PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 5

Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences

Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment

The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture issue –

Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes

Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects When separated at birth they often display similarities

in habit, lifestyle, intelligence, and personality Jim Twins

The Nature-Nurture Interaction Identical twins–

A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg, monozygotic, which later split into two distinct individuals

Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb

Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family

Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of

life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning Continuity – Gradual Discontinuity - Stage-like

Age

Per

form

ance

Discontinuity viewContinuity view

Periods of Pregnancy

Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining

Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

Fetal period- time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth (development of fetus)

Periods of Pregnancy

Periods of Pregnancy Placenta –An organ that develops between the

embryo/fetus and the mother Critical periods - times during which

certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth defect. Fetal alcohol syndrome- leading cause of

mental retardation Smoking X-rays Lead Disease

Psychological Traits in Your Genes

While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence

Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning

Neonatal Period(from birth to one month) Sensory abilities- all senses are functioning,

vision is limited for first 4-6 weeks Infants use these abilities to learn

Motor abilities Rooting reflex- food source Sucking reflex Grasping reflex Stepping Reflex Babinski Reflex- rub bottom of foot the toes fan

out and curl back in Moro reflex (startle reflex)- pulling arms and legs

into the body then extending them out

Maturation Maturation refers to development that largely

unfolds on it’s own. All humans (especially infants) develop in the same orderly way. (we stand before we walk, babble before we talk, use nouns before adjectives…) The time can vary depending on the person

Maturation sets the course of development, experience adjusts it.

Motor Development

The sequence of motor development is nearly the same in all parts of the world. 90% of all babies will begin walking by

15 months. Roll over, sit up unsupported, crawl, walk

etc.

Identical twins typically begin sitting up and walking on nearly the same day.

EX.- t-ball; hitting and throwing pretty equal among players

Toilet Training

NO MATTER WHAT, THE BABY NEEDS THE PHYSICAL MATURATION TO HOLD HIS OR HER BLADDER OR BOWEL MOVEMENTS BEFORE TOILET TRAINING.

NO TRAINING WILL WORK IF THE CHILD IS NOT PHYSICALLY READY.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development –the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas) This field is Dominated by a

man named Jean Piaget. He was developing IQ tests and

noticed that many children got the same answers wrong.

Thought to himself, “maybe these kids are not stupid, but instead think differently than adults.”

Piaget’s Important Concepts Children are active thinkers, always

trying to make sense of the world. To make sense of the world, they

develop schemas. Schema- a concept or framework that

organizes and interprets information formed through experiences with objects and events

Piaget’s Important Concepts Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schema Ex. Child sees a cougar for the first time and points

and says “doggie” because they have a dog at home

Accommodation –Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood Ex. Child now knows that cougars are bigger and have

different features- accommodating their original schema (four legs, furry, inside a house, etc.)

Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage – first stage in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment. Birth to 2 years

At 4 to 8 months of age, the child will learn that she can make things move by banging them and shaking them Object Permanence - the knowledge that an object

exists even when it is not in sight.

Piaget’s Stage Theory Preoperational stage – second stage in

which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world; begin to pretend play (Approx. ages 2 to 6 or 7)

Think Symbolically- one thing can represent something else

Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes.

Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.

Piaget’s Stage Theory Concrete Operational stage - third

stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. (about 7 to 11 years old) marked by logical thinking, mental

representations, mathematical transformations, and mastery of conservation

Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature.

Piaget’s Stage Theory

Formal Operational Stage - Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking. (11 and beyond) Abstract thinking, moral reasoning and

hypothetical situations Consider future possibilities and imaginary

scenarios

God is love. Love is Blind. Stevie Wonder is Blind. Stevie Wonder is god.

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Impact of the social context on

a child’s cognitive growth

Scaffolding - process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance Reach the top of this range when

given instruction

Social and Emotional Development

Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society (Commonly referred to as manners, beliefs or customs)

Temperament - the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth. Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to

change.

Attachment Attachment - the emotional bond

between an infant and the primary caregiver. Measured with Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Humans have an inborn need for attachment

Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return.

Avoidant – unattached; explore without “touching base”, can attach to stranger

Ambivalent/Resistant - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.

Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.

Strange Situation

Deprivation of Attachment

John Bowlby’s types of Anxiety Separation Anxiety- distress at being separated from

parents or caregiver Stranger Anxiety- distress upon encountering new,

unfamiliar people Early attachments form the basis for our adult

relationships

Critical periods exist for attachment and bonding just like language development. If those critical periods pass without adequate attachment, it can rewire a child’s brain with lifelong consequences.

Harry Harlow’s Contact Comfort Contact Comfort- human newborns

need physical touch and nurturance

Video

Social and Emotional Development

Imprinting- rigid attachment process during an organisms critical period, usually immediately after birth, as if it is their mother Konrad Lorenz- baby ducklings

Transitional Object- blanket

Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Parenting styles-Most approaches

to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:1. Authoritarian parents-establish rules and

expectations; expect obedience; punishment

2. Authoritative parents- establish rules but also listen to input from children; reinforcement and punishment

Correlate with positive outcomes for children

3. Permissive parents- parents submit to their children; children given freedom

4. Neglectful or Uninvolved parents

The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning

at puberty and ending at adulthood the period of life from about age 13 to the early

twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.

Puberty - the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. Period of about four years when we become sexually

mature Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics

Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood

Cognitive Development in Adolescence Formal operational stage –

Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)

Hormones rise to high levels This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and

preoccupation with body image and sex

The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”

Emerging Adulthood- transitional period between adolescence and adulthood 18 traditionally meant you were an adult; college

has changed this and delayed responsibilities

Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis- sense of self

changes and is shaped by the question “who am I ?” which is often answered by the group memberships we hold.

The increasing influence of peers- diminishing parent influence

We talk, dress, and act more like our peers than our parents.

Egocentric Thinking (David Elkind)

Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Moral development —growth in the ability to tell

right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically. Preconventional level— 4-10 (preoperational stage

of cognitive development) Do the right thing stage 1—avoid punishment, obey authority stage 2—further self-interests, gain reward

Conventional level— 10-13 (concrete operational stage of cognitive development or formal operational stage for most people) Social Conventions stage 3—conform, live up to expectations of others stage 4—maintain law and order, do your duty

Postconventional level— over 13 (reached by only some people in the formal operational stage) Internal Judgments stage 5—social contract, to promote the society's welfare stage 6—to promote justice

Developing Morality- Lawrence Kohlberg

“The Heinz Dilemma”- would you steal a drug in order to save a life?

Debating Kohlberg’s Moral Development

Criticized by Carol Gilligan Felt he missed the fact that males and

females view moral dilemmas differently Men- more absolute and justice-based Women- more relationship-based and

caring

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge

(Years)Stage Psychosocial Crisis Environmental

Influence

0-1 1/2 Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Maternal

2-3 Early childhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Both parents or adult substitutes

3-6 Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Parents, family and friends

6-12 Middle Childhood Industry vs. Inferiority School

12-20 Adolescence Identity vs. Role confusion

Peers

20-40 Young adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Spouse, lover, friends

40-60 Middle age Generativity vs. Stagnation

Family, society

Over 60 Old age Integrity vs. Despair All humans

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Age/Period Principal Challenge

0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust

1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt

3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt

6 years to puberty Industry vs. inferiority

Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion

Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation

Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation

Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair