CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Definition of Translation · brambang asem, tumpang, sego liwet, gethuk lindri, and wedang ronde. Those words do not have equivalent word in English

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Definition of Translation

Generally, the definition of translation is a process of transferring

messages from source language into target language. Many experts define the

definition of translation in different ideas. In the definition proposed by Newmark

(1988:5), he points out that translation is a process of rendering the meaning of a

text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Newmark‟s

statement indicates that he focused on how the translator transferring messages

from one language into another language intended the text, and he inferred that

meaning is an important thing in terms of transferring messages. Another

definition stated by Nida & Taber (1974:12) that translating consists in

reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source

language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.

Looking at their definition of translation, Nida & Taber assume that meaning is

more important than style when transferring the message of source language.

In addition, Brislin (1976:1) also states that translation is a general term

referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another,

whether the language is in written or oral form, whether of the languages have

established orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages is based on

signs as with signs of the deaf. From the definition, it can be seen out on how the

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translation conveyed from one language to another language. While Venuti

(1991:1) contends that translation as the attempt to produce a text so transparent

that it does not seem to be translated. In the definition by Venuti, translators must

be able to make their translation sounds natural in the target language; in this case

the target readers do not feel confused with the language used by the translators.

Another expert, Catford (1965:20) defines the message as a textual

material. He states that translation is about replacement of textual material in

source language by equivalent of the textual material in the target language.

Catford points out that replacement of textual material means transferring

messages from one language to another language. Meanwhile, according to Bell

(1991:6), translation is the replacement of representation of a text in one language

by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell states that

replacement of a text means the result of source text message which is transferred

into target text.

Based on the definitions of translation by some experts above, it can be

concluded that translation is related to the three main elements, they are meaning

or message, source language (SL), and also target language (TL). Based on those

three main elements, there are source text, target text, translator, and target readers

which are connected each other. In this case, the translator holds the most

important role in the process of translating. The result of translation which is

produced by translator will be affected target readers‟ interest in reading.

Professional translators who fulfilled right techniques in translating the source text

into target text will be deliver good quality of translation result. Good quality of

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the result in translation means the target text is accurate, acceptable, and readable

for the target readers. This condition makes the target readers easily to catch the

message of source text which is transferred perfectly in the target text.

B. Problems in Translation

Translating is a process of delivering messages from source language to

the target language. Translators often face problems in the process of translation.

The problems in the process of translation can be solved by the translators by

choosing the right techniques. In this research analysis, the translators used

appropriate techniques to solve the problems in translation. Moreover, Nababan

(2003: 55) points out that there are four difficulties that might be faced by

translators in the process of translating texts. Those difficulties such as: (1)

differences of system between source language (SL) and target language (TL), (2)

complexity of semantics and stylistic, (3) competence level of the translators, and

(4) quality level of source text (ST).

1. Differences of system between SL and TL

Language is the most important thing for people to communicate

each other. Every language has its own system between one language

and another language. In this case, those differences of SL and TL

system become one of the difficulties for the translators in the process

of translating texts. Each language has different system in terms of

grammatical, semantic, and lexical. For example, the different

grammatical system can be found in the English language and

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Indonesian language. English language has linking verb to construct

the sentences, while Indonesian language does not have linking verb.

Linking verb is one of a part in grammatical system.

2. Complexity of semantics and stylistic

Every language has its own cultural terms. Sometimes, it becomes

a problem for the translators in translating texts because some cultural

terms in SL do not have equivalent meaning in TL. For example, in

culinary field, Indonesia has cultural terms such as cabuk rambak,

brambang asem, tumpang, sego liwet, gethuk lindri, and wedang

ronde. Those words do not have equivalent word in English dictionary.

Considering this phenomenon, the translators keep the original terms

and give explanations about those terms to solve the problem.

3. Competence level of the translators

In the process of translating texts from SL to TL, one of the most

important things for the translators is the level of competence. The

translators must have good competence and knowledge background to

solve the difficulties that might be face in translating the texts. Lack

competence of the translators will be affecting the result of translation.

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4. Quality level of ST

The quality level of the source language text also brings the

difficulties to the translators. The problems such as grammatical errors,

incorrect spelling, and ambiguous words create the difficulties to

translate. In this case, the translators should have abilities to solve the

problems in order to produce good quality of the translation.

C. Translation Techniques

In the process of translating texts, the translators often face problems

related to the cultural differences and untranslatability on grammar that exists in

the source language (SL) and target language (TL). Translators should apply

appropriate techniques in the process of translating to overcome the problems.

That situation aims to get the result of translation which is understood by the

target readers. There are some theories about translation techniques. Molina &

Albir (2002: 509) state that translation technique is the way micro-units of the text

are translated. They also state that translation techniques are affecting the quality

of translation and can be used to find solutions for different types of translation.

There are five basic characteristics of translation techniques proposed by

Molina & Albir, such as:

a. Affect the result of translation

b. Compare the result of translation with the original (between source text

and target text)

c. Affect micro-units of text (morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence)

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d. By nature discursive and contextual

e. Functional

In this research, I applied the theory of translation techniques proposed by

Molina & Albir (2002: 509-511) and Newmark (1988: 81-91). Molina & Albir

define that translation technique is a procedure to analyze and classify how

translation equivalents can be applied to various units of language. There are a lot

of data translated by using Molina & Albir‟s theory. Besides, some of data applied

the translation technique theory by Newmark. In this case, the data of this research

are more specific to analyze by using the theory proposed by Molina & Albir.

Molina & Albir (2002: 509-511) propose 18 techniques used to analyze

the translation, as follows:

1. Adaptation

This technique aims to replace an ST cultural element with one

from the target culture (Molina & Albir, 2002: 509). It occurs when

something specific to one language culture is expressed in a totally

different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language

culture. Adaptation replaces the cultural element by substituting

unfamiliar term in the source text into familiar term in the target text.

The terms used by translators must have the same concept, so it does

not change the meaning in the source text. For example:

Table 2.1. Example of Adaptation Technique

Source Language Target Language

Alex will join the Archery

competition this morning

Pagi ini Alex akan mengikuti

kompetisi panahan

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Archery is the art, practice, or skill of shooting with bow and

arrow. It is one of the kinds of sport. The translator replaces the word

„archery‟ in ST into panahan in the TT because the target readers are

familiar with panahan rather than „archery‟. Therefore, the technique

used by the translator to translate the example above is called as

adaptation technique.

2. Amplification

Amplification aims to introduce details that are not formulated in

the ST: information, explicative paraphrasing (Molina & Albir, 2002:

510). This technique includes explanative and additional technique. It

provides details explanation of implicit information found in the

source text. For example:

Table 2.2. Example of Amplification Technique


Ramadhan Bulan puasa bagi kaum muslim

The translator gives the detail information about Ramadhan in the

TT, which is bulan puasa bagi kaum muslim. The target readers will be

understood what the meaning of ramadhan by read the translation in

the TT.

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3. Borrowing

Borrowing technique aims to take a word or expression straight

from another language. It can be pure (without any change) or it can be

naturalized (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is divided into

two types; they are pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing.

3.1. Pure Borrowing

Pure Borrowing corresponds to SCFA‟s borrowing (Molina

& Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is completely takes the terms

or words directly from the source language without any changes

in target language. For example:

Table 2.3. Example of Pure Borrowing Technique


I can tell from minutes logged

by her username

Aku bisa tahu dari waktu log

masuk username-nya

The translator uses pure borrowing technique to translate

„username‟. According to the Merriam Webster Dictionaries, username

means a sequence of characters that identifies a user when logging

onto a computer or Website. The word „username‟ in the source text

has same meaning with the word „username‟ in the target text. In this

case, the meaning or message from the source text is conveyed

correctly in the target text.

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3.2. Naturalized Borrowing

Naturalized Borrowing corresponds to Newmark‟s

naturalization technique. (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This

technique is directly takes the terms or words from source

language by naturalizing the spelling rules in the target language.

For example:

Table 2.4. Example of Naturalized Borrowing Technique


The calendar on the wall

shows that today is Tuesday,

January 17, 2016

Kalender itu menunjukkan

bahwa hari ini adalah hari

Selasa tanggal 17 Januari 2016

In the example above, the translator uses naturalized borrowing

technique to translate „calendar‟ into „kalender‟. The translator

changed the spelling of the word „calendar‟ into Indonesian spelling

which is more simple and understandable to the target readers.

Definition of „calendar‟ stated by Oxford Dictionaries is a chart or

series of pages showing the days, weeks, and moths of a particular

year, or giving particular seasonal information. Therefore, it

naturalized become kalender in Indonesian language.

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4. Calque

Calque technique is literal translation of a foreign word or phrase;

it can be lexical or structural (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For

example:

Table 2.5. Example of Calque Technique


And now life has become the

future

Dan kini hidup telah menjadi

masa depan

The translator does not change the structure of the sentence above.

Therefore, calque technique used by the translator to translate a

sentence „life has become the future‟ in the source language into

„hidup telah menjadi masa depan‟ in target language.

5. Compensation

This technique aims to introduce an ST element of information on

stylistic effect in another place in the TT because it cannot be reflected

in the same place as in the ST (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).

Compensation is often used by the translators in translating literary

works. This technique can be used in untranslated words or sentence,

and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else in the

translated text. For example:

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Table 2.6. Example of Compensation Technique


A pair of jeans Celana jins

The example above shows that „a pair of jeans‟ cannot be reflected

in the same place as in the ST because it will be sounds unnatural in

the TT. „A pair of jeans‟ cannot translate into „sepasang celana jins‟, so

the translator only translate „celana jins‟ in the TT.

6. Description

Description technique aims to replace a term or expression with a

description of its form or/and function (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).

This technique used to change the terms in the source text which is not

familiar to the target readers with its forms of functions. For example:

Table 2.7. Example of Description Technique


Those American-concept cafes

sell lava cake

Kafe-kafe berkonsep Amerika

tersebut menjual kue coklat yang

mengandung saus cokelat panas

yang mengalir keluar dari tengah

In the example above, the translator translates „lava cake‟ in SL

into „kue coklat yang mengandung saus cokelat panas yang mengalir

keluar dari tengah’ to make the target readers understand about what

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the meaning of lava cake. In this case, the translator replaces the term

„lava cake‟ into its description in TL.

7. Discursive Creation

This technique aims to establish temporary equivalence that is

totally unpredictable out of context (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).

Discursive Creation usually used in translating books or movie title.

For example:

Table 2.8. Example of Discursive Creation Technique


The Grapes of Wrath Amarah

The translator uses this technique to attract the target readers‟

interest to read that book. It usually used by the translator to translate

books‟ title or movie title. In the example above, the translator

translates the title of a book „The Grapes of Wrath‟ from the source

language into „Amarah‟ in the target language.

8. Established Equivalent

Established Equivalent technique aims to use a term or expression

recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the

TL. This corresponds to SCFA‟s equivalence and literal translation

(Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is used by applying

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establish expressions, enclosed in dictionaries and known by the target

readers. For example:

Table 2.9. Example of Established Equivalent Technique


Awkwardly Canggung

In the example above, the word „awkwardly‟ in the source text is

translated into „canggung‟ in the target text. The target readers exactly

know the word „canggung‟. Therefore, the translator used that word to

translate „awkwardly‟. Canggung is familiar in Indonesian language

and it also enclosed in dictionaries, so the target readers understand

what the meaning of canggung is.

9. Generalization

This technique aims to use a more general or neutral term. It is in

opposition to particularization (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).

Generalization technique is used because the TT does not have a

specific equivalence like ST. For example:

Table 2.10. Example of Generalization Technique


She opened up the purse Dia membuka tas

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The translator uses generalization technique to translate „purse‟

into „tas‟. Purse is a small pouch of leather or plastic used for carrying

money, typically by a woman.

(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/purse). The

translator generalized the word „purse‟ because the target readers more

familiar and more understand with tas.

10. Linguistic Amplification

Linguistic amplification aims to add linguistic elements. This is

often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing. It is in opposition

to linguistic compression (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For example:

Table 2.11. Example of Linguistic Amplification Technique


Keep it in drive Biarkan mobilnya tetap siap

melaju

The translator translates the sentence „keep it in drive‟ in ST into

„biarkan mobilnya tetap siap melaju‟ in the TT. In this case, the

translator adds the linguistic elements in the TT.

11. Linguistic Compression

This technique aims to synthesize linguistic elements in the TT.

This often used in simultaneous interpreting and in subtitling. It is in

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/purse

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opposition to linguistic amplification (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For

example:

Table 2.12. Example of Linguistic Compression Technique


You don‟t have to Tidak perlu

From the example above, there are synthesizing linguistic elements

in the target language. The translation in the target text is shorter, but

still delivers the message. The target readers still understand what the

message which is transferred even though the translation is shorter.

12. Literal Translation

Literal translation aims to translate a word or an expression word

for word. (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For example:

Table 2.13. Example of Literal Translation Technique


I wrote on the corner of my

notebook

Aku menulis di sudut bukuku

The translator used this technique to translate word-by-word. The

translator usually does not relate the translation to the context. The

sentence „I wrote on the corner of my notebook‟ is literary translated

into the target text by the translator.

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13. Modulation

This technique aims to change the point of view, focus or cognitive

category in relation to the ST; it can be lexical or structural (Molina &

Albir, 2002: 510). For example:

Table 2.14. Example of Modulation Technique


He doesn‟t know nothing Dia mengetahui segalanya

The translator used this technique to change the point of view from

active into passive. In this case, the sentence „He doesn‟t know

nothing‟ in the ST is structurally changes into „Dia mengetahui

segalanya‟ in the TT.

14. Particularization

This technique aims to use a more precise or concrete term. It is in

opposition to generalization (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).

Particularization changes super ordinate terms in the source text into

subordinate terms in the target text. For example:

Table 2.15. Example of Particularization Technique


Junk food is a kind of unhealthy

food.

Burger, hotdog, pizza, French

fries, dan sandwich adalah jenis

makanan yang tidak menyehatkan.

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The translator translates the word „junk food‟ in the ST into

„burger, hotdog, pizza, French fries, dan sandwich‟ in the TT which is

more precise in the TL.

15. Reduction

Reduction technique aims to suppress an ST information item in

the TT. It is in opposition to amplification (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510-

511). This technique is erasing words by considering familiar

information in the target language. For example:

Table 2.16. Example of Reduction Technique


Barrack Obama, the president of

United States of America

Barrack Obama

From the example above, it shows that the translator make the

sentence in the source language become more implicit in the target

language. The translator erased the words „the president of United

States of America‟ in order to show familiar information „Barrack

Obama‟ in the target language.

16. Substitution

Substitution technique aims to change linguistic elements for

paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa. It is used in

interpreting process (Molina & Albir, 2002: 511).

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For example: In interpreting process, „put a hand in the heart‟ by a

speaker from Arab means Thank you. Interpreter should

understand what the meaning of that sign and should

translate it by saying „Thank you‟ to the participants.

17. Transposition

This technique aims to change a grammatical category (Molina &

Albir, 2002: 511). Transposition changes sources text grammatical

category in the target text. Transposition technique can be used in the

level of units, for instance from word to phrase or vice versa. For

example:

Table 2.17. Example of Transposition Technique


Closet Lemari pakaian

The translator used this technique to change the grammatical

category from source text into target text. In this case, the translator

translates the word „closet‟ in the source language into a phrase „lemari

pakaian‟ in the target text. The example above shows that this

technique used by the translator to change the grammatical category

from word into phrase.

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18. Variation

Variation aims to change linguistic or paralinguistic elements

(intonation, gestures) that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes

of textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc. (Molina

& Albir, 2002: 511). For example:

Table 2.18. Example of Variation Technique


That sucks Payah banget

In the example above, the translator translates „that sucks‟ into

„payah banget‟. The translation „payah banget‟ belongs to the social

dialect of teenagers in this era, especially Jakarta language.

In this research, I also applied the translation technique proposed by

Newmark (1988: 81-91). Newmark proposes the techniques which are used in the

data of this research, as follows:

1. Couplets

Couplets technique used more than one technique and particularly

common for translating cultural words (Newmark, 1988: 91). For

example:

Table 2.19. Example of Couplets Technique


Together we pulled the backseat

up.

Bersama-sama kami mengangkat

jok.

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In the example above, the translator used particularization and

reduction technique to translate backseat in the SL into jok in the TL.

Related with Molina & Albir‟s technique, particularization technique

changes super ordinate terms in the source text into subordinate terms

in the target text. It means that particularization technique used a more

concrete term. In this case, the term backseat is translated into jok

which is more concrete. Then, reduction technique used to erase the

words by considering familiar information in the target language.

Reduction technique used to erase the term belakang, because the

original translation of the term backseat is jok belakang.

2. Through-Translation

Through-translation technique is a technique which applied the

literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the

components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. This technique is

known as calque or loan translation. This technique only applied when

the terms are already recognized by the target readers (Newmark,

1988: 84). For example:

Table 2.20. Example of Through-Translation Technique


“She‟s the mouthpiece for it all,

the one crazy enough to do

everything.”

“Dia juru bicaranya, orang yang

cukup sinting untuk melakukan

segala-galanya.”

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The example above shows that the translator applied through-

translation technique to translate the term mouthpiece in the SL into

juru bicara in the TL. The translator is applied this technique by

loaning the term mouthpiece into juru bicara which is already

recognized by the target readers.

3. Shifts or Transposition

Shifts or Transposition technique is a technique which is changing

the grammar from the source language into target language. This

technique is similar with the theory of translation technique proposed

by Molina & Albir (Newmark: 1988: 86). For example:

Table 2.21. Example of Shift or Transposition Technique


I could see Ben and my other

friends standing in a semicircle.

Aku bisa melihat Ben dan teman-

temanku yang lain berdiri

membentuk setengah lingkaran.

The example above shows that the translator applied shift or

transposition technique. This technique used to change the grammar

from source language into target language. In this case, the translator

translated the word semicircle into phrase setengah lingkaran.

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D. Translation Quality

Professional translators should have abilities to transfer message from

source text into target text perfectly. Right techniques applied by professional

translators in order to produce good quality of translation products. Seguinot

(1997: 104) states: “Translators and people who study translation know that

different text types require different approaches, and that different people can

translate the same text in different ways. It is also clear that different levels of

competence, familiarity with the material to be translated, as well as different

interpretations of the nature of the assignment will lead to differences in process

and results”. Seguinot explains in his statement that different translators will

produce different process and results of translation, although they translate the

same text because a translator and others have different ways when translating a

text. Therefore, the results of translation which are produced by different

translators must be accurate, acceptable, and readable.

Schäffner (1997: 1) defines that Quality of translation is a main priority

between translation products and translation process. Many experts called a

product of translation have good quality if:

1. The message in the ST can be transferred well in the target language without

changing, adding, omitting or reducing the message. It means that a translation

must be accurate

2. The translation must sound natural or acceptable

3. The translation is easy to be understood by readers. (Mangatur Nababan,

Ardianna Nuraeni & Sumardiono, 2012: 41)

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To produce a good translation, Larson (1984) proposes three aspects that

must be fulfilled by the translators; they are accuracy, naturalness, and clearness.

Other experts call it as accuracy, acceptability, and readability.

1. Accuracy

Accuracy is a term used to evaluate a translation which refers to the

equivalence between source text and target text. Nida & Taber (1982: 1)

states that this aspect used to check the similarity of meaning between source

text and target text. The accuracy of the message should be determined by

whether the target language readers can understand the message accurately,

as it was intended by the original authors.

Nababan (2012: 44) also states that “Keakuratan merupakan istilah yang

digunakan untuk merujuk pada apakah teks bahasa sumber dan teks bahasa

sasaran sudah sepadan atau belum. Konsep kesepadanan mengarah pada

kesamaan isi atau pesan antar keduanya. Suatu teks dapat disebut sebagai

suatu terjemahan, jika teks tersebut mempunyai makna atau pesan yang sama

dengan teks bahasa sumber”. Nababan explains in his statement that

accuracy refers to the level of equivalence of meaning and message. A

translator should not ignore, add, or reduce the meaning or message

contained in the source text. A translator should notice intensively also to the

naturalness of the target language in transferring the original message.

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2. Acceptability

Acceptability used to know how is acceptable a target language text

related to linguistic and cultural norms. Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 2)

propose that translations which lean towards acceptability can thus be

thought of as fulfilling the requirement of „reading as an original‟ written in

target language rather than that of „reading as the original‟.

Nababan (2012: 45) explains that “Keberterimaan merujuk pada apakah

suatu terjemahan sudah diungkapkan sesuai dengan kaidah, norma dan

budaya yang berlaku dalam bahasa sasaran ataukah belum, baik pada

tataran mikro maupun tataran makro. Terjemahan akan ditolak oleh

pembaca sasaran jika cara pengungkapannya bertentangan dengan kaidah,

norma dan budaya bahasa sasaran”. Based on Nababan‟s statement, this

aspect refers to the conformity of principles, norms, and cultures of target

language in micro or macro level. Translators should choose appropriate

terminologies in the target text to avoid unacceptable result of translation.

3. Readability

Readability used to know how easily the translation can be understood by

target readers. A text called readable if the target readers are capable to

understand the meaning or message in one time reading. Nababan (2012: 45)

states that “Keterbacaan digunakan dalam bidang penerjemahan karena

setiap kegiatan menerjemahkan tidak bisa lepas dari kegiatan membaca.

Keterbacaan tidak hanya menyangkut keterbacaan teks bahasa sumber tetapi

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juga keterbacaan teks bahasa sasaran karena pada hakekatnya setiap proses

penerjemahan selalu melibatkan kedua bahasa itu sekaligus”. Nababan

explains in his statement that readability is not only about the readability of

source text but also the target text. Richards (1985: 238) mentions three

points to measure the readability of a text, such as: (1) based on the average

sentence length, (2) complexity of sentence structure, and (3) the number of

new words used in the text.

E. Compound Words

In morphology, compounding word is categorized as one of the word

formation process. Many experts discussing compounding word and explaining in

their statements related to the morphology. Compounding word consists of two or

more words and written by hyphen, a space, and no space between one word into

another. Morphology becomes a branch in linguistic studies explains about

compounding. Mathew (1991) defines that morphology is a simple term of a

linguistic branch which investigates the word formation of a language. The word

formation process consists of conversion, clipping, blending, backformation,

compounding, affixation, and reduplication. One of the word formation processes

is compounding.

O‟ Grady (1996: 127) states that compounding is the combination of

lexical categories (noun, adjective, verb, or preposition) to create a larger word.

Compound word can be found in both spoken and written language.

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Some experts define the definitions of compound words in their own ideas.

Quirk, et al. (1985) points out the definition of compound words: “Compound

word is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both

grammatically and semantically as a single word”. Nigel Fabb (1988) states that

compound word is a word which consists of two or more words. The words in

compound retain a meaning similar to their meaning as isolated words, but with

certain restrictions. Other expert, Plag (2002) proposes that compound word as a

word consisting of two elements of which one element can contain more than one

word. Then, Fromkin, et al. (1996) state that compound word is two or more

words may be joined to form new word. Delahunty and Garvey (2010) points out

that a compound is a new word created by the word formation process of

compounding. The combination of some words creates a meaning of a word

which is easier to comprehend. There are also some of them which create a new

meaning. The meaning of the new word can be different and also can be same

from what the head and modifiers actually meant.

In determining the types of compound words, there are three perspectives

such as written perspective, meaning perspective and word class perspective. In

written perspective, compound word is written in three different ways; they are

closed form, hyphenated form and open form.

1) Closed form or solid compound

This form of compound word combines two or more words into

one solid word. It occurs when the two words are written as one.

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Closed form is usually written as one word, it does not write separately

and it also does not have a hyphen. For example:

Table 2.22. Example of Closed Form or Solid Compound

Notebook Wildlife Bathroom

Keyboard Streetlight Backstage

2) Hyphenated form

This form is a combination of words joined by a hyphen or

hyphens. The hyphen is a mark of punctuation that not only unites but

separates the component words; thus it aids understanding and

readability and ensures correct pronunciation. Words are hyphenated

mainly to express the idea of a unit and to avoid ambiguity. For

example:

Table 2.23. Example of Hyphenated Form

Six-pack Daughter-in-law Second-floor

Play-ground User-created Well-known

3) Open form

This form is a combination of words so closely associated that they

convey the idea of single concept but are spelled as unconnected

words. It occurs when two words are written separately. Open form

does not have a hyphen between one word and others. For example:

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Table 2.24. Example of Open Form

Post office Real estate Best friend

Middle class Social calendars Hilarious surprise

From the meaning classification, Katamba (1993) states that there are two

types of compound words, they are endocentric compound and exocentric

compound from the point of view of its „head‟. Endocentric compound is a

construction of compound that is hyponym of the head element. The example of

endocentric compound is schoolboy. The word schoolboy consists of school

(noun) and boy (noun). Schoolboy is a kind of boy. Katamba (1993) also states

the characteristics of endocentric compound, as follows:

1. They contain a constituent which function as the syntactic head.

2. The syntactic properties of the head categories are strain to the entire

compound word.

3. The head is on the right hand.

4. There is a tendency for semantic relation between the head and non

head to be one modification.

Meanwhile, exocentric compound is a construction of compound that the

compound is not hyponym of the head element. This construction often cannot be

transparently guessed from its constituent part. The characteristics of exocentric

compound as follows:

1. There is no element in compound that functions as the semantic head

of the compound which is modified by the non head element.

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2. The meaning of this construction is not clear. It is impossible to work

out what an exocentric compound means from the sum of the

meanings of its constituent.

The conclusion is the endocentric compound construction is a construction

in which one of the constituent becomes the head of the construction. Since the

meaning of the construction can be inferred from the meaning of its constituent,

the construction is an endocentric construction. Katamba (1994) states that

exocentric compound tends to be used less frequently than endocentric compound

in the creation of new words; therefore endocentric construction is more

productive than exocentric.

Then, from the word class perspective, Katamba (1993) points out that the

components of English compound words are lexical categories, such as: nouns,

adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. English compound belongs to word-class

noun, verb and adjective and made up of at least two constituent bases which are

members of the categories noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or preposition. Based on

its components, English compound word belongs to compound noun, compound

adjective, and compound verb.

1) Compound noun

Compound noun contains a noun followed by another noun, an

adjective followed by a noun or a preposition followed by a noun.

(Katamba, 1993).

The structure rule of compound noun is generated as follows:

N [N/ Adj/ Prep] + Noun

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The example of compound noun, such as:

(a) N – N

Table 2.25. Example of Compound Noun (N – N)

Bookcase Basketball Farmhouse

Textbook Sunglasses Teacups

(b) Adj – N

Table 2.26. Example of Compound Noun (Adj – N)

Wildlife Blackboard Freshman

Hardwood Minivan Grandma

(c) Prep – N

Table 2.27. Example of Compound Noun (Prep – N)

Afterparty Downtown Afternoon

Backseat Backstage Downstairs

2) Compound adjective

Compound adjective is a compound which functions as an

adjective. This type contains a noun followed by an adjective, an

adjective followed by an adjective (derived from the past participle

form of verb), and preposition followed by an adjective (derived from

the present or past participle form of verb) (Katamba, 1993).

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The structure rule of compound adjective is generated as follows:

Adj [N/ Adj/ Prep] + Adjective

The example of compound adjective, such as:

(a) N – Adj

Table 2.28. Example of Compound Adjective (N – Adj)

Waterproof Icebound Lovesick

Homesick Airtight Oilfree

(b) Adj – Adj

Table 2.29. Example of Compound Adjective (Adj – Adj)

Lowspirited Bittersweet Shortlived

Wellborn Kindhearted Fullcolored

(c) Prep – Adj

Table 2.30. Example of Compound Adjective (Prep – Adj)

Outspoken Overgrown Underneath

Uphill Outstanding Overwhelming

3) Compound verb

Compound verb is a compound which functions as a verb. This

type is mostly contains phrasal verb, which consists a verb plus a

prepositional or adverbial particles (Katamba, 1993).

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The structure rule of compound adjective is generated as follows:

V [Prep/ Verb] or [Verb + Prep]

The example of compound verb, such as:

(a) Prep – V

Table 2.31. Example of Compound Verb (Prep – V)

Overacting Outgoing Outstay

Upcoming Offload Underestimated

(b) V – Prep

Table 2.32. Example of Compound Verb (V - Prep)

Workout Kickoff Burnout

Throwback Lookout Walkover

Based on the explanation above, there are three types of compound words

as stated by Fromkin et al. (1996), they are: closed form (solid compound),

hyphenated form, and open form. Meanwhile, Katamba (1993) mentions two

types of compound words from the point of view of its „head‟, they are:

endocentric compound and exocentric compound. Then, based on its components,

English compound words belong to compound noun, compound adjective, and

compound verb.

However, I am not discussing all types of compound words because the

data of this research is only closed compound words in Paper Towns novel. The

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data consists of closed form (solid compound) as stated by the theory of Fromkin

et al. (1996). In Fromkin‟s theory, closed form (solid compound) is one of the

three types of compound words.

F. Paper Towns Novel

Novel is one of the kinds of literary works. This kind of literary work is a

fiction prose written in a narrative and usually written in story form. The word

„novel‟ comes from the Italian novel “Novella” which means a story or a piece of

the story. The author of novel is called as a novelist. The contents of the novel are

more complex than the content in the short story. There are no structural

limitations and rhyme in the novel. A novel contains a plot with characters; it also

has settings, themes, and points of view.

Sumardjo (1998) states that a novel is a literary form that is very popular

in the world. Novel is also a story with the prose form in long shape, this long

shape means the story including the complex plot, many characters and various

settings. Therefore, novel is one of literary work consists of plot, characters,

setting, and point of view. It usually presented in the form of printed books and

also in an electronic book (e-book).

Novel is usually written by the novelist based on the fiction story,

sometimes there are some novels written based on the real life story. In the

process of writing the novel, the novelist may find some problems; it depends on

how the way a novelist delivers messages. If the novelist delivers messages in the

right way, the amount of the novel readers will be increased. The right way here

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means that the novelist choose a good diction, a good style, an interesting plot,

settings, characters, and point of view in writing.

The source of data in this research is a novel Paper Towns by John Green.

The novel contains many closed compound words which are the data of this

research. Paper Towns firstly published in the United States of America by

Dutton Books in 2008. In the translated novel in Indonesian language, which

entitled Kota Kertas, is translated by Angelic Zaizai and published by PT

Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta in 2014. This novel is a fictive novel. The

novelist has written other novels such as: Looking for Alaska, An Abundance of

Katherines, Let it Snow, Will Grayson, and the most popular novel is entitled The

Fault in Our Stars.

Paper Towns is a New York Times bestseller and also an Edgar Award

Winner. This novel was printed in the United States of America. In the original

English version, it published by Dutton Books in 2008 and presented in 305

pages. Meanwhile, in the translated novel entitled Kota Kertas, the novel is

presented in 360 pages by Angelic Zaizai. The translated novel was published by

PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta. This translated version of novel was printed

five times, firstly is published on 2014. Then, the novel is republished on June

2015, August 2015, and the latest is printed on September 2015.

This novel is also adapted into a movie entitled Paper Towns by Temple

Hill Entertainment. This film is released on June 5, 2015 by 20th

Century Fox. The

film director of Paper Towns is Jake Schreier. The genre of this film is comedy,

romance and mysterious. Paper Towns movie stared by Nat Wolff as Quentin “Q”

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and Cara Delevingne as Margo Roth Spiegelman who are the main characters in

the movie.

G. Review of Related Study

This research is analyzing closed compound words; it seems that no

researchers who analyze this topic yet. However, there is another research

analyzing compound words as the topic. In the previous research, Putu Desi

Anggerina Hikmaharyanti, 2013, Master Program of Linguistic Program in

Translation Studies, Udayana University, in her thesis entitled The Fidelity

Meaning of Compound Words‟ Translation in New Moon Novel, analyzed English

compound words found in New Moon novel and its meaning in Dua Cinta novel.

Hikmaharyanti also analyzed translation procedures used by the translator in

translating English compound words into Indonesian. Hikmaharyanti applied

library research method in collecting the data and used descriptive qualitative

method in analyzing data. The data consists of 209 compound words which are

found in the New Moon novel. Those 209 compound words contain 110 data of

closed form, 69 data of hyphenated form, 30 data of open form, 164 data of

compound noun, and 45 data of compound adjective.

I analyze the similar topic with the research above. In comparison with

Putu‟s research, the data of this research is not all types of compound words, but

only one type of compound words that is closed compound. Then, I do not

analyze translation procedures as Putu‟s, but I analyze translation techniques and

quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability used by the translator in translating

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the data. This research also has similarity with Putu‟s: this research aims to find

out the meaning of English compound words in the source of data. The data used

in this research consists of closed compound words which found in the novel

Paper Towns by John Green.

Documents

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW A. Definition of Translation · brambang asem, tumpang, sego liwet, gethuk lindri, and wedang ronde. Those words do not have equivalent word in English