Chapter 5 Perception, Cognition, And Emotion

8/10/2019 Chapter 5 Perception, Cognition, And Emotion

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Perception, Cognition, and Emotion

CHAPTER FIVE


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Perception, Cognition, and

Emotion in Negotiation

The basic building blocks of all social

encounters are:

Perception

Cognition

Framing Cognitive biases

Emotion


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Perception

Perception is:

The process by which individuals connect

to their environment.

A sense-making process


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The Role of Perception

The process of ascribing meaning to messages and events is strongly influenced

by the perceivers current state of mind, role, and comprehension of earlier

communications

People interpret their environment in order to respond appropriately

The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of theinformation

People develop shortcuts to process information and these shortcuts create

perceptual errors


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Perceptual Distortion

Four major perceptual errors:

Stereotyping

Halo effects

Selective perception

Projection


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Stereotyping and Halo Effects

Stereotyping: Is a very common distortion

Occurs when an individual assigns attributes to

another solely on the basis of the others membershipin a particular social or demographic category

Halo effects:

Are similar to stereotypes Occur when an individual generalizes about a variety

of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute

of an individual


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Selective Perception

and Projection

Selective perception: Perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects

The perceiver singles out information that supports aprior belief but filters out contrary information

Projection:

Arises out of a need to protect ones own self-concept People assign to others the characteristics or feelings

that they possess themselves


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Framing

Frames: Represent the subjective mechanism through which

people evaluate and make sense out of situations

Lead people to pursue or avoid subsequent actions Focus, shape and organize the world around us

Make sense of complex realities

Define a person, event or process

Impart meaning and significance


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Types of Frames

Substantive

Outcome

Aspiration Process

Identity

Characterization

Loss-Gain


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How Frames Work in Negotiation

Negotiators can use more than one frame

Mismatches in frames between parties are sources

of conflict

Particular types of frames may lead to particular

types of arguments

Specific frames may be likely to be used with

certain types of issues Parties are likely to assume a particular frame

because of various factors


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Interests, Rights, and Power

Parties in conflict use one of three frames:

Interests: people talk about their positions but

often what is at stake is their underlying interests

Rights: people may be concerned about who is

right that is, who has legitimacy, who is

correct, and what is fair

Power: people may wish to resolve a conflict onthe basis of who is stronger


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Approaches to Negotiation

Goal

Interests Rights Power

Approach

Self-interest

Dispute resolution

Understanding othersconcerns

Fairness

Justice

Winning

Respect

Temporal focus

Distributive

strategies (pie

slicing)

Integrative

strategies (pie

expansion)

Implications for

future negotiations

and relationship

Present (what needs and

interests do we have rightnow?)

Past (what has been dictated

by the past?)

Future (what steps can I

take in the future tooverpower others?)

Compromise Often produces a winner

and a loser; thus, unequal

distribution

Often produces a

winner and a loser;

thus, unequal distribution

Most likely to expand the pie

via addressing parties

underlying needs

Difficult to expand the pie

unless focus is on interests

Difficult to expand the

pie unless focus is on

interests

Resentment

Possible retaliation

Revenge

Possible court action Greater understanding

Satisfaction

Stability of agreement


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The Frame of an Issue Changes as

the Negotiation Evolves Negotiators tend to argue for stock issuesor

concerns that are raised every time the parties

negotiate Each party attempts to make the best possible

casefor his or her preferred position orperspective

Frames may define major shifts and transitionsin a complex overall negotiation

Multiple agenda itemsoperate to shape issuedevelopment


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Some Advice about Problem

Framing for Negotiators Frames shape what the parties define as the key

issues and how they talk about them

Both parties have frames Frames are controllable, at least to some degree

Conversations change and transform frames in

ways negotiators may not be able to predict but

may be able to control

Certain frames are more likely than others to

lead to certain types of processes and outcomes


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Cognitive Biases in Negotiation

Negotiators have a tendency to make

systematic errors when they process

information. These errors, collectively

labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede

negotiator performance.


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Cognitive Biases

Irrational escalation

of commitment

Mythical fixed-pie

beliefs Anchoring and

adjustment

Issue framing andrisk

Availability of

information

The winners curse

Overconfidence

The law of small

numbers Self-serving biases

Endowment effect

Ignoring otherscognitions

Reactive devaluation


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Irrational Escalation of Commitment

and Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs

Irrational escalation of commitment

Negotiators maintain commitment to a course of

action even when that commitment constitutesirrational behavior

Mythical fixed-pie beliefs

Negotiators assume that all negotiations (not just

some) involve a fixed pie


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Anchoring and Adjustment

and Issue Framing and Risk Anchoring and adjustment

The effect of the standard (anchor) against which

subsequent adjustments (gains or losses) aremeasured

The anchor might be based on faulty or incomplete

information, thus be misleading

Issue framing and risk Frames can lead people to seek, avoid, or be neutral

about risk in decision making and negotiation


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Availability of Information

and the Winners Curse Availability of information

Operates when information that is presented in vivid

or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall. Becomes central and critical in evaluating events and

options

The winners curse

The tendency to settle quickly on an item and thensubsequently feel discomfort about a win that comes

too easily


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Overconfidence and

The Law of Small Numbers Overconfidence

The tendency of negotiators to believe that their

ability to be correct or accurate is greater than isactually true

The law of small numbers The tendency of people to draw conclusions from

small sample sizes

The smaller sample, the greater the possibility thatpast lessons will be erroneously used to infer whatwill happen in the future


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Confidence or Overconfidence?

We came to Iceland to advance the cause of peace.. .and though we put on the table the most far-reaching arms control proposal in history, theGeneral Secretary rejected it.

President Ronald Reagan to reporters,following completion of presummit arms control discussions

in Reykjavik, Iceland, on October 12,1986.

I proposed an urgent meeting here because we had

something to propose. . .The Americans came to thismeeting empty handed.Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev,

Describing the same meeting to reporters.


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Self-Serving Biases

and Endowment Effect Self-serving biases

People often explain another persons behavior bymaking attributions, either to the person or to the

situation

Endowment effect The tendency to overvalue something you own or

believe you possess


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Ignoring Others Cognitions

and Reactive Devaluation Ignoring others cognitions

Negotiators dont bother to ask about the other partys

perceptions and thoughts This leaves them to work with incomplete information,

and thus produces faulty results

Reactive devaluation The process of devaluing the other partys

concessions simply because the other party madethem


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Managing Misperceptions and

Cognitive Biases in Negotiation

The best advice that negotiators can follow

is: Be aware of the negative aspects of these

biases

Discuss them in a structured manner within the

team and with counterparts


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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation

The distinction between mood and

emotion is based on three characteristics:

Specificity

Intensity

Duration


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Negotiations create both positive and negative

emotions

Positive emotions generally have positive

consequences for negotiations

They are more likely to lead the parties toward more

integrative processes

They also create a positive attitude toward the other

side

They promote persistence


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Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to

positive emotions

Positive feelings result from fair procedures during

negotiation Positive feelings result from favorable social

comparison


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Negative emotions generally have negative

consequences for negotiations

They may lead parties to define the situation as

competitive or distributive They may undermine a negotiators ability to analyze the

situation accurately, which adversely affects individual

outcomes

They may lead parties to escalate the conflict They may lead parties to retaliate and may thwart

integrative outcomes


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Aspects of the negotiation process can lead tonegative emotions Negative emotions may result from a competitive

mindset

Negative emotions may result from an impasse

Effects of positive and negative emotion Positive emotions may generate negative outcomes

Negative feelings may elicit beneficial outcomes

Emotions can be used strategically asnegotiation gambits

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Chapter 5 Perception, Cognition, And Emotion