Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

Chapter 7: Cognition, Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Language, and IntelligenceIntelligence

Chapter 7 OverviewChapter 7 Overview

CognitionCognition LanguageLanguage IntelligenceIntelligence Explaining differences in Explaining differences in intelligenceintelligence

What arguments have been What arguments have been advanced to explain racial advanced to explain racial differences in IQ scores?differences in IQ scores?

Beyond intelligenceBeyond intelligence

CognitionCognition

The mental processes involved in The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information, including and using information, including sensation, perception, imagery, sensation, perception, imagery, concept formation, reasoning, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, problem decision making, problem solving, and languagesolving, and language

How do imagery and concepts How do imagery and concepts help us think?help us think?

Imagery Imagery isis the representation in the representation in the mind of a sensory experiencethe mind of a sensory experience

Images can be extremely helpful to Images can be extremely helpful to memorymemory

Images are also helpful in Images are also helpful in learning and maintaining motor learning and maintaining motor skillsskills

The same brain areas are activated The same brain areas are activated when performing a task and mentally when performing a task and mentally rehearsing the task using imageryrehearsing the task using imagery

How do imagery and concepts How do imagery and concepts help us think?help us think?

ConceptsConcepts are mental categories used to are mental categories used to represent a class or group of objects, represent a class or group of objects, people, events, etc.people, events, etc.

Concepts help us organize our Concepts help us organize our thinking, order our world, and to thinking, order our world, and to think and communicate with speed and think and communicate with speed and efficiencyefficiency

Two basic types of conceptsTwo basic types of concepts– Formal conceptFormal concept

A concept that is clearly defined by a set of A concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a rules, a formal definition, or a classification systemclassification system

– Natural conceptNatural concept A concept acquired not from a definition but A concept acquired not from a definition but through everyday perceptions and experiencesthrough everyday perceptions and experiences

What is the role of heuristics What is the role of heuristics in decision making?in decision making?

Decision making Decision making is the process of is the process of considering alternatives and choosing considering alternatives and choosing among themamong them– Bounded RationalityBounded Rationality

Boundaries or limitations around the decision Boundaries or limitations around the decision making process prevent it from being entirely making process prevent it from being entirely logicallogical

So, we often base decisions on strategies and So, we often base decisions on strategies and educated guesseseducated guesses

– Elimination by aspectsElimination by aspects Decision making strategy in which alternatives Decision making strategy in which alternatives are evaluated against criteria that are ranked are evaluated against criteria that are ranked according to importanceaccording to importance


HeuristicHeuristic is a guideline derived from is a guideline derived from experience and used in decision making and experience and used in decision making and problem solving, despite no guarantee of problem solving, despite no guarantee of accuracyaccuracy– Availability heuristicAvailability heuristic

Rule stating that an event’s probability Rule stating that an event’s probability corresponds to the ease with which the event comes corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mindto mind

– Example: Makes us overestimate the probability of some Example: Makes us overestimate the probability of some rare events, such as winning the lotteryrare events, such as winning the lottery

– Representativeness heuristicRepresentativeness heuristic Decision strategy based on how closely a new Decision strategy based on how closely a new situation resembles a familiar onesituation resembles a familiar one

– Example: Helps us choose a fast-food restaurantExample: Helps us choose a fast-food restaurant– Recognition heuristicRecognition heuristic

Strategy in which the decision making process stops Strategy in which the decision making process stops as soon as a factor that moves one toward a as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognizeddecision has been recognized

– Example: Influences voting behavior, such as Example: Influences voting behavior, such as recognizing a candidate’s name as that of a womanrecognizing a candidate’s name as that of a woman


Framing Framing is the way information is is the way information is presented so as to emphasize either a presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential losspotential gain or a potential loss– Which program would you choose to combat a disease Which program would you choose to combat a disease

that is expected to kill 600 people?that is expected to kill 600 people? If program A is adopted, 200 people will be savedIf program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability If program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that all 600 will be saved and a 2/3 probability that that all 600 will be saved and a 2/3 probability that no people will be saved?no people will be saved?

– Now which program would you choose?Now which program would you choose? If program C is adopted, 400 people will dieIf program C is adopted, 400 people will die If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody will die and a 2/3 probability that all 600 that nobody will die and a 2/3 probability that all 600 people will diepeople will die

– Most people choose A and DMost people choose A and D But A and C are the same, and B and D are the sameBut A and C are the same, and B and D are the same How the information is framed influences decision How the information is framed influences decision makingmaking

What are some basic approaches What are some basic approaches to problem solving, and how do to problem solving, and how do they differ?they differ? Problem solving Problem solving is the thoughts is the thoughts and actions required to achieve a and actions required to achieve a desired goal desired goal – Analogy heuristic Analogy heuristic is comparing a is comparing a problem to others encountered in the problem to others encountered in the pastpast

Working backwardWorking backward– Strategy of starting with the desired goal Strategy of starting with the desired goal and working backwards to the current and working backwards to the current conditioncondition

Means-end analysisMeans-end analysis– Strategy in which the current position is Strategy in which the current position is compared with the desired goal and a series compared with the desired goal and a series of steps are formulated and taken to close of steps are formulated and taken to close the gap between themthe gap between them

What are some basic approaches What are some basic approaches to problem solving, and how do to problem solving, and how do they differ?they differ? AlgorithmAlgorithm

– A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem of a certain typesolution to a problem of a certain type

e.g., a mathematical formulae.g., a mathematical formula Functional fixednessFunctional fixedness

– Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems because of tendency to view solve problems because of tendency to view objects only in terms of their customary objects only in terms of their customary functionsfunctions

Mental setMental set– Tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a Tendency to apply a familiar strategy to a problem without considering the special problem without considering the special requirements of that problemrequirements of that problem

Confirmation biasConfirmation bias– Selective attention to information that confirms Selective attention to information that confirms preexisting beliefspreexisting beliefs

What are some important What are some important applications of artificial applications of artificial intelligence technologies?intelligence technologies?

Artificial intelligenceArtificial intelligence is the is the programming of computer systems to programming of computer systems to simulate human thinking in solving simulate human thinking in solving problems and in making judgments problems and in making judgments and decisionsand decisions– Artificial neural networksArtificial neural networks

Computer systems intended to mimic the human Computer systems intended to mimic the human brainbrain

– Expert systemsExpert systems Computer programs designed to carry out Computer programs designed to carry out specific functions within a limited domainspecific functions within a limited domain

LanguageLanguage

A means of communicating A means of communicating thoughts and feelings, using thoughts and feelings, using a system of socially shared a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged according symbols) arranged according to rules of grammarto rules of grammar

What are the necessary What are the necessary components of any language?components of any language?

PhonemesPhonemes– The smallest units of sound in a The smallest units of sound in a spoken languagespoken language

MorphemesMorphemes– The smallest units of meaning in a The smallest units of meaning in a spoken languagespoken language

SyntaxSyntax– The rules for arranging and The rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and combining words to form phrases and sentencessentences

What are the necessary What are the necessary components of any language?components of any language?

SemanticsSemantics– The meaning derived from morphemes, The meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentenceswords, and sentences

PragmaticsPragmatics– The patterns of intonation and The patterns of intonation and social roles associated with social roles associated with languagelanguage

In what ways does language In what ways does language influence thinking?influence thinking?

Linguistic relativity hypothesisLinguistic relativity hypothesis– The language a person speaks The language a person speaks determines the nature of that determines the nature of that person’s thoughtsperson’s thoughts

Benjamin Whorf’s classic example:Benjamin Whorf’s classic example: – Language used by Eskimo people has Language used by Eskimo people has multiple words for snowmultiple words for snow

– This enables Eskimos to think differently This enables Eskimos to think differently about snow than do other peopleabout snow than do other people

But, Eleanor RoschBut, Eleanor Rosch– Found no difference in color Found no difference in color discrimination between people whose discrimination between people whose language has many names for colors and language has many names for colors and those who have few words for colorsthose who have few words for colors

IntelligenceIntelligence

–An individual’s ability to An individual’s ability to understand complex ideas, understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from environment, to learn from experience, to engage in experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles and to overcome obstacles through mental effortthrough mental effort

Differing views of the Differing views of the definition of intelligencedefinition of intelligence

Charles Spearman believed that Charles Spearman believed that intelligence is composed of a intelligence is composed of a general ability, general ability, gg, that , that underlies all intellectual underlies all intellectual functionsfunctions

He observed that people who are He observed that people who are bright in one area tend to be bright in one area tend to be bright in other areas as wellbright in other areas as well


Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s Louis Thurstone rejected Spearman’s notion of notion of gg

He proposed seven He proposed seven primary mental primary mental abilitiesabilities– Verbal comprehensionVerbal comprehension– Numerical abilityNumerical ability– Spatial relationsSpatial relations– Perceptual speedPerceptual speed– Word fluencyWord fluency– MemoryMemory– ReasoningReasoning

He argued that a profile of strengths and He argued that a profile of strengths and weaknesses on the seven primary abilities weaknesses on the seven primary abilities is more accurate than a single IQ scoreis more accurate than a single IQ score


Howard Gardner proposed that there Howard Gardner proposed that there are eight independent forms of are eight independent forms of intelligenceintelligence

He developed this theory from He developed this theory from studies of different types of brain studies of different types of brain damage that affect some forms of damage that affect some forms of intelligence but leave others intactintelligence but leave others intact

He also studied He also studied savant syndromesavant syndrome– A combination of mental retardation and A combination of mental retardation and unusual talent or abilityunusual talent or ability

Gardner’s Eight Frames of MindGardner’s Eight Frames of Mind


Robert Sternberg proposed that Robert Sternberg proposed that there are three types of there are three types of intelligenceintelligence– Componential intelligenceComponential intelligence

Analytical intelligence; measured by Analytical intelligence; measured by most intelligence testsmost intelligence tests

– Experiential intelligenceExperiential intelligence Creative thinking and problem solvingCreative thinking and problem solving

– Contextual intelligenceContextual intelligence Practical intelligence, common sensePractical intelligence, common sense

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligenceof Intelligence

In what ways do achievement, In what ways do achievement, aptitude, and intelligence aptitude, and intelligence tests differ?tests differ?

Achievement testsAchievement tests– Measure what a person has learned up Measure what a person has learned up to a certain point in his or her lifeto a certain point in his or her life

Aptitude testsAptitude tests– Predict future performance in a Predict future performance in a particular setting or on a specific particular setting or on a specific tasktask

Intelligence testsIntelligence tests– Measure general intellectual abilityMeasure general intellectual ability

Why are reliability, validity, Why are reliability, validity, standardization, and cultural standardization, and cultural bias important in intelligence bias important in intelligence testing?testing? ReliabilityReliability

– Ability of a test to yield consistent Ability of a test to yield consistent resultsresults

ValidityValidity– Ability of a test to measure what it is Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measureintended to measure

StandardizationStandardization– Establishing norms for comparing the scores Establishing norms for comparing the scores of people who will take the test in the of people who will take the test in the futurefuture

– Administering tests using a prescribed Administering tests using a prescribed procedureprocedure

What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence? Alfred Binet and Theodore SimonAlfred Binet and Theodore Simon

– Developed the first intelligence testDeveloped the first intelligence test– Goal was to assess the intellectual Goal was to assess the intellectual potential of individual schoolchildrenpotential of individual schoolchildren

Binet-Simon Intelligence ScaleBinet-Simon Intelligence Scale– Used a score called Used a score called mental agemental age

Based on number of items a child got right Based on number of items a child got right compared with average number right by compared with average number right by children of various ageschildren of various ages

If mental age was two years ahead of If mental age was two years ahead of chronological age, child was termed “bright”chronological age, child was termed “bright”

If mental age was two years behind If mental age was two years behind chronological age, child was termed chronological age, child was termed “retarded”“retarded”

What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence?

William SternWilliam Stern – Devised the Devised the intelligence quotient intelligence quotient (IQ)(IQ)

Louis TermanLouis Terman– Revised the Binet-Simon testRevised the Binet-Simon test– Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleStanford-Binet Intelligence Scale– Established norms, or age-based Established norms, or age-based averages, based on the scores of a averages, based on the scores of a large number of childrenlarge number of children

What did Binet, Terman, and What did Binet, Terman, and Weschler contribute to the Weschler contribute to the study of intelligence?study of intelligence?

David WechslerDavid Wechsler– Developed the first individual Developed the first individual intelligence test for individuals intelligence test for individuals over age 16over age 16

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

– Also developed a widely-used test Also developed a widely-used test for childrenfor children

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)(WISC)– Consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal Consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtestssubtests

The normal curveThe normal curve

How do individuals who are How do individuals who are gifted and those with mental gifted and those with mental retardation differ from retardation differ from others?others?

Terman (1925) studied 1528 people Terman (1925) studied 1528 people with IQs from 135 to 200with IQs from 135 to 200

Compared to the general population, Compared to the general population, high IQ individualshigh IQ individuals– Have better mental healthHave better mental health– Earn more academic degreesEarn more academic degrees– Achieve higher occupational status and Achieve higher occupational status and higher incomehigher income

– Are better adjusted personally and Are better adjusted personally and sociallysocially

– Are healthierAre healthier

How do individuals who are How do individuals who are gifted and those with mental gifted and those with mental retardation differ from retardation differ from others?others? Mental retardation Mental retardation is subnormal is subnormal intelligence reflected by an IQ below 70 intelligence reflected by an IQ below 70 and by severely deficient adaptive and by severely deficient adaptive functioningfunctioning

Causes includeCauses include– Brain injuriesBrain injuries– Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndromeChromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome– Chemical deficienciesChemical deficiencies– Hazards present during prenatal developmentHazards present during prenatal development

Degrees of retardationDegrees of retardation– Mild: IQ 55-70Mild: IQ 55-70– Moderate: IQ 40-54Moderate: IQ 40-54– Severe: IQ 25-39Severe: IQ 25-39– Profound: IQ < 25Profound: IQ < 25

Explaining Explaining differences in differences in intelligenceintelligence There is a wide range of There is a wide range of differences in intellectual differences in intellectual functioning in our everyday functioning in our everyday interactions with other interactions with other people. What accounts for people. What accounts for these differences?these differences?

What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy?

Nature-nurture debateNature-nurture debate– The debate over whether intelligence The debate over whether intelligence and other traits are primarily the and other traits are primarily the result of heredity or environmentresult of heredity or environment


What is the evidence What is the evidence supporting the nature and supporting the nature and nurture sides of the IQ nurture sides of the IQ controversy?controversy? Scarr and Weinberg adoption Scarr and Weinberg adoption studystudy– 140 African American and interracial 140 African American and interracial children adopted into highly-children adopted into highly-educated White familieseducated White families

– Average IQ was 106, above the Average IQ was 106, above the national averagenational average

– The earlier children were adopted, The earlier children were adopted, the higher their IQs on averagethe higher their IQs on average

– Results suggest that intelligence Results suggest that intelligence can be modified by environmentcan be modified by environment


What arguments have been What arguments have been advanced to explain racial advanced to explain racial differences in IQ scores?differences in IQ scores? Historically, Blacks score about 15 points lower than Whites on IQ tests in USA

Arthur Jensen (1969) attributed the IQ gap to genetic differences

Findings by Ramey and others suggest Findings by Ramey and others suggest that differences result from poverty that differences result from poverty and lack of educational opportunitiesand lack of educational opportunities

Minority children are more likely to Minority children are more likely to be identified as gifted when be identified as gifted when culture-culture-fair intelligence testsfair intelligence tests are used are used

Racial differences in IQ scores may Racial differences in IQ scores may also be explained by also be explained by stereotype threatstereotype threat

Example item on a Example item on a culture-fair testculture-fair test

In what ways do the cognitive In what ways do the cognitive abilities of males and females abilities of males and females differ?differ? Girls generally have larger vocabularies Girls generally have larger vocabularies and outperform boys in reading and writingand outperform boys in reading and writing

Boys generally do better in science and Boys generally do better in science and mathmath– Some research indicates that hormonal Some research indicates that hormonal differences contribute to the gap in math differences contribute to the gap in math achievementachievement

– But others argue that social influences are But others argue that social influences are more importantmore important

Boys generally outperform girls in some Boys generally outperform girls in some spatial tasksspatial tasks

Overall, gender differences for cognitive Overall, gender differences for cognitive variables are smallvariables are small– And differences within each gender are greater And differences within each gender are greater than differences between gendersthan differences between genders

Beyond intelligenceBeyond intelligence

There are many aspects of There are many aspects of cognitive functioning that cognitive functioning that are not captured by are not captured by standardized tests of standardized tests of intelligence.intelligence.

What are the components of What are the components of emotional intelligence?emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence is the is the ability to apply knowledge about ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday lifeemotions to everyday life– Includes awareness of one’s Includes awareness of one’s emotions, ability to manage emotions, ability to manage emotions, self-motivation, empathy, emotions, self-motivation, empathy, and ability to handle relationshipsand ability to handle relationships

Peter Salovey and David PizarroPeter Salovey and David Pizarro– Argue that emotional intelligence is Argue that emotional intelligence is just as important as the kind of just as important as the kind of intelligence measured in IQ testsintelligence measured in IQ tests

How does creativity differ How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition, from other forms of cognition, and how has it been measured?and how has it been measured? CreativityCreativity is the ability to produce is the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problemsideas and/or solutions to problems

There is a weak to moderate There is a weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQcorrelation between creativity and IQ

J. P. Guilford suggests that J. P. Guilford suggests that creativity involves creativity involves divergent divergent thinkingthinking– The ability to produce multiple ideas or The ability to produce multiple ideas or solutions to a problem for which there is solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solutionno agreed-on solution

How does creativity differ How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition, from other forms of cognition, and how has it been measured?and how has it been measured?

Creative people share several Creative people share several characteristics that distinguish characteristics that distinguish them from less creative people, them from less creative people, includingincluding– Expertise in a specific area built Expertise in a specific area built up over years of study and practiceup over years of study and practice

– Openness to new experiences and Openness to new experiences and ideasideas

– Inherent curiosityInherent curiosity– Independent thinkingIndependent thinking

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Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence