For example, the ghost plant is adapted to conserving water; this helps it to survive in the crevices of rock walls

Evolution is the process of change that has transformed life on Earth

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 1.2

Biology is the scientific study of life

Life is recognized by what living things do


Living things share 8 characteristics:

1. Living things are made up of units called cells.a. Every organism is composed of at least one cell.

1.) single-celled or unicellular

2.) many-celled or multicellular

b. There are two broad categories of cells:1) prokaryotic—no organized nucleus nor

membrane bound organelles; found in bacteria and cyanobacteria

2) eukaryotic—do have an organized nucleus and membrane-bound organelles such as Golgi apparatus and mitochondria. All other organisms such as plants and animals have this kind of cell.

2. Living things reproduce. There are two basic kinds of reproduction:

a) Asexual—only one parent and all offspring are identical; for example, binary fission of bacteria or amoebas.

b) Sexual—two cells from different parents unite to produce the first cell of a new organism.

3. Living things are based on a universal genetic code (DNA).

a) The directions for inheritance are found in deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

b) The genetic code is basically the same for all organisms on Earth.

4. Living things grow and develop.a) For single-celled organisms, growth is mostly an

increase in size.b) Multicellular organisms go through a process called

development, where cells divide and differentiate into different kinds of cells.

Life Requires Energy Transfer and Transformation

A fundamental characteristic of living organisms is their use of energy to carry out life’s activities

Work, including moving, growing, and reproducing, requires a source of energy

Living organisms transform energy from one form to another For example, light energy is converted to

chemical energy, then kinetic energyEnergy flows through an ecosystem, usually

entering as light and exiting as heat© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

5. Living things obtain and use materials and energy.

a) The combination of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its life processes is called metabolism.

b) Autotrophs (also called producers)—plants, most algae, and some bacteria obtain their energy directly from the sun through photosynthesis.

Animals eatleaves and fruitfrom the tree.

Leaves take incarbon dioxidefrom the airand releaseoxygen.

Sunlight

CO2

O2

Cyclingof

chemicalnutrients

Leaves fall tothe ground andare decomposedby organismsthat returnminerals to thesoil.

Water andminerals inthe soil aretaken up bythe treethroughits roots.

Leaves absorblight energy fromthe sun.

Figure 1.5

c) Heterotrophs (also called consumers)—most other organisms, rely on the energy stored during photosynthesis.1. Herbivores—eat plants and other photosynthesizing

organisms2. Carnivores—eat the herbivores or other carnivores3. Omnivores—eat both plants and animals4. Decomposers—such as bacteria and fungi; obtain

energy from the remains of organisms that have died

Figure 1.6b

Heat

(b) Using energy to do work

When energy is usedto do work, someenergy is converted tothermal energy, whichis lost as heat.

An animal’s musclecells convertchemical energyfrom food to kineticenergy, the energyof motion. A plant’s cells use

chemical energy to dowork such as growingnew leaves.

6. Living things respond to their environment.a) Organisms detect and respond to

stimuli from their environment.b) A stimulus is a signal to which an

organism responds. c) External stimuli include

temperature and light.d) Internal stimuli come from within,

such as blood sugar level or feeling thirsty.

7. Living things maintain a stable internal environment.

a) Even though external environmental conditions may vary widely, most organisms must keep internal conditions, such as temperature and water content, fairly constant.

b) Maintaining a stable internal environment is called homeostasis (Greek, same condition).

:

Feedback Mechanisms Regulate Biological Systems

Feedback mechanisms allow biological processes to self-regulate

Negative feedback means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it slows and less of the product is produced

Positive feedback means that as more of a product accumulates, the process that creates it speeds up and more of the product is produced


Figure 1.13

Negativefeedback

A

B

C

D

C

Enzyme 1

Enzyme 2

Enzyme 3

D

W

Enzyme 4

X

DD

Excess Dblocks a step.

(a) Negative feedback

Positive feedback

Excess Zstimulates a step.

Y

Z

Z

Z

Z

(b) Positive feedback

Enzyme 5

Enzyme 6

8. Taken as a group, living things change over time (living things evolve).a) Plants have adapted to living in dry and hot deserts.b) Fossils of ancient organisms can be used to show how

organisms have changed over time.

New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy

Life can be studied at different levels, from molecules to the entire living planet

The study of life can be divided into different levels of biological organization

Figure 1.4


The biosphere

EcosystemsTissues

Organs andorgan systems

Communities

Populations

Organisms

OrganellesCells

Atoms

Molecules

Figure 1.4

Biological systems are much more than their biological parts Emergent

properties

result from the arrangement and interaction of parts within a system

Reductionism

is the reduction of complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

For example, studying the molecular structure of DNA helps us to understand the chemical basis of inheritance

Systems Biology

A system is a combination of components that function together

Systems biology constructs models for the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems

The systems approach poses questions such as How does a drug for blood pressure affect

other organs? How does increasing CO2 alter the biosphere?


Structure and Function Are Correlated at All Levels of Biological Organization

Structure and function of living organisms are closely related

For example, a leaf is thin and flat, maximizing the capture of light by chloroplasts

For example, the structure of a bird’s wing is adapted to flight


The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function

The cell is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life

All cells Are enclosed by a membrane Use DNA as their genetic information


Genes control protein production indirectlyDNA is transcribed into RNA then translated into a proteinGene expression is the process of converting information from gene to cellular product

Evolution, the Overarching Theme of Biology

Evolution makes sense of everything we know about biology

Organisms are modified descendants of common ancestors

Evolution explains patterns of unity and diversity in living organisms

Similar traits among organisms are explained by descent from common ancestors

Differences among organisms are explained by the accumulation of heritable changes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Classifying the Diversity of Life

Approximately 1.8 million species have been identified and named to date, and thousands more are identified each year

Estimates of the total number of species that actually exist range from 10 million to over 100 million


Grouping Species: The Basic Idea

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names and classifies species into groups of increasing breadth

Domains, followed by kingdoms, are the broadest units of classification


Binomial Nomenclature was developed by Carolus Linnaeus.

• The scientific name is always written in italics.

• The first work is capitalized, and the second word is lowercased.

Carolus von Linnaeus(1707-1778)

Kingdom

Largest and most inclusive group of closely related phyla

Phylum

group of closely related ClassesClass

group of similar OrdersOrder

group of similar FamiliesFamily

group of Genera that share characteristics

Genus

group of closely related species and the first part of the scientific name in binomial nomenclature

There are seven levels, or taxons, in the system of classification:

Speciesgroup of similar organisms that breed & produce

fertile offspring

Species

Ursus

Ursidae

Carnivora

Mammalia

Ursus americanus(American black bear)

Chordata

Animalia

Eukarya

Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom DomainFigure 1.14

The Six-Kingdom system of classification includes the kingdoms:

Eubacteria Archeabacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

The Six-Kingdoms fall into categories called domains. Domains are made up of certain

kingdoms. Bacteria: eubacteria Archaea: archaebacteria Eukarya: protists, fungi, plants, and animals

Figure 1.15

(a) Domain Bacteria (b) Domain Archaea

(c) Domain Eukarya

2 m

2 m

100 m

Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Fungi

Protists

Kingdom Animalia

Charles Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection

Fossils and other evidence document the evolution of life on Earth over billions of years Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859 Darwin made two main points Species showed evidence of “descent with modification” from common ancestors Natural selection is the mechanism behind “descent with modification”

Darwin’s theory explained the duality of unity and diversity


Darwin’s Observations Individuals in a population vary in their traits, many

of which are heritable More offspring are produced than survive, and

competition is inevitable Species generally suit their environment

Darwin inferred that Individuals that are best suited to their environment

are more likely to survive and reproduce Over time, more individuals in a population will have

the advantageous traits Evolution occurs as the unequal reproductive success

of individuals


In other words, the environment “selects” for the propagation of beneficial traits

Darwin called this process natural selection


Figure 1.20

Population withvaried inheritedtraits

Elimination ofindividuals withcertain traits

Reproduction ofsurvivors

Increasing frequency oftraits thatenhancesurvival andreproductivesuccess

1 2 3 4

The Tree of Life

“Unity in diversity” arises from “descent with modification”

For example, the forelimb of the bat, human, and horse and the whale flipper all share a common skeletal architecture

Fossils provide additional evidence of anatomical unity from descent with modification


COMMONANCESTOR

Green warbler finchCerthidea olivacea

Gray warbler finchCerthidea fusca

Sharp-beakedground finchGeospiza difficilis

Vegetarian finchPlatyspiza crassirostris

Mangrove finchCactospiza heliobates

Woodpecker finchCactospiza pallida

Medium tree finchCamarhynchus pauper

Large tree finchCamarhynchus psittacula

Small tree finchCamarhynchus parvulus

Large cactusground finchGeospiza conirostrisCactus ground finchGeospiza scandens

Small ground finchGeospiza fuliginosa

Medium ground finchGeospiza fortis

Large ground finchGeospiza magnirostris

Inse

ct-e

aters

See

d-e

ater Bu

d-e

ate

r

Inse

ct-e

aters

Tree

finch

es

Gro

un

d fin

che

s

See

d-e

aters

Cac

tus

-flow

er-

ea

ters

Wa

rble

r finc

hes

Figure 1.22

Concept 1.3: In studying nature, scientists make observations and then form and test hypotheses

The word science is derived from Latin and means “to know”

Inquiry is the search for information and explanation

The scientific process includes making observations, forming logical hypotheses, and testing them


Types of Data

Data are recorded observations or items of information; these fall into two categories

Qualitative data, or descriptions rather than measurements For example, Jane Goodall’s observations of

chimpanzee behavior

Quantitative data, or recorded measurements, which are sometimes organized into tables and graphs


Questions That Can and Cannot Be Addressed by Science

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable

For example, a hypothesis that ghosts fooled with the flashlight cannot be tested

Supernatural and religious explanations are outside the bounds of science


Figure 1.24

Observations

Question

Hypothesis #1:Dead batteries

Hypothesis #2:Burnt-out bulb

Prediction:Replacing bulbwill fix problem

Test of prediction Test of prediction

Test falsifies hypothesis Test does not falsify hypothesis

Prediction:Replacing batterieswill fix problem

In the context of science, a theory is Broader in scope than a hypothesis General, and can lead to new testable

hypotheses Supported by a large body of evidence in

comparison to a hypothesis


Theories in Science

Science, Technology, and Society

The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena

The goal of technology is to apply scientific knowledge for some specific purpose

Science and technology are interdependentBiology is marked by “discoveries,” while

technology is marked by “inventions”


The combination of science and technology has dramatic effects on society

For example, the discovery of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick allowed for advances in DNA technology such as testing for hereditary diseases

Ethical issues can arise from new technology, but have as much to do with politics, economics, and cultural values as with science and technology


Documents

Chapter one Exploring Life. Inquiring About Life An organism’s adaptations to its environment are the result of evolution For example, the ghost plant