CHAPTER-II SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL PROFILE OF THE …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/78344/6/06_chapter 2.pdfGulab Singh was eventually made the Raja of Jammu by the „Treaty

Chapter-II: Social and Historical Profile of the Region 46

Department of Sociology, University of Jammu 2011

CHAPTER-II SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL PROFILE OF THE REGION

his chapter aims at understanding and mapping the area of study,

profiling the sample villages and also reviewing the land reform

programme of the state. The mapping of the area of study, while may help

a reader to locate the geographical dimension of the region, it also helps to

understand the historical and demographic profile of the area. The

description of the profile of the sample villages has been done on the basis

of Census data, which, however focuses on the ratio of scheduled caste

population in general and the female population in particular. It also

discusses briefly the social structure of each sample village. Reproduction

and review of the land reform programme, the Roshni scheme and other

similar projects have been highlighted in the third section of the chapter.

These programmes were meant to transform the political economy of the

region and expected to bring change in lives of the poorer strata of the

population. Since R.S.Pura is known as „Mini Punjab‟ in terms of fertility

of land and higher productivity due to green revolution, even possession of

a small piece of land by a household is assumed to have helped in social

mobility. Land reform of fifties along with the „Displaced Persons‟ Rules‟

of 1954 and the „Roshni Act‟, is believed to have radically affected the

socio- economic life of the SC‟s and political landscape of the region.

Lastly, for the purpose of substantiation and comparison we have

reproduced the findings of an author which throws light on the impact of

land Reform on the scheduled caste population.

Jammu and Kashmir State is predominantly a mono-cropped and

rain fed economy with about 40 percent of the area in Jammu division and

T



60 percent in Kashmir division. Agriculture is one of the key factors and

mainstay of the state‟s economy. It favours about 81 percent of the total

population of the state. The productivity level of paddy is about 40 quintals

per hectare which is the highest in comparison to other states of the

country. The area of Jammu and Kashmir is 222,236.0 sq.kms. The

population of the state as per 2001 census has been given mentioned in

table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Population of the State of Jammu & Kashmir

Description Total Population No. of Males No. of Females

Population of state 10,143,700 5,360,926 4,782,774

Rural population 7,627,062 3,977,652 3,649,410

Urban population 2,516,638 1,383,274 1,133,364

Source: Census of India 2001

The growth rate of the state between 1981 and 2001 is 69.40 percent.

About J&K State:

The present state of Jammu and Kashmir was founded by the British

rulers on the ruins of the Sikh Empire after the first Anglo- Sikh war,

fought after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (Anand 1980).

Located in the northern part of the Indian sub continent, the Indian

State of Jammu and Kashmir lies in the vicinity of the Karakoram and

Western Himalayan mountain ranges. The state is bounded on the north -



west of the Pakistani administered portion of the territory of Kashmir, on

the northeast and east by Xinjiang Vygur and Tibet, respectively, both of

which are autonomous regions of China; and on the south of the Himachal

Pradesh and Punjab States of India. The administrative capital is Srinagar

in summer and Jammu in winter. Jammu is one of the three provinces of

the State, covering an area of 14,602 sq.kms. The other being Kashmir and

Ladakh. It lies between the plains of Punjab in the South and South West,

the high mountains of Pirpanjal range in the north and Himalayan in the

north-east. Physically, administratively and socially, the province may be

divided into three regions i.e., Doda-Udhampur Region is generally

mountainous with extensive forests. Rajouri-Poonch is also mountainous

with less forest cover. During Mughal period, the route to Kashmir valley

used to pass through Rajouri area. The people of Doda-Udhampur and

Rajouri-Poonch regions are culturally and socially close to Kashmiri

culture. Jammu region, on the other hand, is generally plain, sloping

towards the south. Initially, there were six districts in Jammu province. But

due to vast area and large population four new districts were carved out

and now the Jammu province comprise of ten districts, namely, Doda,

Jammu, Kathua, Kishtwar, Poonch, Rajouri, Samba, Udhampur, Reasi and

Ramban.

For the purpose of administration, the state has been divided into

two divisions, viz., Jammu and Kashmir divisions. There are total 22

districts in J&K state; 10 districts in Jammu division, 10 districts in

Kashmir division and 2 districts in Ladakh division. There are 6,652

villages in the state, out of which 6,419 villages are inhabited and 233 are

uninhabited villages.



Except for the areas lying in the Shivalik and Pirpanjal, Jammu

province resembles the Punjab plains with respect to climate. The year has

three distinct seasons; winter from November to February, summer from

March to mid-July and monsoon from July to October. In summer the

temperature rises as high as 48°C with hot winds known as „Loo‟ blowing

from the south-west. The mean temperature during summer varies between

20°C to 3°C. The „outer plain‟ areas and outer hill regions receive summer

precipitation from the south-west monsoon (about 800 mm). The amount of

rainfall increases with the altitude. The region also receives some rainfall

during winter.

About Jammu District

In J&K State, Jammu has a distinct image due to its heritage

location and linkages. Jammu was the center of important socio-religious

and political economic activity and also a center of trade and commerce.

Jammu was one of the important principalities along with Kishtwar,

Bhaderwah, Basohli, Reasi etc. well before and during the earlier phase of

Mughal rule. In 12th

century A.D. when Mohd. Gauri invaded India and

over Punjab, Rajputs took refugee in the mountain tracts of Jammu region

and carved out separate estates which they ruled as independent

sovereigns. Independence could not, however, be maintained for long and

certainly not after the Mughal rulers subdued the Rajas and made them

tributary rulers in recognition of their dependence.

After the disintegration of the Mughal Kingdom, however, the Rajas

recovered their strength and proclaimed their independence once again.



With the installation of Sikh rule in Punjab, however, Jammu and all other

adjoining areas were annexed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh with his

territories. Mian Kishore Singh who was the direct descendant of Raja

Dhruv Dev, an earlier ruler of Jammu, held a prominent and respectable

position in the court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh at Lahore. His son Gulab

Singh joined the army of Ranjit Singh while in teens and in course of time

distinguished himself as a gallant warrior and became an accredited

lieutenant of Ranjit Singh. Gulab Singh was eventually made the Raja of

Jammu by the „Treaty of Amritsar‟ dated 16.3.1846. Later on, he annexed

Kashmir with Jammu as a result of the sale deed executed by the British

after the fall of Sikh rule in Punjab.

The descendants of Maharaja Gulab Singh ruled over Jammu and

Kashmir upto 1948, when Maharaja Hari Singh left the State and his son

Yuvraj Karan Singh was appointed Regent. With the enactment of a new

Constitution for the state which was adopted on 17th

November, 1956,

monarchy came to a final end, but Jammu has continued to retain its

importance as the winter capital for the state government. Like all other

districts of the State, Jammu district also derives its name from its head

quarter, the city of Jammu. Jammu is popularly known as city of temples.

It is believed that the city was originally founded by Raja Jamboo Lochan

who lived in Fourteen B.C. The Raja had gone out one day for hunting

when he happened to witness a tiger and a goat drinking water from one

and the same pond. This extraordinary phenomenon set him thinking and

he decided to build a city at this site so that the strong and weak could live

together in peace and mutual tolerance. Eventually, he founded the city

which came to be known as „Jamboo‟ after his own name. With the



passage of time and due to its frequent use the pronunciation of the name

got slightly distorted and the city came to be known as it is called now.

Though the city is known as „city of temples‟, it has numerous

shrines for Muslims, Sikhs and Christians also. Jammu also serves as base

camp for the holy shrine of Vaishno Devi. The district has a National

Airport situated at Satwari. This district serves as the winter capital of J&K

state from November to April when all the offices move from Srinagar to

Jammu.

Location

Jammu district is situated in the sub- mountainous region and at the

foot hills of the Himalayas. It is located between 74 degree-24‟ and 75

degree-18‟ east longitude and 32 degree-50‟ and 33 degree-33‟ north

latitude. It is bounded by Udhampur district in the north and north - east,

samba district in the east and south- east, Pakistan (Sialkot) in the west and

Pak Occupied Kashmir - PoK (Bhimber) and Rajouri district in the north-

west.

According to the census report of 2001, district has been divided

into five tehsils, eleven blocks and nine towns including one Municipality,

1,192 villages and 295 panchayats including 41 in command Areas. Of the

total villages, 138 of these are un-inhabited. The tehsils are Akhnoor,

Bishnah, Jammu, R.S. Pura and Samba (Census 2001). The entire district

can be divided into two distinct portions. The area forming north of

Jammu- Chhamb road and Jammu- Pathankot road, which is known as

Kandi area is comparatively under-developed and is mostly rain fed. The



area south of these roads is largely fed by canal and tube wells for

irrigation purposes and is relatively more prosperous.

Demographic Profile of the Area

It is the most populous district of the state. Having recorded a

population of 1,588,772, it accounts for 15.66 percent of the total

population of the state and ranks first in terms of population. It

encompasses an area of 3097.00 sq.kms and thus the density, i.e.,

population per sq.kms works out to 513. The total population of the district

is 1,588,772 constituting 850,302 males and 738,470 females. The rural

part of the district is encompassing an area of 2,856.81 sq.kms. The rural

population of the district is 887,554 and the numbers of males are 466,689

and females are 420,865. The urban population of the district is 701,218

which comprises of 383,613 males and 317,605 females. The sex ratio, i.e.,

number of females per 1000 males in the district stands at 868 which is

lower than the states ratio of 892 and also that of the corresponding ratio of

the district (918) obtained in 1981 census. In 2001 census, Jammu district

with a literacy rate of 77.0 percent ranks first among all the districts of the

state.

Table 2.2: Population of Workers in Jammu District

Workers and Non-Workers Number Percentage

Total Workers (Main & Marginal)

Persons 528,331 33.30

Males 429,953 50.60

Females 98,378 13.30

(i) Main Workers Persons 434,430 27.40



Males 387,607 45.60

Females 46,823 6.30

(ii) Marginal Workers

Persons 93,901 5.90

Males 42,346 5.0

Females 51,555 7.0

(iii) Non-Workers

Persons 1,060,441 66.70

Males 420,349 49.70

Females 640,092 86.70

Category of Workers (Main & Marginal)

(i) Cultivators

Persons 134,576 25.50

Males 92,080 21.40

Females 42,496 43.20

(ii) Agricultural Labourers

Persons 27,523 5.20

Males 18,940 4.40

Females 85,585 8.70

(iii) Workers in Household Industry

Persons 8,042 1.50

Males 5,286 1.20

Females 2,756 2.80

( iv) Other workers

Persons 358,190 67.80

Males 313,647 73.0

Females 44,543 45.30

Source: Census of India 2001

As per table 2.2, the total workers comprise 528,331 or 33.30

percent of the total population of the district. Of the total, 27.40 percent are

main workers and 5.90 percent are marginal workers. Non-workers account

for 66.70 percent. Male and female workers are of the order of 50.60

percent and 13.30 percent respectively. The district has made an addition

of 156,384 workers in its 1981 worker population of 371,947. It has



increased its population by 645,377. In other words, 24.20 percent of these

added population do participate in economic activities. Likewise, male

worker population has been recorded as 429,953 and addition of 170,955

male workers since 1981. The addition of male population is of the order

of 358,330 indicating thereby that 47.70 percent of this added male

population is engaged with economic activities. Contrary to this, the

female worker population has reduced by 11,571 since 1981. The reason

for this may be due to mechanization of agriculture and immigration of

outside labour. It also cannot be denied that only improvement in economic

status of the household may debar women to work.

Jammu is also a centre of trade and commerce, and the city of

Jammu, which is the head quarter of the district, has its effect upon tehsil

R.S. Pura. Jammu city attains core importance because of it being a centre

having linkage to Punjab, Udhampur, R.S. Pura and Akhnoor trade centres.

The city witnessed a phenomenal growth after Independence with

the spread of network of roads in fifties and with the opening of many sub-

regions, practically land-locked earlier. It resulted in a process of fast

urbanisation and the city started sprawling in all the directions. The

urbanization was further accelerated by the process of industrialisation in

the sixties and seventies and resulted in the coming up of an industrial

estate and industrial complexes at Gangyal and Bari Brahmana



respectively. During 1975, Jammu was brought on the railway map of

India and the railhead was extended from Pathankot to Jammu which gave

great impetus to the city as a major trading and transit centre for the state.

The railway line has now been extended to Udhampur which might

consequently become the major trading and transit centre for the state.

The chain reaction of urbanisation, industrialisation and the brisk

activities in the fields of trade, commerce, transport, construction, etc. has

attracted both skilled and unskilled workers from other districts of the state

as well as from other states of India to this developing urban centre. The

rate of urbanization has been so fast that it has overshot the planning

endeavour and the pace of development has thrown up a number of

unplanned colonies, devoid of community facilities along the planned ones.

Similarly slum pockets also have come up in close proximity to the work

centres. A ribbon type development along the highways and minor roads is

also distinctly visible.

Table 2.3: Population of the Jammu District at each Census From

1901 to 1981 and 2001

Total Rural/

Urban

Census

Year

Persons Males Females Population Variation Since

Preceding Census

Absolute Percentage

Rural

1901 304,637 161,721 142,916 - -

1911 287,924 156,998 130,926 + 16,713 + 5.49

1921 295,265 158,618 136,647 + 7,341 + 2.55

1931 319,949 171,164 148,330 + 24,229 + 8.21



1941 358,280 189,145 169,135 + 38,786 + 12.14

1951 375,079 196,864 178,215 + 16,799 + 4.69

1961 385,375 201,198 184,177 + 10,296 + 2.75

1971 533,480 274,911 258,569 + 148,105 + 38.43

1981 663,751 343,747 320,004 + 130,271 + 24.42

2001 887,554 466,689 420,865 + 223,803 + 33.72

Urban

1901 36,130 22,221 13,909 -- --

1911 38,402 22,883 15,519 + 2,272 + 6.29

1921 38,440 22,770 15,670 + 38 + 0.10

1931 50,798 31,317 19,481 + 12,358 + 32.15

1941 67,682 41,099 26,583 + 16,884 + 33.24

1951 94,478 54,298 40,180 + 26,796 + 39.59

1961 127,776 70,930 56,846 + 33,298 + 35.24

1971 191,342 102,612 88,730 + 63,566 + 49.75

1981 279,644 148,225 131,419 + 88,302 + 46.15

2001 701,218 383,613 317,605 + 421,574 + 150.75

Source: Census of India 2001. (The above figures are of the erstwhile

Jammu district which includes the areas of Samba and Bishnah tehsil)

Out of a total population of 1,588,772 in the district, scheduled

castes and scheduled tribes number 394,904 and 53,304 respectively. In

other words, while scheduled castes account for 24.90 percent, scheduled

tribes claim 3.40 percent of the total population of the district. The number

of females per 1000 males is slightly higher in respect of scheduled castes

(913) than that of scheduled tribes (906). The corresponding number of

females per 1000 males relating to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes of

the state is same, being 910 each.



The percentage of scheduled castes population to total population is

higher is rural areas of the district than that of its urban sector; standing at

33.70 percent and 13.60 percent respectively. The number of females per

1000 males in respect of scheduled castes is higher in rural areas (920) of

the district as compared to that of its urban sector (890). The number of

females per 1000 males relating to scheduled tribes in rural and urban

areas of the districts 926 and 855.

So far as literacy rate is concerned scheduled castes have recorded

substantially higher proportion (65.90 percent) than that of scheduled

tribes (47.60 percent). In the rural sector of the district, 167,002 scheduled

caste persons have been recorded as literate, comprising 64.90 percent of

the total (rural) scheduled castes population. The proportion of male

scheduled caste literates (74.80 percent) is substantially higher than that of

females (54.30 percent). In the urban sector of the district, 57,222 or 77.10

percent scheduled caste persons have been recorded as literate. The

proportion of male and female scheduled caste literates stands at 77.10

percent 59.70 percent respectively.

As regards work participation rate of scheduled castes, total workers

(main and marginal) account for 30.80 percent, non-workers being 69.20

percent.

The total workers regarding scheduled castes (main and marginal) in

rural areas of the district account for 31.50 percent, comprising 22.10

percent main workers and 9.40 percent marginal workers. The proportion

of non-workers is 68.50 percent. The corresponding proportion of total

workers (main and marginal) in urban sector of the district is lower (28.40



percent) than the rural areas (main and marginal) workers constitute 24.90

percent and 3.50 percent respectively non-workers being 71.50 percent.

Historical Background of R.S.Pura Tehsil

The boundaries of the present tehsil were fixed in 1875 when the

foundation of Sri Ranbir Singh Pura was laid, the town being so called

after the late Shri Maharaja Ranbir Singh Sahib Bahadur. District courts

were also opened here, and it continued to be the Wazarat head-quarters till

1890, when the district courts were shifted to Jammu.

Ranbir Singh Pura occupies the southern portion of Jammu district,

and is first in point of fertility and last in point of size. The greatest length

of the tehsil is 18 miles and the greatest breadth 16 miles.

It is bounded on the north by the Balawal and the Tawi, beyond

which lies the Jammu tehsil on the East by Samba, and on the South and

west by Zafarwal and Sialkot tehsils of the British territory. The Ranbir

Singh Pura Tehsil is an open piece of country stretching to the South of the

low abrupt hills of the Jammu and Samba tehsils. The physical aspect of

the country is generally flat, but the estates in the north-west are low lying,

and formed as they are of the alluvial bed of the old Tawi they profit

considerably by the silt deposits of that stream. The land retains moisture

and wells are consequently little needed there. These low lying estates are

edged on the south by a “Dhaya” or high bank, which separates it from the

main portion of the tehsil. The general lie of the flat portion is from north

to south.



The central portion of the tehsil contains rich loam with sprinkling

of Rohi or Stiff clay, whereas the northern and eastern portions are

generally sandy and broken by numerous storm channels, and land in these

parts is getting poorer by erosion. The land in the northern and eastern

border is on a higher level than the rest of the tehsil. The sub soil water is

very deep there and well irrigation is therefore, impracticable. All the

above suggest to the fact that the tehsil is highly fertile from agricultural

point of view.

The climate is that of the Punjab plains, and the average rainfall, 139

inches, is heavy but often badly distributed deficient, or both, as it was in

the present harvest. The Bharari circle frequently suffers from drought, as

the whole tehsil suffered formerly (Assessment Report of R.S. Pura,

10276, 1973).

Wheat is the second most consumed food grain of India. It is grown

in almost every state of India and the state of Jammu and Kashmir is

among one of them. During the year 2000-2001, in J&K State, the total

area under wheat crop was 280.96 “000” hectares and production was 1487

“000” Quintals (Digest of Statistics, 2000-01).

Although wheat crop is predominant in all districts of the state, yet

Jammu is famous from the point of view of total production. Tehsil R.S.

Pura of Jammu district has all the characteristics of wheat cultivation and

has considerable potential to increase its production and yield per hectare

by the introduction of new inputs and improved practices and cultivation.



Geographic and Socio-Cultural Aspect of R.S. Pura Tehsil

The total area of R.S. Pura is 245.26 sq.km., which includes 244.20

sq. km as rural and 1.06 sq.km. as urban (Source: A Handbook of 2001).

There are 193 villages in R.S. Pura tehsil, out of which 162 villages are

inhabited and 31 are un-inhabited. Thirteen villages of R.S. Pura tehsil

have been shifted to Bishnah block, namely, Khaur Deonian, Phin Dhar,

Chak Harni, Kotli Mian Bagwan Singh, Salaher, Chak Tahir, Chak Jagloo,

Hansa, Mana, Barley, Mulu Chak, Pindi Sarochan Kalan, Diwan Garh.

After shifting these villages, R.S.Pura Tehsil is left with 180 villages. Four

villages of Bishnah tehsil have been included in R.S.Pura block and that

leads to 184. Name of these villages are Kotli Kuzian, Chak Jandran,

Jabowal Khurd and un-inhabited village Jabowal Kalan. Out of 162, 152

villages are in R.S.Pura block and ten villages are in Bishnah block.

Tehsil-wise statistics reveal that the highest concentration of rural

population is in Ranbir Singh Pura at 92.0 percent followed by Akhnoor

tehsil (90.20), while the third and the fourth positions have been claimed

by Bishnah (81.70 percent) and Samba (73.30 percent) tehsils respectively.

The lowest has been occupied by Jammu Tehsil at 31.50%.



Table 2.4: District/Tehsil-Wise Statistics

Name of

District/

Tehsil

Total Rural

P M F P M F

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Jammu

District

1,588,772

(100.0)

850,302

(100.0)

738,470

(100.0)

887,554

(55.90)

466,689

(54.90)

420,865

(57.0)

Akhnoor

Tehsil

214,834

(100.0)

116,032

(100.0)

98,802

(100.0)

193,790

(90.20)

104,998

(90.50)

88,792

(89.90)

Jammu Tehsil 850,070

(100.0)

458,998

(100.0)

391,072

(100.0)

267,779

(31.50)

141,063

(30.70)

126,715

(32.40)

Ranbir Singh

Pura Tehsil

179,613

(100.0)

94,361

(100.0)

85,249

(100.0)

165,289

(92.0)

86,225

(91.40)

79,064

(92.70)

Bishnah Tehsil 99,239

(100.0)

51,326

(100.0)

47,913

(100.0)

84,043

(81.70)

41,633

(81.10)

39,410

(82.30)

Samba Tehsil 245,016

(100.0)

129,582

(100.0)

115,434

(100.0)

179,653

(73.30)

92,770

(71.60)

86,883

(75.30)

Note: Figures within bracket indicate percentage. (Source: Census 2001)

R.S. Pura tehsil has a total population of 179,613 with 94,364 males

and 85,249 females. Out of total population of R.S. Pura, total rural

population includes 165,289 with rural male as 86,225 and rural female as

79,064. Total urban population of R.S. Pura consists of 14,324 persons

comprising of 8,139 males and 6,185 females (Source: A Hand Book of

2001).

Majority of the inhabitants of R.S. Pura tehsil represent those people

who had shifted their base from PoK, i.e., Pakistan occupied Kashmir,

during accession of this state to India. Settlers of this state have migrated

from “Deva Batala” (PoK) during the partition of 1947 and after

displacement got rehabilitated in this new environment.



Among Hindus there are Rajputs, Brahmans, Vaishyas, Harijans,

further divided into castes and sub castes. A small number of Brahmans

still retain their hereditary professions of preaching and performing

religious ceremonies. Their main occupation however remains agriculture

but quite a number of Brahmans are also employed in the armed forces and

government services. Rajputs are mostly confined to military services.

Although majority of Mahajan and Khatri population are engaged in

trade but it is also true that most of them have taken to government

services and other professions.

The major language spoken in R.S. Pura is popularly known as

Dogri which is a conglomeration of Punjabi and Persian words. It derived

its origin from the Indo-Aryan branch of Sanskrit. Dogri folk songs

ranging from love to heroism and sacrifices are sung by the people of R.S.

Pura. Ceremonial lyrics give analysis of human reaction to ceremonies.

„Biayian‟ are sung to celebrate the birth of male child, indicating gender

bias. Family lyrics pertain to household members such as mother, father,

daughter-in-law, mother-in-law and their relationships.

Age old legacy of orthodox customs prevails in the far flung and

backward areas of Jammu and R.S. Pura is also one of them. Rajputs,

especially Chib Rajputs in R.S. Pura area used to bury their infant

daughters alive to avoid humiliation caused by in-laws of a daughter.

Endogamous marriages are prevalent along with another type of marriage

called „Dohry‟ (Double) – take a daughter and give them your daughter.

„Gotra‟ and „Kula‟ exogamy is maintained. „Chadar dalna‟ or marrying the

brother‟s widow is also found in this area. The dowry system is prevalent



at all levels. It starts from the time the request for bridegroom is sent

(Aakha), when the relationship finalises (Thaka), then the „Shagun‟ when

the bridegroom is secured and finally during marriage.

Traditionally, men used to dress themselves in Kurta and Lungi

(„Tamat‟ in local dogri language), but now a days men wear Kurta Pajma,

but the younger ones wear shirts and trousers. Women used to dress in

„Giddi‟, a big cotton cloth like Sarong. It is worn while bathing, toilet and

women used to return home in this dress from the ponds or taps, and used

to change it at home. Women commonly wear „Suthan Kurta‟. Now a days,

women of this area wear sari, salwar kurta. The traditional dress has

changed to modern dresses, but the „Suthan‟ has staged a comeback with

fashion trends.

On any festive occasion, making food for ancestors (Shradha) or

fast, wheat and rice are important food grains which people cultivate in

their lands. In case of marriages and other functions like „Sutra‟, „Thaka‟,

the expert cooks are called.

If a person who dies very old, having a lineage which has descended

many generations from him, his death is celebrated and his son‟s brother -

in-law throws colour all around and bring drummers. The mourning though

is carried one year long, is symbolically ended by them. If a younger

person dies the family goes into mourning for one year and they desist

from their ornaments, wear light coloured or white clothes, and eat food

without frying it or putting „turmeric‟. The male members shave their hair

off their heads. The time duration varies according to castes for adhering

various mourning rituals, eleven days for Brahmans, thirteen days for



Rajputs, „Khatris‟ and other castes, and seventeen days for Mahajans. No

one is supposed to use soap, shave beard or wear proned new clothes. On

the prescribed day the „Pagri‟ (turban) is given to son-in-law. After that the

male goes to market and brings back some vegetable to be cooked by his

wife. They both are believed to have become responsible householders.

Caste system is enshrined in strict bounds. Prohibition is also

imposed on carrying out activities on certain days. Monday, Wednesday

and Sunday are good for washing clothes and, getting a hair cut or cutting

nails, which are prohibited on other days. Journey is prohibited on Tuesday

and Wednesday.

Article 341 of the Constitution provides that the President may

notify, with respect to any state or union territory, specify the castes, races

or tribes or parts of a group within castes, races or tribes which shall for

the purposes of the Constitution be deemed to be S.C. in relation to that

state or Union territory.

It is important to mention here that under the „Constitution

(Scheduled Castes) Order 1950‟, no person who professed a religion

different from Hinduism was deemed to be a member of a scheduled caste

in addition to every member of the Ramdasi, Kabirpanthi, Majhabi or

Sikligar caste residing in Punjab or Patiala and East Punjab states Union

were in relation to that state whether they professed Hindu or Sikh

religion. Subsequently, in September 1956, by an amendment, the

Presidential order of 1950 and in all subsequent Presidential orders relating

to scheduled castes, the Hindu and the Sikh religions were placed on the

same footing with regard to the specification of scheduled castes. Later on,



as per the amendment made in the „Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order

1990‟, the Hindu, the Sikh and the Buddhist are placed on the same footing

with regard to the recognition of the scheduled castes.

The list below contains the names of the scheduled castes applicable

for the Census of India 2001 in the State of J&K.

Scheduled Castes:

1. Barwala 2. Basith

3. Batwal 4. Chamar or Ramdasia

5. Chura 6. Dhyar

7. Doom or Mahasha 8. Gardi

9. Jolaha 10. Megh or Kabirpanthi

11. Ratal 12. Saryara

13. Watal

All the above mentioned castes are found in R.S. Pura tehsil. The

total SC population in R.S. Pura is 69, 203, constituting of 36,126 males

and 33,077 females. Among total SC population, rural SC population is

64,878 comprising of 33,823 as male SC and 31,055 as female SC and total

urban SC population is 4,325 constituting 2,303 of males and 2,022 of

females.

Facts about R.S. Pura Block

According to the estimate made by NCAER, the State‟s economy is

heavily reliant on agriculture and allied activities. This accounts for 61

percent of state‟s income. Agriculture thus being the largest industry in the



state, occupies the place of primacy in the State‟s economy. Jammu region

especially under agriculture, contributes heavily to the state‟s economy

every year. R.S. Pura area of Jammu district is one of such prominent areas

because of its high fertility level and yield per year. R.S. Pura area is an

important food supplier to Jammu region and other nearby areas. It inhabits

large amount of scheduled caste population heavily dependent on

agriculture for their livelihood. This area is chosen for the study, keeping

its agricultural output and scheduled caste population in mind.

There are a total of 184 villages in R.S. Pura block, out of which

152 villages inhabited and 32 villages are uninhabited. The total population

of this block is 149,676 in which males are 78,054 and females are 71,622.

Out of which total scheduled caste population is 55,656 consist of 28,940

as SC males and 26,176 as SC females.

The total number of literates in R.S.Pura Block is 99,129 out of

which males are 56,507 and 42,622 females. While number of SC literates

are 33,557 out of which males are 19,578 and females are 13,979. Sex ratio

in the block is 918 whereas sex ratio among SCs in R.S.Pura block is 923.

As far as work participation rate in the block is concerned, total

workers (main and marginal) account for 30.40 percent in which work

participation rate among male stands as 48.10 percent and females as 11.10

percent.

The main occupation of people living in this area is agriculture and

its allied activities. An increased agriculture production and the use of new

agricultural strategy have tremendously raised the potential of employment



in the area. Further implementation of land reforms in this region has made

this area more justifiable for fruitful agricultural activities.

In Jammu district, paddy is mainly grown in R.S. Pura block and its

average yield is about 13 quintals per hectare and this ratio is higher than

the national average of 12 quintals per hectare (Gupta 2005). R.S. Pura,

Samba, Akhnoor, Bishnah, Jammu, all are agriculturally rich areas of

Jammu and Kashmir. From these areas, R.S. Pura was selected for the

study because:

(i) On the basis of increasing productivity every year (from the

agricultural productivity report 2004, 2005, 2006);

(ii) implementation of land reforms in this region has made the area

more justifiable for fruitful agricultural activities;

(ii) labourers from different states migrated here due to its agricultural

seasonal character in the months of July and December and the use

of new agricultural strategies tremendously raised the potential of

employment in the area;

(iv) Labourers from different states are predominately seen working

here; and

(v) This area is world famous for its „Basmati‟ rice production.

In order to have comprehensive understanding of ten sample villages

of R.S. Pura block, the social structure of the ten villages has been

discussed below:

A village may be defined as a settlement in which three- fourth of

the population is engaged in agriculture. The castes at the top own land and



the ones at the bottom are agricultural labourers. Other castes like

carpenters, weavers, barbers, potter etc are service castes and they are

numerically less in a village. The landowners and agricultural labourers are

inseparably related with each other and these castes abound in contrast to

all other castes.

The villages in this region monotonously resemble other in terms of

caste and occupation. The caste configurations, at least after the partition,

are similar in all the ten studied villages. The out-migration of the Muslim

population and in- migration of mostly Sikh population as refugees has

drastically changed the social composition of these villages.

In the ten villages which were selected for study, a sample of 30

households from each village were interviewed in order to collect

information on certain socio- economic variables. As such, the socio-

economic profile of the sample villages has been reproduced below from

the Directorate of Census Operations (J&K) 2001, for our understanding of

the location, population composition, social structure etc, which may help

us in comparing with the primary data based analysis in the proceeding

chapters.

Socio-Economic Profile of Sample Villages

Dablahar

Dablahar village is a big village of near about 826.38 hectares area

(Census 2001) and located at a distance of 6 kms from R.S. Pura town. Till

1947, Dablahar was surrounded by villages with huge Muslim population.

However, after partition most of the population of these villages migrated



to Pakistan, but these villages still carry their Muslim names. The village

has eight temples and two Gurudwaras. There is an akhara located in the

village and every year on the occasion of Dussehra, local wrestling

competition (chhinj) is held in the village.

The two important religious groups, Hindus and Sikhs, are present in

the village. The Hindu population is mainly divided into Brahmans and

SCs. Brahmans mainly consist of Khuni, Biloch, Sasan and Khajuria sub -

castes. Sikhs are mainly Labane and belong to Khasree, Narsinghia, Peelia

and Patwaria sub-castes. The population of Brahmans and Labane Sikhs is

numerically equal. The scheduled castes population comprises of Megh,

Chamar and Batwal. The other segment of Hindu population comprises of

Mahajans, Cheer and Tarkhans.

Table 2.5 (i): Demographic Profile of Village Dablahar

No. of

Households

Total

Population

Males Females Total Sc

Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

601 3,074 1,532 1,542 929 497 432

Source: Directorate of Census Operations (J&K), 2001

The dialect of villagers is a mix of Punjabi and Dogri. People

belonging to different religions and communities live in harmony with

each other. There are restrictions in respect of matrimonial alliances.

As per Census 2001, the total population of the village is 3,074 out

of which 1,532 are males and 1,542 are females. As the village is

agriculture dominated area, a large portion of villagers are found to be

involved in agriculture sector. A notable observation is that most of the

agricultural labourers belong to lower caste and they work on other‟s



farms. The lower caste women are mainly agricultural workers. The upper

caste women do not work as agricultural labourers except in condition of

extreme poverty. The total SC population of the village is 929 comprising

497 males and 432 females.

Badhyal Brahmana

Badhyal Brahmana, a village located some 5 kms away from main

town R.S. Pura, derived its name from Brahmans who were the original

residents of this village. After partition, the Poonchi community as

refugees came to settle in this village. These people were allotted lands in

and around the village due to the migration of Muslim residents of the area

to Pakistan in the wake of partition. The total area of the village is 826.38

hectares having total number of 1,181 households (Census 2001). The total

population of the village is 6,291 in which total numbers of males are

3,294 and total numbers of females are 2,997. The total SC population is

1,225 out of which 655 are males and 570 are females.

Table 2.5 (ii): Demographic Profile of Village Badhyal Brahmana

No. of

Households

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

1,181 6,291 3,294 2,997 1,225 655 570


The two important religious segments of this village are – Hindus

and Sikhs. The Poonchi community which is of Brahman origin mainly

belongs to Soodan, Sasan, Raina, Khajuria and Ranial sub castes. Apart



from these refugee Brahmans, the other inhabitants of the area include Jats

and scheduled castes. The Sikh Brahmans are also refugees from PoK

(Pakistan occupied Kashmir) mainly from district Poonch. These Sikh

Brahmans do have the same sub castes as are found among Hindu

Brahmans.

This village is numerically dominated by the Brahman community.

Next comes the Jat community who mainly speak Jatti language, a mix of

Punjabi and Dogri. The Jats are economically far better than any other

community in the village as they have got sizable land holdings. Third

community includes of SCs which comprises of Bhagat, Chamar, Batwal

and Barwalas (labour) castes.

In the village, untouchability is still present to some extent. The

upper caste population does not accept food from SC population during

social functions but they do accept it from Jat people. However, the SCs

interact and also accept food from upper castes during social functions.

Both the segments of the population, i.e., upper caste and SCs freely

interact and cooperate with each other except in the matter of food which

has got certain restrictions. Both the upper castes and lower castes who

have opted for the Radha Swami cult have no restrictions in the matter of

food in Radha Swami congregations in which there is no discrimination so

far as caste, creed and colour is concerned.

Apart from food restrictions between the two segments of the village

community, there is strict restriction with regard to matrimonial alliances.

Although both the segments eat from the same community „Langers‟



during Radha Swami Congregations, upper caste people are against

matrimonial alliances.

Although the women from the Brahman and Jat communities render

help in their fields, they do not work in other‟s fields except their own.

Nevertheless, women from SC community work as agricultural labourers

in other‟s fields as they are economically weak and they have to do so to

supplement their household income. Some SC people who cannot afford a

pucca house still live in kaccha houses.

A tailoring centre was opened in the village in the year 2001 and

permission for the same was granted by the Minister of Social Welfare,

Department of J&K government. In this centre, 25 girls are imparted

tailoring and cutting training for a period of one year on a monthly stipend

of Rs.25. Each year, a batch of 25 girls is trained which helps in the

economic upliftment of women as they are able to earn something on their

own.

A Mahila Welfare Committee was also established in the village

which has been duly registered under NO-2820-S of 1997 with the

Societies Registration Act of 1998 (1941 A.D.). The main aim of this

committee was to abolish the illicit distillation of liquor which was

creating problems for the women folk of the village. Due to this illicit

distillation of liquor, the cases of wife-battering and other social problems

have risen alarmingly in the village. Both the upper and lower castes

people were equally affected with this malady. Due to the efforts of this

committee, most of the illicit distillation units have been eliminated and

women folk have heaved a sigh of relief. Now only one Government liquor



shop is existing and that too outside the village. The doors of this Mahila

Welfare Committee are open to all communities and there is no restriction

in terms of caste, creed or colour. The Committee is also doing yeoman

service in other fields of social problems such as dowry problems, wife -

battering and related problems.

Chohala

Village Chohala is located at a distance of 1 km from main town

R.S. Pura toward its eastern side. The area of the village is about 374.34

hectares. Having a population of 3800 souls, there are 711 households in

the village (Census 2001).

Table 2.5 (iii): Demographic Profile of Village Chohala

No. of

Households

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

711 3,800 2,016 1,784 2,941 1,538 1,403


The religious composition of the village shows that the Hindus,

Sikhs and Muslims are the main dwellers of this village. The Hindu

population comprises of Poonchi Brahmans, Hindu Jats and SCs. The

Sikhs comprises of Poonchi Brahman, Sardar, Jat sikh and Labane sikh.

The SC population is numerically dominant in the area and comprise of

Batwal, Bhagat and Chamar. There are houses of Sikh Jat (Nagra, Bajwa,

Randhawa and Samotra) and Hindu Jat (Choudhary).



The sub castes among the Poonchi Hindu Brahmans and Poonchi

Sikhs Brahmans are identical. The main sub castes found among the

Poonchi community, both Hindus and Sikhs are Soodan, Raina, Sasan,

Ishar, Ranial etc.

There are 2,016 males and 1,784 females in the village. The total SC

population in the village is 2,941 of which 1,538 are males and 1,403 are

females (Census 2001). Sikh Jat and Hindu Jat speak Jatti language, a mix

of Punjabi and Dogri where as Poonchi Brahmans and Poonchi Brahman

Sikhs speak Pahari language (Poonchi dialect).

The social interaction between the upper caste and SC population is

good. But food restrictions between the two communities is still there to

some extent, although not so strict as was observed in village Badyal

Brahmana. The matrimonial alliance is a taboo between the two

communities and any one violating this code is socially boycotted and

totally isolated in the community and sometimes even expelled from the

community.

Even among the SC community, there exist some sort of social

distance. It has been observed that there are food restrictions between the

Bhagat and Batwal because Bhagat consider themselves superior in terms

of caste hierarchy. The cases of wife-battering, by alcoholic husbands in

scheduled castes community also seen in village Chohala.

Another notable feature in the area has been observed in respect of

cremation ground. The upper castes and lower castes have got their

separate cremation grounds and this tradition was prevalent even before

partition. This is not based on any discrimination between the two



communities but rather it is observed as a continuation of the tradition

which is prevalent since even before partition.

There are four Anganwari centers operating in the area but otherwise

no NGO or SHG exist in the village. Some development work has been

undertaken in the village in the shape of construction of lanes and drains.

Nihalpur Simbal

The total area of this village is 210.44 esq. (Census 2001). The total

numbers of households found in this village are 819. The total population

of this village is 4,805 in which males are 2,882 and females are 1,923.

The total SC population is 1,006 in which males are 531 and females are

475. This village consists of Labane Sikhs, Choudhary (Jats) and SCs

which consists of Megh (Kabirpanthi), Batwal and Mahasha (Doom).

Brahmans are also found in this village.

Table 2.5 (iv): Demographic Profile of Village Nihalpur Simbal

No. of

Households

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

819 4,805 2,882 1,923 1,006 531 475


The interaction among the different castes is good. There are food

and marital restrictions between upper and lower castes. Mostly women of

the lower castes are agricultural labourers in this village. Some people

especially those who belonging to the lower caste are so poor that they live

in kaccha houses.



Sidhar

Sidhar village is located at a distance of 2 km away from main town

of R.S. Pura. The total area of the village is 68.4 hectares. There are 185

households in the village. It is an old village that was founded before 1947.

The villages surrounding village Sidhar were predominantly Muslim

dominated before 1947. Later on, most of the population of this village

migrated to Pakistan. After partition, the population of „Deva Batala‟,

which is now in Pakistan, settled in Sidhar. This village has 2 Hindu

temples.

Caste and Religious Composition:

The population of the village is a mixture of different castes like

upper caste which comprises of Rajputs and Brahmans; Other Backward

classes and scheduled caste community. But majority of the population is

scheduled caste. The total population of the village is 943 in which total

numbers of males are 480 and total numbers of females are 463. The total

SC population in the village is 535 out of which 277 are males and 250 are

females. The locals of this village speak a mix of Punjabi and Dogri

language.

Table 2.5 (v): Demographic Profile of Village Sidhar

No. of

Household

Total

Population

Males Females Total SC

Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

185 943 480 463 535 277 258

Source: Directorate of Census operations (J&K) 2001



Social Setup:

The scheduled caste population is more than 50% and generally

comprises of Megh and Batwal. Scheduled castes in this village have their

different locality. As far as untouchability is concerned, it is ineffective to

some extent. The matrimonial alliance is a taboo between different

communities. People of higher castes like Rajput and Brahman do not

invite them for food in marriages and other functions, Food is usually sent

for lower caste people in their homes. The poorer strata of the SC

community live in kaccha houses.

Among the scheduled castes there is internal stratification within the

community. Bhagats consider themselves superior than Batwal in caste

hierarchy.

Chak Aslam

Chak Aslam is a village situated at a distance of 4 km from R.S.

Pura town. The total area of the village is 102.4 hectares. It is held that

before 1947, this village was surrounded mostly by Muslims, that is why,

the village carries Muslim name. Locals of this village call it „Salamey

Chak‟. But in census records it is known as Chak Aslam. There are 152

households in this village. The total population of this village is 882, out of

which 473 are males and 409 are females of which SC total population is

675, which includes 366 males and 309 females. The village is dominated

by SC population.




The people of this village are refugees who have come here to settle

down after 1947. The local residents of this village are Megh, which are

popularly known as „Bhagat‟ in refined term. Bhagats are in majority in

this village. Apart from Bhagats, there are Batwal, Poonchi Brahmans,

Sikh, Dogra Brahmans, Mahajans, Tarkhan, Cheer, Doom Jat and

Choudhary. Meghs in this village work as Julaha. The SC community

speak mixture of punjabi and Dogri language while Poonchi Brahman and

Sikhs speak Pahari language i.e., Poonchi dialect.

Table 5 (vi): Demographic Profile of Village Chak Aslam

No. of

Household

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

152 882 473 409 675 366 309

Source: Directorate of Census operations (J&K) 2001.

Social setup:

Social interaction among different communities is better. Food

restrictions between the communities are very less but restrictions in

respect of matrimonial alliances has been seen.

There is one sheller of Basmati Rice which is run by a Mahajan

family in the Village. The village has one temple of Bhagat Kabir and one

paper factory. There are two anganwadi centres in the village.



Chak Mohydar

The total area of this village is 103.3 hectares. It is located nearly

three km away from R.S Pura town. It has 272 households. Muslims were

the original population in this village before partition. Due to this the

village carries Muslim name. People of this village call it „Chak

Mohaymdar‟ but it is Chak Mohydar in census records.

Caste and Religious composition:

SC community is dominant in this village. The population of the

village comprises of Batwal, Megh, Gardi, Poonchi sikh Brahman, Labana

Sikh, Jat (Choudhary) and also of scheduled tribe community.

Batwal and Megh are in majority and some Muslims are also

residing in the village.

The total population of the village is 1,394, consisting of 710 males

and 684 females. The total SC population is 640 out of which 327 are

males and 313 are females.

Table 2.5 (vii): Demographic Profile of Chak Mohydar

No. of

Household

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

272 1,394 710 684 640 327 313

Source: Directorate of census operations (J&K), 2001.



Social set up of the village:

Untouchability does not persist in the village except for food

restrictions between the upper and lower caste. The matrimonial alliance is

a taboo between different communities. Some people of lower caste live in

kuccha houses.

There are two gurdwaras, one for Poonchi Sikh Brahman and

another one for Labane sikhs. Earlier these two communities had only one

Ggurdwara. But, once they had some conflicting issue over the gurdwara.

They have now separated the gurdwaras.

There is one community hall used by all castes, whether lower or

higher. One PHE tube well also exists in the village. There are two rice

mills namely Guru Nanak Rice Mill and Raina Rice Mill in the village.

Jaindar

Jaindar is a village with 185 households. The area of this village is

about 174.8 hectares having a population of 1,056 people. Out of the total

population, males are 529 and females are 527. The total SC population is

731 including 354 males and 377 females.


The population in the village consists of SCs, Jat, Cheer, Muslims.

The SCs comprise of Batwal, Basith and Bhagat in majority. A mixture of

Dogri and Punjabi is spoken by the local residents. Jatti language is spoken

by Jat people.



Table 2.5(viii): Demographic Profile of Village Jaindar

No. of

household

Total

Population


population

SC

males

SC

females

185 1,056 529 527 731 354 377

Source: Directorate of Census operations (J&K), 2001

Social Setup:

There are two temples in the village, one is Bhagat Kabir‟s temple

for SC community and another one is temple of Mata Vaishno Devi. There

are 12 private „Bambies‟ and two anganwadi centres in the village. The

village has two government dispensaries - ayurvedic and veterinary. Social

relationships between the people of all communities including lower caste

people are good. There are food restrictions and taboo in matrimonial

alliances. Except these two matters, untouchability does not persist in any

social sphere. The people of all communities cooperate with each other.

Chakroi

Village Chakroi is one of the biggest village of R.S. Pura having an

area of 655, 60 hectares. It is located at a distance of eight km. from the

main town. The total numbers of households found in this village are 887

having a total population of 4,547. Out of which males are 2,323 and

females are 2,224. The total SC population is 3,677 in which males are

1,868 and females 1,809.




The majority of the population of village Chakroi comprise of SCs.

Residents of this village include Megh, Batwal, Barwala, Chamar, Jat,

Sikh, Bhardwaj Brahman.

Meghs have got 300 houses and Batwals have got 280 houses in the

area where as Choudhary Jat comprises of 150 houses. There are seventy

five houses of Chamars, forty houses of Sikhs and forty two houses of

Bhardwaj Dogra Brahmans. A mixture of Dogri and Punjabi is spoken by

scheduled caste, whereas, Jats speak Jatti language and Punjabi is spoken

by Sikh community.

Table 2.5 (ix): Demographic Profile of Village Chakroi

No. of

Household

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

887 4,547 2,323 2,224 3,677 1,868 1,809

Source Directorate of census operations (J&K ) 2001

Social Set Up:

The village is generally dominated by SCs. Social distance is only

practised in terms of food and matrimonial alliances. Otherwise social

interactions between the people of higher and lower castes are cordial.

The village has one government higher secondary school, one

animal husbandry and one agricultural farm house. The office of Naib

Tehsildar is located in the village. The village has got one Panchayat Ghar

and eight anganwadi centres and there are no NGOs or SHGs in the village.

One rural bank also exists within the village.



Parlah

Village Parlah is located 10 km away from R.S. Pura Town. It

encompasses the total area of 2,829 hectares. The village has 374

households in total. The total population of the village is 2,035 which

consist of 1,031 males and 1,004 females. The total SC population is 1,177

out of which males are 611 and females are 566.


The village is inhabited by scheduled castes like Megh, Batwal,

Chamar, Doom, Basith, and OBC‟s like Cheer, Tarkhan & Kumhar. It also

has the upper caste of Rajputs, Brahmans and some families of Sikhs and

scheduled tribe population. Meghs are in majority in village. There are 100

houses of Meghs, fifty two houses of Batwals, thirty five houses of

Chamars, twenty houses of Mahashas. The village has got 12 houses of

Tarkhans, eight houses of Kamars and twenty houses of Cheer. There are

also ten houses of Gujars and two houses of Christan community. While

Saroch Rajputs have seventy houses and Manhas Rajputs have five houses.

Besides, there are three houses of Dogra Khajuria Brahmans and thirty

seven houses of Labane sikhs.

Table 2.5 (x): Demographic Profile of Village Parlah

No. of

Household

Total

Population


Population

SC

Males

SC

Females

374 2,035 1,031 1,004 1,177 671 566

Source: Directorate of census operations (J&K) 2001



Social Setup:

In spite of the fact that the village comprises of many different

communities, it is observed that cooperation and social interaction between

the communities are cordial. Social distance is practiced only in case of

food and matrimonial alliances. There is one Ram temple, one temple of

Bhagat Kabir and one gurdwara in the village. There are two places of Pir

in the village Parlah. The village has one ayurvedic dispensary, one

Anganwari centre, three tube wells for irrigation, a post office and two

timber houses.

Table 2.6: Demographic Profile of the Sample Villages

S.

No.

Name Total

Population

Total

Male

Total

Female

Total SC

Population

Total

SC

Male

Total

SC

Female

1. Dablahar 3074 1532 1542 929 497 452

2. Badhyal

Brahmna 6291 3294 2997 1225 653 570

3. Chohala 3800 2016 1784 2941 1538 1403

4. Nihalpur

Simbal 4805 2882 1923 1006 531 475

5. Sidhar 943 480 463 535 277 258

6. Chak

Aslam 882 473 409 675 366 309

7. Chak

Mohydhar 1394 710 684 640 327 313

8. Jaindar 1056 529 527 731 354 377

9. Chakroi 4547 2323 2224 3677 1868 1809

10. Parlah 2035 1031 1004 1177 611 566

Source: Directorate of census operations (J&K) 2001



Except for Dablahar, Badyal Brahmana and Nihalpur Simbal, all the

remaining sample villages have a concentration of 50 percent or more

schedule caste population. The concentration is more in Chakroi (80

percent).

The social profile as stated above clearly indicates that unlike other

states of the country, untouchability, in general, is not being practiced here

except that social distance, however, is strictly followed in case of

matrimonial alliances.

Caste Endogamy

The crucial feature of caste system is caste endogamy which implies

that a person born in a caste has to marry within that caste. The survival of

caste system needs a self- perpetuating practice of this endogamy principle.

Though there are some observable cases of inter- caste marriage from some

of the sample villages, but these cases occurred in the urban settings where

some members of these villages have migrated due to higher education and

employment. Thus the practices of arranged marriages do not recognise

inter-caste marriages.

Inter-dining

The sociologists have also identified another crucial feature of the

caste system, namely, commensuality or restrictions on inter -dinning. In

Indian society, eating behavior is regulated by commensuality taboo based

on the principle of purity and pollution. This commensuality practice of

Indian caste system while has undergone considerable change in urban



space, has also effected the inter-dinning pattern in the rural villages.

Considering some of the observations in the sample villages, it is seen that

the taboo on inter-dinning is weakening to a considerable extent. For

example, the Radha Swami Congregations in the sample village of Badhyal

Brahmana, inter-caste interaction through inter-dinning among different

castes from the same „Langer‟ has contributed to the change. It is also

reported from the village Chohala that the scheduled castes being

numerically preponderant, the commensuality restrictions are weakening.

Review of Land Reforms in Jammu &Kashmir

The agrarian reforms of the early 1950‟s provided the initial thrust

to modernisation. Abolition of feudal institutions (Jagirdars, Maifis and

Mukraries) marked the first phase (1948) of the reform measures. Apart

from saving societal surplus siphoned off by the Jagirdars, etc., in the form

of cash grants and revenues, about 4000 acres of land was transferred to

the tillers. In the second phase „„tenants at-will” were granted fixed tenure

over holdings not exceeding 2.5 acres of wet land and 4.5 acres of dry land

in the Kashmir valley and almost double this size in respect of both the

categories in the Jammu division. Maximum rent on holdings, exceeding

12.5 acres, was also fixed at one fourth of the produce in case of wet land

and one-third in case of dry land. Land under State control was released for

cultivation by agricultural workers. Rent on all classes of cultivated land,

other than the land used for commercial vegetable cultivation, called

„Malyari‟ land, the size class of 12.5 acres was fixed at one half of the

amendments. Changes in the relevant reforms are estimated to have

benefited three-fifth of peasants cultivating 700,000 acres of land out of an



area of 2.2 million acres of cultivable area. The Distressed Debtors Relief

Act (1950) abolished usury lock, stock and barrel.

However, the third phase of the reforms (1950), which was decisive,

abolished absentee landlordism completely. A ceiling of 22.5 acres was

imposed on land ownership and surplus land was transferred to the tillers

without compensation to the proprietors. The total land transferred to the

tillers as a result of land reforms was 92,927 acres during 1951-52, 66,755

acres during 1952-53 and 36,619 acres during 1953-54. Approximately,

230,000 acres of cultivated land was transferred to 200,000 tillers by the

end of 1953 and about 800,000 acres upto 1961 (see Agricultural Census of

J&K State 1971 Beg, 1951 and 1976).

The land reform measures were not free from flaws, gaps, and

inconsistencies. These, however, do not undermine the radical nature and

significance of the reforms. „Yet whatever the effects in the

implementation the fact of the agrarian change cannot be denied. Many

tillers have become landowners and some land has gone to the landless‟

(Thorner 1953). To remove the flaws and gaps, the Agrarian Reforms Act

1976 was promulgated. The Act was based on the recommendations of the

various commission/ reports.

The Act made provision to:

(i) fix ceiling at 12 standard acres approximately, varying in terms of

ordinary measure between 8.87 and 22.75 acres depending upon the

nature of soil, availability of irrigation and region specific situation

of land, impose ceiling or orchards apart from agricultural land;



(ii) transfer the surplus land to tillers and the landless except in case of

land belonging to the Gumpas of Ladakh district, places of worship,

public trusts and institutions of charitable nature;

(iii) relate the ceiling area to a family consisting of husband, wife and

their children excluding the married daughter and the minor son who

has separated from his father on or before September 1971;

(iv) ensure, with exceptions that are in public interests, that ownership

follows personal cultivation; and

(v) provide rehabilitation facilities for parties whose land was

impounded by permitting resumption in certain cases and requiring

payment of levy in full except in case of indigenous tillers.

According to the provisional estimates of 1970-71 Agricultural

Census, 29 percent of the peasants were expected to benefit from the 1976

Agrarian Reforms Act (Amended). About 236,000 families were covered

under land reforms during 1981-82 against a level of 9,100 during the

previous year.

Ownership rights have been granted for an area of 60,000 hectares

during 1981-82 against 27,000 hectares during the previous year. Area

transferred to the tillers is almost of the same order. Area on which

absolute ownership rights have been conferred on the prospective owners

is estimated 0.10 lakh hectares, during 1981-82 against 0.04 lakh hectares

during the previous year (Digest of Statistics, Directorate of Economics

and Statistics, Planning and Development Department, Jammu and

Kashmir Government, 1983-84).



According to the estimates of the Jammu and Kashmir Land

Commission (1968), there were 919,212 „owners‟ holding 2,470,960 acres

of land in the state in 1949-50. The number of owners in 1962 was

1,153,328 holding 2,295,610 acres of land. Thus, the number of owners

increased by 25.47 per cent and area hold decreased by 7.09 per cent in

1962 over 1949-50. Owners holding less than 12.5 acres constituted 97.50

per cent of the total owners in 1949-50, while, this percentage amounted to

97.73 in 1962. Owners in the size class held 6.75 per cent and 83.68 per

cent of the total area in the two reference periods respectively. Owners

holding above 22 acres represented only 0.98 per cent of the total owners

holding 26.83 per cent of the total area held in 1949-50. These shares

declined to 0.53 per cent and 1.48 per cent respectively in 1962, indicating

a sharp decline in the area held compared to the number of owners (Bhatt,

M.S., 2000).

The facts and figures stated above while benefited the poor peasants

and Landless population in general, it‟s impact has been considered to be

more radical in the area under study i.e., R.S. Pura. Land Reforms proved

to be successful in R.S. Pura Tehsil. R.S Pura is known as „Mini Punjab‟

due to high rate of its fertile, agricultural land and partly because of its

irrigation facilities.

Further, the allotment of land through „Displaced Persons‟ Rules

1954‟, also benefited many of the families in this area . The said Act has

the following provisions for the allotment of land to displaced persons.

1. Only such displaced families as already hold land in Pakistan

occupied territory of the state and whose main source of livelihood



was income from such land shall be eligible to be settled on evacuee

of government land.

2. Every displaced family shall, subject to the provisions of Para 3 , be

entitled to a unit of land (other than that classed or declared as

Maliari) which shall :

(a) Per member of the family be:

(i) 6 kanals of Abi or 9 kanals of Khushki in Ranbir Singh

Pura and Jammu Tehsils;

(ii) 9 kanals of Abi or 14 kanals of Khushki in elsewhere in

the Jammu province;

(b) In case of the family consisting of three or less members be

not less than:

(i) 2 acres of Abi or 3 acres of Khushki in the Ranbir

Singh Pura and Jammu tehsils;

(ii) 3 acres of Abi or 41 acres of Khushki elsewhere in the

Jammu province.

(c) In any case not exceed 4 acres of Abi or 6 acres of Khushki

(Revenue Deptt. Statutory Rules and Order under Land Act,

Old Vol. IV, 1996).

Land of R.S. Pura is an evacuee land or consolidate land and it was

held that owners of the land will be those who were the real owner and it

was decided that when they will come, the land will be given to them only

(Assistant Custodian, Tehsil Officer, R.S. Pura).



Now, „Roshni Act‟ is yet another contemporary attempt at Land

reforms. The J&K Assembly passed the Roshni Bill on February 9, 2007. It

is claimed that this bill will provide free of cost ownership of 16.6 lakh

kanals (worth Rs. 20,000 crores; and with 19 lakh cultivators as

beneficiaries) to farmers.

As per the renewed Roshni scheme, ownership of the government

land which is under farmers‟ cultivation will be given to them at a meager

rate of 10 percent of the rate prevailing in their respective areas. The total

ceiling of the agriculture land owned by a farmer including his proprietary

land and government land, which can be purchased by him, shall not

exceed 100 kanals as prescribed under the Agrarian Reforms Act.

Land reform of the fifties along with the „Displaced Persons‟ Rules

1954‟ and the Roshni scheme radically affected the socio-economic life of

the SC‟s and political landscape of the region. So far, J&K was the only

state of India where tillers, who invariably belonged to SCs, became

owners of the land without any compensation. Debt relief law passed at the

same time exempted them from repaying their debt if they had paid one

and half times the principle. These radical steps made the scheduled castes

economically and socially much better off than their counterparts

elsewhere in India. The underlying fact was that the actual cultivators on

the lands of high castes were prominently scheduled castes. They were

hopeful of getting benefits owing to land reforms in rural areas. Before

Independence, cultivatable land was mainly owned by Rajput zamindars

and the Mahajans who acted as owner cultivators. The SCs and OBCs

acted as tenants (Mazhara) and practiced sharecropping (Galla batai



practiced by 80% of SC tenants). They have to give ½ of the produce to the

owner, but after tenancy reform they have to pay ¼th

of the produce.

Moreover, earlier they were “tenants-at-will” and were at the mercy of the

landlord. But after the „Tenancy Act 1980‟, they are categorised as

“protected tenant” (Mazahana Mafoos) (Saxena, 2009).

Saxena studied three villages in Jammu region, the data on which

show that the scheduled castes have got benefits from land reforms in real

sense as they got land after land reforms. These three villages also include

Rattian of R.S. Pura Tehsil.

Rattian is a small village in R.S Pura Tehsil of Jammu district and

situated at a distance of 12 kms. south of Jammu city. As per 2001 census,

the village consists of 153 households inhabited by different caste groups

such as Rajput, Mahajan, and Brahman, weak and underprivileged classes

or Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and SCs. The average size of the

household is 6.2. The population of the village as per 2001 census is 945

out of which 520 (55%) are scheduled castes. Most of the villagers are

Hindus and a few are Sikhs. The literacy rate of the village is fairly high,

that is 75.25%. Mahasha is the numerically dominant caste among the

scheduled castes population of the village.

The village has 4,384 kanals of land of which 4,200 kanal is put to

cultivation. The main crop of the village is wheat and rice. The prime

mode of irrigation is canal water. There are five tractors in the village, out

of which only one is owned by scheduled caste. The data reveals that

although majority people are engaged in non-agricultural work (65.2%),

still 23.8% of population is engaged in agriculture.



In village Rattain, land is prominently concentrated in the hands of

upper caste people, especially Rajputs. It is found that 18.2% of the

households of the village are still landless (mainly SCs and service castes),

while 16.36% of the land owners have land holding of up to 104 kanals. In

absolute terms, majority of landless and marginal landholders are

scheduled castes. In agrarian society amount of land owned is a reliable

indicator of the level of inequality and the relative position of the rural

person in the general rural hierarchy, both socially and economically. So

the economic status of SCs in this village can be clearly judged through the

above mentioned figures.

Table 2.7: Caste-wise Land Holding Position in Rattian Village (in

Kanals)

Caste Before 1970 2002

Landless Upto

4k

4-

12k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Landless Upto

4k

4-

2k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Rajput - - - - 7 - - - 5 13

Mahajan - - - 4 11 - - - 3 8

Brahman - - 3 2 1 - - 2 5 6

OBC 12 2 - - - 10 1 2 - 3

SC 43 - 1 2 - 15 8 16 27 21

Poonchi

Sikh - - - - - - - 1 3 7

Source: Saxena (2009)

Before 1950s, mainly two castes, Rajputs and Mahajans owned land

in the village and SCs were landless tillers except three cases of SCs as



owners who were „Maroosi Malik‟ (temporary owner as land is given as a

gift by their masters). The Land Reforms Act of 1950 radically changed the

land holding structure in the village. The SCs who were landless tillers and

had written agreements (Gardori Andraz) prior to 1971 became the owner

of land (Nai Malik or Zadid Malik) under the Act. Since they were tilling

large area of land, they were the key beneficiaries of the Act. Apart from

this, few displaced Sikh families of Poonch area also settled here and

started purchasing land. In the 1970‟s the land ownership pattern witnessed

further changes in the similar direction. Many Mahajan families who lost

some of their land in land reforms started selling their remaining land.

They migrated to the cities for business and better living. The displaced

Sikhs who were rehabilitated in the village in 1950 gradually consolidated

and increased their land holding position both in terms of average as well

as total holdings. These significant changes have brought considerably

decline in the existing hegemony of the big landowning castes and paved

the way for small landowners who started generating their economic and

political influence in the rural setting.

Table 2.8: Distribution of Surplus Land in Rattian Village

Surplus land in

Village Rattian

Surplus Land

Distributed

(During 1950-70’s)

Beneficiaries

(out of the 92 families)

No. of SC

Families

Others

672 kanals 472 (70.24%) 38 (41.30%) 9 (9.80%)


The „Big Landed Estate Abolition Act 1950‟, provides land ceiling

and thus the surplus land was distributed to the tillers and the landless at



nominal rates, which they could pay in installments. During 1950s – 70s,

out of the total surplus land of 672 kanals mainly taken away from Rajputs

and Mahajans, 70.24% was allotted to SC tenants and other cultivating

castes (9.80%), while the rest of land was declared as government land.

The land reform measures have also effected the labour

relations in the village. Earlier, the social pattern of the village

communities was influenced in many ways by the traditional system of

agriculture. A system of mutual and reciprocal expectations emerging out

of the ties between the owner and tiller transcended the economic and

socio-religious sphere of life as well. In the village these ties have either

weakened or ended. The phenomenon of share cropping had significantly

declined. At present, in its limited way, it is based on mutual trust between

two parties and without any written agreement. The educated among the

scheduled caste population of the village goes for white-collar jobs to

urban areas. The new land owners among the SCs instead of cultivating

their land themselves prefer to lease out land and refrain from continuing

their traditional occupation of labour in the fields of high caste people or

small land owning cultivators. It was further noticed that the relatively

advanced sections of the scheduled castes tried to disassociate themselves

from their own caste groups. They minimize their interaction with their

caste people to prevent themselves from the situation of ostracisation in

their new society. They do this to retain their self-respect and dignity in the

new society. This attitudinal change among the SCs towards farm labour

and farming has implications on the village economy. It has created a

shortage of local agricultural labour that has opened avenues for the

migrant seasonal labour from the other states. The socio-economic



betterment of the village SCs due to land acquisition government jobs and

education has generated self-respect among them. The democratic political

process has created a new kind of awareness and a realisation about their

role to make and unmake governments. However, the latent reciprocity of

maintaining distance between the polar opposite castes persists among the

older generation. Saxena (2009) also finds a similar pattern of change in

other two villages of Udhampur and Kathua district.

Table 2.9: Caste-wise Land Holding Position in Barta Village (in

Kanals)


Landless Upto

4k

4-

12k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Landless Upto

4k

4-

12k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Brahman - - 37 22 13 - - 32 26 28

Mahajan - - - 20 7 - - - 8 16

Rajput - - - 5 7 - - - 2 7

OBC 12 2 1 - - 5 3 4 - -

SC 18 8 - - - 9 16 11 4 -

ST - - - - - - 7 1 - -

Muslim - - - - - - - 2 2 -


The land reform has benefited the landless and the marginal peasants

of the village. Majority of the landless and near-landless families belonged

to the scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and service castes (WUPC). The

number of landless families among the SCs and service castes (WUPC) has



decreased from 30 before 1970 to 14 in 2002. However, 7.90% of the

households of the village still are landless.

Table 2.10: Caste-wise Land Holding Position in Pandori Village (in

Kanals)


Landless Up

to

4k

4-

12k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Landless Up

to

4k

4-

12k

12-

20k

20 &

above

Brahman - - 2 7 14 - - 1 3 13

Mahajan - - 3 8 10 - - 1 3 11

Rajput - - 2 5 22 - - 3 5 15

WUPC 15 3 1 - - 7 3 4 - -

SC 26 13 4 1 - 13 21 19 17 8

ST - - - - - 4 1 1 - -


The table shows that the SCs have been the highest beneficiary of

land reforms in the village. They were the actual cultivators of lands of the

landlords before land reform. They became the real owners and they have

got lands with high fertility. The post land reform period improved their

economic status along with other factors i.e., government‟s SC specific

welfare programmes, democratic empowerment and education, has made

the village SCs more conscious and assertive.

To conclude, it may be summarised that the land reforms of the

early 1950‟s abolished the feudal institutions (Jagirdars, Maifis and

Mukraries).



Apart from saving societal surplus, siphoned off by the Jagirdars,

etc. in the form of cash grants and revenues, about 4000 acres of land was

transferred to the tillers. And this results into landownership of many

tillers and some land has gone to the landless. The land reform measures

were not free from flaws, gaps, and inconsistencies. To remove the flaws

and gaps, the „Agrarian Reforms Act 1976‟ was promulgated. The land

reforms of 1950‟s, the „Distressed Debtors Relief Act (1950)‟ and

„Agrarian Reform Act 1976‟ which was again amended benefited the poor

peasants and landless population as well. As it is seen more beneficial in

the area under study i.e. R.S.Pura. Land Reforms prove to be successful in

R.S.Pura tehsil. Now, „Roshni Act‟ is yet another contemporary attempt at

land reforms. According to it, there will be free of cost ownership of 16.6

lakh kanals (worth Rs. 20,000 crores; and with 19 lakh cultivators as

beneficiaries) to farmers. Land reform of fifties along with the „Displaced

Persons‟ Rules 1954‟ and the Roshni scheme radically affected the socio -

economic life of the SCs and political landscape of the region. So far J&K

is the only state of India, where tillers, who invariably belonged to SCs,

became owners of the land without any compensation. Debt relief law

passed at the same time exempted them from repaying their debt if they

had paid one and half times the principle. These radical steps made the

scheduled castes economically and socially much better off than their

counterparts elsewhere in India. The underlying fact was that the actual

cultivators on the lands of high castes were prominently scheduled castes.

The scheduled castes have got benefits from land reforms in real

sense as they got land through land reforms can be understood through

Saxena‟s study of three villages in Jammu region. These three villages



include Rattian of R.S. Pura, Barta of Udhampur and Pandori of Kathua

district. Land reforms have benefited the scheduled castes in these villages

to a great extent. On an average, they possess 4-12 kanals of land. In

general, the prevailing socio-economic conditions and land reforms have

been conducive for considerable improvement in life standards of these

villagers, especially the scheduled castes.

Documents

CHAPTER-II SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL PROFILE OF THE …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/78344/6/06_chapter 2.pdfGulab Singh was eventually made the Raja of Jammu by the „Treaty