CHAPTER 6 Infancy: Cognitive Development. Learning Outcomes LO1 Examine Jean Piaget’s studies of cognitive development. LO2 Discuss the information-processing

CHAPTER 6

Infancy: Cognitive

Development

Learning Outcomes

LO1 Examine Jean Piaget’s studies of cognitive development.

LO2 Discuss the information-processing approach.

LO3 Identify individual differences in intelligence among infants.

LO4 Examine language development in infancy.

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TRUTH OR FICTION?PRE-QUIZ

• T F For 2-month old infants, “out of sight” is “out of mind.”

• T F A 1-hour old infant may imitate an adult who sticks out his or her tongue.

• T F Psychologists can begin to measure intelligence in infancy.

• T F Infant crying is a primitive form of language.

• T F You can advance children’s development of

pronunciation by correcting their errors.• T F Children are “pre-wired” to listen to language

in such a way that they come to understand rules of grammar.

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LO1 Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget


Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget

• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT– Focus on development of how children perceive and

mentally represent the world• PIAGET’S HYPOTHESIS

– Cognitive processes develop in an orderly sequence of stages

– Rate of development is variable to individuals but sequence remains constant

• TERMS AND CONCEPTS– Schemes

• Children’s concepts of the world

– Assimilation• Incorporating new events into existing schemes

– Accommodation• If assimilation does make sense of new events, children try

to modify existing schemes through accommodation.


• Piaget’s FOUR STAGES of cognitive development:– Sensorimotor: B-2 yrs– Preoperational: 2-7 yrs– Concrete operational: 7-11 yrs– Formal operational: 12 yrs - adult


• Sensorimotor Stage– The first 2 years of cognitive development– It is divided into six sub-stages.

• Simple Reflexes• Primary Circular Reactions• Secondary Circular Reactions• Coordination of Secondary Schemes• Tertiary Circular Reactions• Invention of New Means through Material Combinations


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 1 – Simple Reflexes

• B-1 month• Dominated by assimilation of stimuli into reflexes• Within first few hours, infants began to modify

reflexes as a result of experiences• There seems to be no connection between stimuli

from different sensory modalities– Making no effort to grasp objects they visually track


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 2 – Primary Circular Reactions

• 1-4 months• Beginning to coordinate different schemes• Focus on the infant’s own body rather than external stimuli• 3-months: infants examine objects intensely

– No longer simply looking but “looking in order to see”

• Sensorimotor coordination is self-reinforcing because they repeat actions that allow them to “see.”

• The desire to prolong stimulation is seen as a “basic” drive much like hunger and thirst.


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 3 – Secondary Circular Reactions

• 4-8 months• Focus shifts from self to objects and environmental events• Patterns of activity are repeated because of their effect on

the environment• Infants may now lean to shake a rattle


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 4 – Coordination of Secondary Schemes

• 9-12 months• Can now coordinate schemes to attain specific goals• Begin to show intentional, goal-directed behavior• Gain capacity to imitate gestures and sounds they

previously ignored


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 5 – Tertiary Circular Reactions

• 12-18 months• Infants now engage in tertiary circular reactions or

purposeful adaptation of established schemes to specific situations

• Become “budding scientists” experimenting with their actions dozens of times in deliberate trial-and-error testing to learn how things work


• Sensorimotor Stage– Sub-stage 6 – Invention of New Means Through

Mental Combinations• 18-24 months• Transition stage between sensorimotor development

and the development of symbolic thought• External exploration is replaced by mental

exploration• By 18 mos, child may also use imitation to symbolize

a plan of action• Also begin to exhibit concept of deferred imitation

– Imitation of an action that may have occurred hours, days, or even weeks earlier


• Development of Object Performance– Awareness that an object or person continues to

exist when out of sight– Object permanence is tied to the development of

the infant’s working memory and reasoning ability– Newborns

• Show no tendency to respond to objects not within their immediate grasp


• Development of Object Performance– 2 - 6 months

• At 2 months they may show surprise at missing objects but make no attempt to search for them

• Typically infants at this stage behave as if object is gone if out of sight

• But by 6 months infants will tend to look for objects they have dropped

– 8 - 12 months (sub-stage 4)• Baby now seeks to find objects that have been hidden

from their sight.• “A not B” error: baby will continue to seek lost object in the

place where they have found it before, even if they see it has not been placed there

– By 9-10 months this error no longer occurs if the retrieval is immediate; if having to wait 5 or more seconds they tend to revert to the error behavior

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory

• Pros– Still provides a comprehensive model of cognitive

development– Confirmation of patterns and sequences observed in many

other cultures worldwide• Cons

– Process appears to be more gradual; not tied to discrete stages

– Overlooks the importance of interpersonal influences– Seems to underestimate competency of infants

• Infants seem to display object permanence earlier than (s)he thought

• Deferred Imitation also occurs earlier than (s)he indicated (9 mos instead of 18 mos)

LO2 Information Processing


Information Processing

• Focuses on how children manipulate new information or previously stored information

• Tools for processing include:– Memory

• Memory is critical in development of all cognitive development.

• Newborns display memory for stimuli previously exposed to them.

• Dramatic improves are seen between 2-6 months and again at 1 yr.

• Infant memory skills can be improved with use of reminders (“priming”).

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Information Processing

• Tools for processing include:– Imitation

• “Infant see, infant do” Imitation is basis for much of human learning.

• Some studies show neonates only 0.7 to 71 hrs. old display imitation of adult gestures other have not.

• The key may be up to 2 wks imitation appears to be a reflex and it typically disappears as reflexes “drop out” and re-emerge later.

– These early imitations could be an evolutionary response to assist survival by helping to form infant/caregiver bonding.

LO3 Individual Differences in Intelligence among Infants


Individual Differences in Intelligence Among Infants

• Cognitive development does not proceed the same in all infants.

• Measuring cognition/intelligence in infants is very different from adults.

• Bayley Scales of Infant Development– Originally developed in 1933 – Current updated version consists of:

• 178 mental scale items– Verbal, perceptual, problem-solving, learning, memory skills

• 111 motor scale items– Gross skills: standing, walking, climbing; Fine: hand, finger

dexterity• Behavior rating (based on examiner observations)

– 1. Attention Span– 2. Goal directedness– 3. Persistence– 4. Social and Emotional development

Table 6.1 - Items from the Bayley Scales of Infant Development


• Testing Infants: Why and with What?– Screening for handicaps one major reason– Difficult to test infants; administered one-to-one, individual judgments

prevail– Number of tests developed:

• Bayley Scale; Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale; Denver Developmental Screening Test

• Instability of Intelligence Scores in Infancy– Screening is also done to predict future development

• Overall they fail to predict accurately over long period

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• Use of Visual Recognition Memory– Ability to discriminate previously seen object from new ones (based

on habituation)– Infants with greater visual recognition later attained higher IQ scores

• In Sum:– Scales of infant development may prove useful as screening devices,

or for research or descriptive purposes but their predictive power is not valid.

LO4 Language Development in Infancy


Language Development in Infancy• Early Vocalizations

– Prelinguistic Vocalizations• Actual words are symbols of objects and events; prelinguistic

vocalizations do NOT represent objects or events.• Newborns

– Utilize crying as an effective form of verbal expression

• 2 months– Cooing (happy sounds)

» Use tongue more; sounds are more articulated; linked to pleasure or excitement; not associated with hunger or pain

Language Development in Infancy– Prelinguistic Vocalizations

• 6-9 months– Babbling (first sounds resembling human speech)

» 8 mos cooing decreases and babbling begins» Frequently combining consonant and vowel sounds; ( ba ba -

ma ma - da da)• 10-12 months

– Echolalia (begin to repeat syllables at length)» Ah bah bah bah bah bah

– Intonation (begin to use patterns of rising and falling tones)

Table 6.2 – Milestones in Language Development In Infancy

Language Development in Infancy

• Development of Vocabulary– Refers to learning the meanings of words

• Receptive vocabulary: words they can understand• Expressive vocabulary: words they can use• At any given time, children can understand more words than they

can use.

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Language Development in Infancy• Development of Vocabulary, con’t

– Child’s First Words (a milestone in development)• Usually between 11-13 months • Range of 8-18 months considered normal• Brief, one or two syllables• Acquisition slow at first; taking 3-4 months to achieve 10-30

words• By 18 months, producing up to 50 words• 65% of first words are:

– General nominals: names and classes of objects– Specific nominals: proper nouns– Words expressing movement are also common

• 18-24 months: rapid burst, increasing from 50 to 300 words– A.K.A. “naming explosion” because 75% are nouns– Growth continues with acquisition of average of 9 new words

a day

Language Development in Infancy• Development of Vocabulary, con’t

– Referential language style• Uses language primarily to label object in the environment

– Expressive language style• Uses language primarily for engaging in social interactions• Uses more pronouns and words involved in social routines• More children use expressive style; most use a combination

– Overextension• Extending the meaning of one word to refer to things and actions

for which they have no words yet• Generally based on perceived similarities in function or form

between original object or action and the new one• Overextensions gradually correct as child’s vocabulary and

classification skills improve

Language Development in Infancy• Development of Sentences

– Typically one-word utterances but express complete ideas• Telegraphic Speech

– Brief expressions that have the meaning of sentences• Holophrase: single words used to express complex meanings• Two-Word Utterances: brief and telegraphic but show

understanding of syntax (proper word order); start around 18-24 months (when vocabulary reaches 50-100 words)

• Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)– The average number of morphemes used in a sentence

• Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language– Patterns in rate of increase in MLU are similar for each child.

Theories of Language Development

• Languages are passed down from generation to

generation (with minor changes).• Possible roles of Nurture & Nature

– Nurture: Learning Theories– Nature: Nativist Views

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Theories of Language Development• Views that Emphasize Nurture

– Role of Imitation• Parents are models with children learning in part from

observation and imitation.• But some language is spontaneous and resistant to adult

correction.– Role of Reinforcement

• Skinner theorized cooing and babbling may be innate but due to reinforcement they lead to language.

• Extinction of foreign sounds and adherence to native tongue language takes place through shaping (moving a desired behavior toward a goal by gradual progressive reinforcement).

• Selective reinforcement of pronunciation can also “backfire” – Children whose parents reward proper pronunciation but

correct poor pronunciation develop vocabulary slower than those whose parents are more tolerant of errors.

Theories of Language Development• Views that Emphasize Nurture, con’t.

– Learning theory also cannot account for invariant sequences and spurts in acquisition.

• Types of questions, passive vs. active sentences, etc. all emerge in the same order

– But some aspects of environment do influence and enhance language development, such as:

• Use of “Motherese” a simplified form of speech• Using questions that engage child in conversation• Making positive responses to child’s expressive language

attempts• Joining in child’s play and paying attention to their interests• Making gestures to help child understand• Describing aspects of environment that have gained child’s

attention• Reading to the child• Talk to the child a great deal

Theories of Language Development• Views that Emphasize Nature

– Nativist View: holds inborn factors cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways:

• Evolutionary Theory:– Structures that enable humans to perceive and produce

language evolved in bits and pieces.– Individuals endowed with those were more likely to reach

maturity and transmit their genes because communication ability increased their chances of survival.

Theories of Language Development• Views that Emphasize Nature, con’t.

• Psycholinguistic Theory: (Noam Chomsky)– Language acquisition involves interaction between various

environmental influences and an inborn tendency to acquire language.

– Chomsky labeled this innate tendency a language acquisition device (LAD).

– Evidence for support is found in:» Universality of language abilities; Regularity of early sounds

(even among deaf children); Commonality of sequencing in all languages

– Inborn tendency primes the nervous system to learn grammar:

» Surface Structure: languages vary greatly» Deep Structure: but all variations share a “universal grammar”

– Chomsky believes children are pre-wired to attend to language and deduce rules for making sentences from ideas.

Theories of Language Development• Views that Emphasize Nature, con’t.• Brain Structures Involved in Language

– Left Hemisphere of Cerebral Cortex• Broca’s Area

– Located near section of motor cortex controlling muscles of tongue, throat, and other areas of face involved in speech

– If damaged the ability to speak is compromised but can still understand speech of others: Broca’s Aphasia

• Wernicke’s Area– Located near auditory cortex; connected to Broca’s area by

nerves– If damaged can still speak, but have trouble finding words to

express thoughts, and in understanding speech of others: Wernicke’s Aphasia

• Angular Gyrus– Located between visual cortex and Wernicke’s Area– Translates visual information (written words) into auditory

information (sounds) and sends to Wernicke’s area– If damaged can cause problems in reading.

Documents

CHAPTER 6 Infancy: Cognitive Development. Learning Outcomes LO1 Examine Jean Piaget’s studies of cognitive development. LO2 Discuss the information-processing