CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER - 5

DHAKA CITY: SPACE, PEOPLE, ECONOMY AND GOVERNMENT

Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, is one of the

world's fastest growing metropolises. The city is plagued with

similar problems that affect other metropolises of the Third

World. Like Calcutta, Dhaka, is a 'city of problems' and its

problems are deep-rooted in the spatial, demographic, socio-

economic and politico-administrative structures. Unlike

Calcutta, Dhaka metropolis depicts a high degree of urban

primacy, containing 40 per cent of the country's urban

population.

5.1 BRIEF HISTORY AND GROWTH OF DHAKA:

The history of Dhaka city can be traced to the early years

of seventeenth century when Islam Khan laid its f oun da t_Lo_n_Ln--

1608. The city prospered as an administrative, as well as a

commercial centre and it developed quickly in stature, to become

a metropolis.

By the early nineteenth century the city was over-shadowed

by the growth of Calcutta as the main administrative, military

and commercial base of the East India Company in Bengal and the

city, decayed at a faster rate. 1 The social composition of

1. N. Hussain, "The City of Dacca, 1921-1947", in K. Ballahatchet and J. Harrison {eds. ), The City in South Asia: Pre-modern and Modern <London: University of London, 1980>, p.l98.

the population of the city underwent a drastic change from a

Muslim dominated one during the Mughal

majority city during the British period. 2

period, to a Hindu

In the early twentieth century (in 1905), the city was

made the provincial capital and the seat of the government of

eastern Bengal and Assam and it regained its . t 3 1mpor ance. In

1947, in the wake of the partition of India, Dhaka retained her

administrative functions and became the capital of East

Pakistan. During partition, a mass exodus of Hindus to India

and Muslims to East Pakistan, brought about a change in the

ethno-religious composition of the city with a dominant Muslim

majority, which was reflected in its social structure.

Since Independence in 1971, the Dhaka city has been the

political centre and the capital city of the newly formed

country - Bangladesh. It has become the locus of political and

economic power, and seat of power struggle and conflict. 4 The

-po-1--1-t!cal-struggle in the city originated against the 'external

Colonial' rule of British in the pre-1947 period and continued

against the "Internal Colonial rule" of Pakistan in the post-

1947 period. 5 The city has a long heritage of political

struggle and violence.

2. Ibid., pp. 199-200.

3. I bid. , p. 198.

4. S.U. Ahmed, "Dhaka through History", Dhaka Courier, Dhaka, Dec. 1-7, vol.6, issue 17, 1979, p. 29.

5. M.N. Islam, "The Political Saga of Dhaka 1905-1971", a paper in International Seminar on Dhaka Past, Present and Future, 16-19 Nov. <Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, 1989).

L ( J. 172

5.1.1 Growth of Dhaka City

Dhaka city has experienced many ups and downs in terms of

both functional importance and population size and growth. In

the first census of 1872, the population of the city was

recorded as 69,212 within a municipal area of fifteen square

Ki lometres6 • By the beginning of the present century, the

population had risen to 1.3 lakhs <Table 5.1).

Today, the city has become a flourishing metropolis, as an

industria I, trading and commercial centre and its hinterland

covers virtually the whole of the country. By 1981, Dhaka

metropolis contained a population of 2.8 million, covering an

area of 161.6 square kilometers. It is now one of the fastest

growing metropolises of the world, the average growth rate being •

5.8 per cent during 1974-81 <Table- 5.1). According to UN

estimation, "Dhaka was the thirtyfirst largest city in the world

in 1985 and is expected to be the fifteenth largest by the year

2000". 7 The total population of Dhaka metropolis now stands at

6 million and is expected to reach 11 million by the end of the

century. 8

Dhaka's rapid population explosion is attributed to the

net migration from the poverty-sticken rural hinterland, "which

accounted for 62.8 per cent of population between 1961-74 and

6. N. Hussain, n.1, p. 198.

7.

8.

United Nations, cities: Dhaka", 1987)' p. 1.

"Population Growth and Policies in Population Policy Paper No. 8 <New

U.N. Populaticm Studies No. 101, "The Prospects of Urbanizxation". Table A-9 <New York, 1987>, p.142.

173

Mega York,

World

Table =. 5.1

Population and Annual Rate of Growth in Dhaka City, 1901-1981

Census Year Population <In thousand)

Average Annual Growth rate <per cent per year)

1901 129

1911 154 1.8

1921 169 0.9

1931 196 1.5

1941 296 4.2

1951 336 1.3

1961 557 5.2

1974a 1403 7.4

1981b 2476 5.8

Sour c e s : Ban g_Lades_h---Bur--eau----o-f--S-t:-a-t-i-s-t-i-cs-, --on-a_k_a : Dnal< a Statistical Metropolitan Area <1985), United Nations, Population Policy, Paper No.8, "Population Growth and Policies in Megacities: Dhaka", New York <1987).

a. The figure for the Dhaka Metropolitan Area <DMA>. In 1974, recorded population was 16,80,000 and it was adjusted and estimated to 20,04,000.

b. Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan Area <DSMA> was designed in 1981 and which is now the standard Census Classification. The population for DMA and DSMA in 1981 was 28,16,005 and 34,40,147 respectively.

174

70.5 per cent between 1974-81". 9 Economic factors such as

unemployment, poverty and exploitation by the rural elites and

and moneylenders, landlessness in the rural sector, coupled with

demographic <rapid rural population growth>, physical <mostly

river bank erosion, floods and other natural calamities) and

socio-political factors are the chief contributing forces for

large scale migration to Dhaka city. 10 The burgeoning rural

influx into Dhaka city is the main cause of the fast growth of th,

city in recent years.

5.2 PHYSICAL SETTING AND AREAL EXTENSION

Situated on the northern bank of the river Buriganga,

Dhaka city is bounded by Tongi Khal and the industrial area of

Tongi to the North, the flood plains of the Balu river on the

East and the Turag river on the West. <Fig. 5.1 > The city is

located on a slightly elevated ground in the surrounding flood

plains. The areal expansion of the city has continued on the

other side of the Khal in the northern direct_Lon-beGaus-e-o-f--t-ne--

physical constraint imposed by three main rivers that flows in

the south, west and east.

The Dhaka Metropolitan Area <DMA> extended over 414.4

square kms, in 1981 and comprised of 12 thanas. These are,

Demra, Dhanmondi, Gulshan, Kotwali, Lalbagh, Mirpur, Mohmmadpur,

Motijheel, Ramna, Sutrapur, Tejgaon and Sabujbagh.

9. U.N., n.6, p.EJ.

10. Nazrul Islam et al, A report of the Centre for Studies, "The People of Dhaka: A Demographic and economic Survey with Special reference to population of Dacca Metropolitan Region", University of Dhaka, 1982>.

175

Urban Socia

migrant <Dhaka:

PHYSICAL SETTING IN DHAKA CITY.

~ JorocaLR

r-~

JINZIRA

K£RAN/SANJ

<

~

·-·- if. . .....__. . ........._,.

. I

/IWYOER /BAZAR

/ ~~~·r I ~·9"~ 1\.

~\ IMPROVEMENT TRUST BOUNDARY (till 19!6)

DHAKA METROPOLITAN AREA

0 ~ Km.

N.I.S.I.

176

The concept of Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan Area <DSMAl

was introduced in 1981, which is now the standard census

classification. It covers an area of 1120.8 Square Kilometers.

The SMA includes the entire Dhaka Municipal Corporation

<including Mirpur and Gulshan), Dhaka Cantonment Board,

neighbouring Tongi and Narayanganj Municipalities and twelve

oth~r urban units. 11 <Fig. 5.21.

5.2.1 Spatial Structur~

The spatial structure of Dhaka city is largely a function

of its topography, transportation network, urban land markets,

.._ . d tt I t I . . t 12 •• oustng an se emen po 1c1es e c.

Three different patterns are clearly marked in the spatial

structure of the city, namely, old Dhaka, planned lrnodernl and

an unplanned structure. Old Dhaka - the core of the City is an

area of 5.6 square krns, which runs along the northern bank of

the river Buriganga. It contains a complex mixture of landuses

with acute congestion, an overloaded physical infrastructure and

inadequate urban services. A modern Central Business District

is located to the north of old C.B.D and includes the areas of

Motijheel, Dilkhusha, Gul istan, Segun Bagicha, etc. In

addition. a semi modern type exists within the city covering New

Market and surrounding areas.

11. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics; Bangladesh Census, 1981. "Dhaka Statistical Metropolitan SMA)", J u I y <Dhaka; 1985 l , p. XX I X.

12. U.N., n.7, p.11.

177

Population Area <Dhaka

w--_,r/• ..... -·-.i.. ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS .. i ~THANA I \ ,..U<I, l _j DHAKA STATISTICAL METROPOLITAN ) i

0

I . .. . A. IC.IJHO.lltY.

THAHA IIOUHOAitY.

SOURCe • .... ~ .. · ......,..._..t Bw- of St.~, DI«XA SlliA,Ii8$.

Fig . 5·2

178

To the north west, a number of planned public sector

industry alongwith small pockets of uncontrolled residental

settlements are located. The adjacent cantonment area is a low

density zo~e that contains defence establishments/airport and so

on. The eastern fringe of the city is a low density area with

low income residential locations. To the west of the modern CBD

are the main government institutions, offices and educational

institutions. <Fig.5.3). The main industrial locations in the

city are Tejgaon, Karwan Bazar, Testori Bazar and an old

industrial area of Postagola on the south east and Hazaribagh

and Jigatala in the west of the old Dhaka zone. Tongi in the

north and Mirpur in the north west of the city are important

industrial centres.

5.2.2 Land Use Pattern of Dhaka

Dhaka city has a serious shortage of land for development

purposes, owing to the physical constraints imposed by the

rivers around the city. The total developed area in the city was

72 sq. kms. in 197513•

The built up area of the city has increased by 30~ during

1974-81, while the population increased at a faster rate, 58 per

cent during the same period14 • During the 1980s, the built up

area of Dhaka was nearly 94.7 sq. kms. of which about 55 per

13. The Land use pattern of Dhaka as published in Bichitra", 1975 on the basis of a survey report of for Urban Studies <Dhaka University of Dhaka, 1975.

"Weekly centre

14. A report of the Centre for Urban studies, "Urban Poor in Bangladesh: Urban Land and Housing" <Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 1989) p.1.

: ·.179

SPATIAL CHARACTERISTIC ZONES OF DHAKA CITY.

H

+ s

........ ~-~Nome , medium det~~lty ~planned

re1ldenllol~

[II}Gort. lla1Hiullonal : olrporll, delenc •

o poctell of low lncome,vnphlttned ,.lldeatlal. """'r+-~-\.

~w faoome, pltlnned public 1ecttw ,..,..,01, modem ••ct., formal

' ,..,.,,_ ~d modern lndvltrltll oreo. __ · n-rttLotr IHome, /ow den1lty flttplonned, , .. ldentlat / t::t::t::fl.,nCflltflrtll.

0

.. 1An

cent vas used for residential purposes, 16 per cent for

administrative and educational use and another 9.4 per cent vas

occupied for the commercial and industrial activities. The city

has an inadequate open space, covering only about 2 per cent of

the land use <Table 5.2>.

Table - 5~

Land Use Pattern~ in Dhaka City <1989>

Land Use

Residential

Commercial

Industrial

Transportation

Administrative and Educational

Open space

Others**

Total

Area <acres) " Land Use

12,900.0 54.7

1,500.0 6.4

700.0 3.0

790.0 3.3

3,780.0 16.0

450.0 1.9

3,530.0 14.7

23,650.0 100.0

Sources: Compiled on the basis of land use map as prepared by the Centre for Urban Studies, Dhaka: University of Dhaka.

* Approximate measurement ** Includes roads, water bodies etc.

The residential areas in the city have a clear spatial

setting. While the low class residential areas are located on

the eastern margin, southern and north western parts of the

city, the middle and higher class residential areas, are placed

mainly on the central and in the north eastern margin. <Fig.

5. 4).

181

111111 ~

ITIIIQ [;,:;~~8

~ ~ ~ ~-~

L__~ -- - -...,

- __ J

COI1~E RC! f-1.

INrJIJSTR!AL

ADr1li<ISTRATIVE EOUCA T I O~•AL

OPEr• SPACE

T R:~·· S PO R;

LOh'-Ci /ISS llt:S I DENT! ~L

ltiDDLf.!. ·~I(i~-CLtlSS PrsroErHIAL

0 ',lATER BODIES Sea 1 e

SOI.IRC£: Norr~l Is/om, CUS, DMtQ, I

FIIJ 5·4 182

5.3 DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE

Dhaka city is one of the most populours cities in South

Asia with a density of more than 15,000 persons per sq. km. The

population density gradient within the city slopes down from

south to north <Fig.5.5). The most populous part of the city is

in the old core, covering the thanas of Sutrapur, Kotwali and

Lalbagh, where the density of population stands at more than

60,000 per sq. km.

Another area of high density is located at the heart of

the city i.e. the modern CBD zone of Motijheel. The low density

of population is marked on the eastern and north western

peripheries of the city covering the areas of Gulshan, Mirpur

and the Cantonment. The remaining areas of the city have a

medium density of population.

5.3.1 Ethnic Composition

The city has a greater socio-cultural homogeneity in terms

of linguistic and religious composition. The city is a

monolingual one, with nearly cent per cent Bengali speaking

population. In terms of religious groups, 94.5per cent of the

population of the city in 1981 were Muslims, the rest being

Hindus <4.6 per cent>, Christians <0.6 per cent> and Buddhists

<0.1 per cent> 15 .

The Hindus in the city are spatially Concentrated mostly

in the older parts of the city especially in the thanas of

15. Bangladesh Bureau of Stastics, n 11, RXL VII I

183

~NSITY OF POPULATION IN DHAKA CITY, 1981 .

0

., ,.<::.·~·-..., 4·-·-·::"'- -\ !-= -=-=-=-=-) ~---_-_-_-_-J

)-----------J (~-=-=-=-=-=-; \.._- - -- -/

·\-==~====-~ "--_ -_ ~ t-_-_--\

~=-::-=-~

_.::....... N[W SOI.INOARY

/':~~~·1~~~~=~===·-lf~}( ___ / "':r:s:-_·<: :· ~ JJ 1_;:i1_r_ -_ == ==== ==~~ Q 0

. . / / / / / ----y ' ~. ~/~: ~~-- /?;:~/ ---- ~ //: >/ / / /" ///:: /" l~[~-f[-:-rl ~srsons F+Jr Square Km. ~//----/ /.,./ r \:,. / / / / / / .

. / / / ,,,,.,.. / J

. " / .,. .,. .,. / .,. : . ~ Mor• than 7'0,000

\ ·.,_

J ltlilu.

Fig 5.5

184

'· .. ·, ... \,

'--. ·,

~ ~0,000 - 7"0,000

TJP ~ ~o.ooo - 50,ooo }' , 10,000 - 3(1,000

ur·t-=-j Lui fhon 101000

''.A. • DAr A NOr AVAILABLE.

Suirapur, Kotwali, Demra and Lalbagh <Fig.S .6). The principal

areas of Hindu concentration in the city are Lakshmibazar,

Banglabazar, Shankaribazar and Tantibazar.

Most of the recognised forces of social differentiation

are absent or less prevalent in the city. The absence of ethnic

pluralism and social differentiation makes the city homogeneous

and unique in its social character.

5.3.2 Age Structure

The city of Dhaka has an extremely youthful population, as

high as 72 per cent in the age group 0-29 16 . A significant

population of about 46 per cent is in the age proportion of

group 10-29 17 , which has serious socio-political consequences. A

high incidences of child labour and educated youth unemployment

and under employment exists in the city. The youth in general

and unemployed youth in particular, actively participate in the

urban as well as national politics and political movements and

their frustrations are very often manifested in violent actions.

The student community in Bangladesh in general and Dhaka in

particular, spreahead all political movements and fight against

the socio-economic disparities. They always play a vital role

in voicing the socio-economic and political grievances of the

masses.

16. BBS, n.11, Table P02 ~P59-77

17. Ibid

185

SPATIAL CONCENTRATIONS OF HINDU POPULATION IN __ . .,. DHAKA CITY I 1981. t~~==~~;-)

1-----------1 ;-----------1

(-=-=-=-=-=---; ,_-----\---------)·

-·-·~ ,-_-_-_-j ~----_-_">._ .... "' ~ _- - - - - - -~ ··r---- . ~~==============:~':·..... (-=-=~\ j'------------ 1 }-------~

IL-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-1 ,_-_-_-_-_"' :.. - - - - - - - - - - - - r - - - - - ~.,.,.. . .-.. \'j-=-=---=-=-=-=-=-= -= -=-={--:_~-=-=-=-:::-:::-:::-:::-::: -::::::-~. )i- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,_-,_ - - - -~ (/'-------_-_---_-_-_-_ -_-_- _-_ -_-_-_-_ -_ -_ ~ -_ -::::-.,_ -_-_-;_ -_ . -- --- -- - - -- - -=t- ---- - -y_-- ---=~- --)!:~ =~= ~ =~=~= ~= ~= ~ :} ~= ~= ~ :j: ~=} ~=~~~ = =~=~=j~,7 \>- - - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - - \- - - -~ \

dt ~ = ~= ~ =~= ~=~ =~ =; =;=~ =~1 =~ = ~ =1=~~ =~= ~=~=;; \i ./.~ - - - - - - - - - - --t - - - 1- - - - - - '-... ..

~~I:~=~::::===~~~~~~~~ ~=t: (~~I~ ~J ~'f· /NEW BOUNDARY.

-------' I _-_-_,_-_- --- ----Y : -===±~:;:;=-=-=- ===~...... f :

Abo~ 10

6 - 10

2 - 6 · ..

··· .. L•s• fhan2

q 2 111/u. ..__ _ ____. ___ ....L.._----i' DATA NOT A'AILABL£ .

186

5.4 ECONOMIC BASE OF THE CITY

Dhaka city is one of the world's poorest large cities

"with per capita GDP of 1993 TK. ($ 100 at 1981 prices) during

1980-81" 18 • The country has an agrarian society and Dhaka city

remains a 'city of peasants' with strong rural links. It is "one

of the world's least developed cities with lowest levels of

commercial energy consumption, motorized vehicles, telephones

per capita and is low on most other indicators of

develpmment" 19 .

Dhaka city has had a trading and commercial base.

Following the partition of India in 1947, the city faced a

massive disruption of long standing regional trading patterns.

Whereas "Calcutta grew into an important regional world trading

centre, Dhaka's role continued to be that of a local market

centre for a rich agricultural hinterland" 20 . ln recent years,

there has been a dramatic expansion of the commercial sector in

the city.

During 1947-71, Dhaka began to industrialise gradually and

a number of jute, cotton textile mills and fertilizer industries

were estab I ished21 • In 1986, there were 6105 factories in

Dhaka city of which more than 50 per cent were in the new Dhaka

area and rest in the old core zone 22 . The total number of

18. U.N., n.7, p.l

19. 1 bid

20. Ibid p.9 21.

21. I bid.

22. Kamal Siddiqui et.al Social Formation in Dhaka City <Dhaka: University Press Ltd. 1990) p.29

187

persons employed in the city's industries in 1980 were about

52,ooo23 .

Currently, jute processing, textiles and garment

industries are the three principal industrial groups in the

country and are centred in and around Dhaka city. Host of the

jute mills are located in the eastern margin of the city along

the Lokhya river.

In recent years, the garment industry is a fast growing

industry in Dhaka city employing about 1.5 lakh people in 1985,

the majority of whom were women24 • The jute industry on which

Dhaka is heavily dependent has been seriously affected by high

operating costs, low productivity utilization, poor quality raw

jute and deteriorating labour poductivity25 • The cotton textile,

industry relies heavily on imported raw materials.

Dhaka's industrial sector as a whole has been adversely

affected by an inadequate supply of raw materials, equipment

break down, frequent power failures and shortage of managers and

skilled manpower. There exists a "stagnation in the industrial

sector, I ow proportion of forma I sector emp I oyment and an

extremely low level of income and resourcesin the city. 26

23. l bid

24. Kamal Siddiqui et.al, n.22, p.29

25. U. N. , n. 7, p. 10

26. I bid p. 1

188

Bangladesh, since independence has been heavily dependent

upon foreign aid and assistance. "Foreign aid continues to make

up about 40 per cent of the government receipts 50 per cent of

the country's foreign exchange income and 90 per cent of its

27 development budget" •

5.4.1 Occupational Structure

According to the 1981 census, the workforce of Dhaka

municipality const~tutes about 36 per cent of the total

population of which 16 per cent were engaged in primary

activities, mainly agriculture, 9.2 per cent in industries and

24 per cent in business28 .

Overall, the metropolis has a very weak formal sector

employment base and nearly 35% of employment were estimated to

be in this sector, of which three quarters of employment were

concentrated in two sectors namely, government and

manufacturing29 . A high proportion of employment is in the

government, banking, and insurance etc, which are spatially

concentrated in the modern CBD area. A greater concentration of

industrial sector jobs are located outside Dhaka Municipality in

Tongi, Narayanganj, Kaliganj Joydevpur & Savar.

27. Ibid p.10 .

28. BBS, n.11, p.LVlll.

29. U.N. n. 7, p. 12

189

Table - 5.3

Occupational Structure in Dhaka ~etropolitan Area <1980-81)

Occupations

Agriculture

Manufacturing

Utilities, Construction and Transport

Government

Services

Total

Proportion of Employment per cent

3. 1

22.8

21.3

13.4

39.4

100.0

Sources: Government of Bangladesh, Asian Development Bank and UNDP < 1981>.

5.4.2 Informal Sector and Urban Poor

In Dhaka, a very high proportion of employment, nearly 65

per cent of the labour force falls within the boundary of

informal sector, of which the largest concentration is in the

transport sector, dominated by cycle rickshaws fo II owed by

street peddling and day labour 30 .

Rickshaw pullers constitute the single largest

occupational group and is a characteristic feature of Dhaka

city. A large number of rural migrants enter the labour market

30. Ibid

190

of the city through this sector. At present there are about 1.5

lakh rickshaws in the city of which about 80,000 are I icensed

and the rest are unregistered31 . This sector directly provides

employment to about 2.5 lakh people. Besides. rickshaw pulling,

a substantial number of poor are associated with rickshaw

making, repairing, spare parts retailing etc. and thus nearly

one million people directly or indirectly are dependent on this

informal sector32 . The rickshaw pullers are fairly conscious of

their position in the society and actively participate in

political protests, movements and demonstrations, strikes etc,

are related directed to urban issues. Many rickshaw pullers of

the city have some organisational affiliation and they unite

under the banner of the Dhaka Metropolitan Rickshaw Pullers-

Owners Associaiton.

Besides, two more important characteristic features of the

informal sector of Dhaka city, are the large proportion of

employment as household servants and child labour. According to

an estimation, the household servant occupational group

constituted about 2.3 lakh people in 1985 and they were mostly

women34 .

Child labour constitutes an alarming proportion

informal sector of Dhaka city. Nearly 40 per cent

domestic workers and 15 per cent of garment industrial

31. The Bangladesh Observer, 6 July 1989.

32. K. Siddiqui et.al, n.22, p.11.

33. I bid p. 276

34. Ibid p.258

in

of

the

the

workers

were found to be children below 14 years of age35 • Child labour

in Dhaka city in particular and Bangladesh in general, is seen

as an economic necessity stemming from the widespread poverty.

Of the 6 million population of the city, nearly 70 per cent are

poor and 30 per cent live in slums and squatters36 . A study

found a total of 1125 slums on 1340 acres of land having a total

population of 8.8 lakh within the Dhaka Municipal Corporation

area. 37 .

Among the various classes of people living in Dhaka city,

the urban poor in general and informal sector poor in

particular, are considered to be the potential agents in

bringing about political change38 . The high incidences of

unemployment and under- employment, widespread poverty, have led

to serious socio-political problems in the city, throwing a big

challenge to the politicans and the government.

5.5 POLITICO-ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE AND FINANCE OF DHAKA CITY

On the politico-administrative front, the government of

Bangladesh has undertaken a radial administrative decentrali-

sation programme called Upzila Programme. It commenced in 1983,

aiming at decentralisation of administrative functions at the

35. The Bang I adesh Observer, 21, Jan 1989.

36. Report of the Dhaka mahanagan slum improvement committee, cited in~ CUS Bulletin, No 16-17, <Dhaka: University of Dhaka, Jan. and July 1989) p.8

37. A report Squatters 1988).

of in

the Centre for Urban Studies, Dhaka City~ <Dhaka: University

38. K. Siddiqui et.al, n.22, p.347.

\ '-li

192

"Slums and of Dhaka;

sub-district level. At the urban level, the local government

fa 11 s into Corporation, Municipalities and Cantonment Board.

Both municipalities and Municipal Corporations are autonomous

bodies protected under legal ordinances but the government's

control is quite visible and rigid39 .

5.5.1 Administrative Structure

The Dhaka Municipality has been upgraded to a Municipal

Corporation Dhaka Municipal Corporation <DMC>

includes the Dhaka Pouroshava, Gulshan Pouroshava, portions of

unions of Mirpur, Harirampur, miradia, Badda and Battava of

Satarkul Union under Gulshan thana.

In 1981, DMC was divided into 56 wards and recently it has

been reorganised into ten administrative zones consisting of 75

wards. Several changes were made in the provision of municipal

administration under the DMC, ordinance, 1983. The Corporation

has a prominent position in urban administrative structure of

the country and it has been playing a vital role in the

development of the civic life of the whole of Bangladesh.

5.5.2 Organisational Corporation

set ~and Composition of Dhaka Municipal

The DMC consists of both elected and appointed personnel

headed by the Mayor. The Corporation has a provision for

Deputy Mayors, number may vary between one to three. The Mayor

and Deputy Mayors are to be elected by the commissioners from

39. N. Islam et.al, "Urban poor in Bangladesh: Urban Administrative Structure". A report of the Centre for Urban Studies <Dhaka: University of Dhaka, 1989> p.14.

40. The Bangladesh Gazette The Pouroshara <Amendment> ordinance, Government of Bangladesh, 1978

193

amongst the elected Commissioners. However, at present they are

appointed by the government. The Dhaka Municipal Corporation is

largely an elected body.

As per the provisions of DMC Ordinance, 1983, DHC is now

composed of 75 elected Commissioners, elected directly from the

wards, 10 nominated women Commissioners and seven official

Commissioners appointed from the developmental bodies or

agencies.

The day to day urban affairs of DHC are carried out by

various departments and sections. According to DHC officials,

by 1990, the total number of employees in DHC stood at 11,000,

a growth of about 41 per cent over 1981. The chief executive

officer is responsible for the control and supervision of a I I

the departments of the Corporation <See the Organisational Chart

of DMC >.

5.5.3 Functions:

The DMC, bears responsibility for performing almost all

functions that are carried out in the city. However, the supply

of water and sewerage function falls within the jurisdiction of

a special developmental agency known as Dhaka Water and Sewerage

Authority <WASA>. The major functions that fa I I under the

jurisdiction of DMC include, public health and sanitation,

education, drainage works, maintenance of urban infrastructures

including roads and footpaths etc. There eixsts no clear cut

demarcations of functions between the Corporation and the

developmental agencies, resulting in an overlap of functions and

thus confusion. As it has been observed by one author, "the

194

0

ORGANISATIONAL CHART OF DHAKA MUNICIPAL l

CORPORATION, 1990.

0

TRATOR

SOCIAL WEL AIIID CVLTVRAL OFF7CCR

RCVCNIJC

OF11CCR (IJ

Fig 5.7

0

guidelines

confusing". 41

regarding municipal functions

5.5.4 Devel~ment~ Agencies in Dhaka ~~:

are highly

ln addition to the Dhaka Municipal Corporation, a number

of sectoral, local and special developmental agencies/institu-

tions are in operation for Dhaka's urban development. About 28

agencies belonging to sixteen Ministries can be identified,

which discharge their functions towards the planning and

development of the Dhaka Municipal Area. 42 These agencies may

be grouped into three broad categories: special developmental

agencies, special purpose authorities and governmental bodies.

Dhaka Improvement Trust <DIT> is one of the oldest special

development bodies, established in 1956, aiming at the physical

planning and development of the city. Recently <1986), it has

been statured as the Capital Development Authority, better known

as Rajdhani Unnayan Kartipakha <RAJUK), covering an area of 640

sq. kms. It is now, the main planning and developmental

authority of Dhaka city.

The water supply and sewerage network of the DMA fa I I

under the jurisdiction of a special purpose authority known as

Dhaka Water and Sewerage Authority <WASA>. I t is responsible

for the construction, improvement and maintenance of water and

sewerage works in the city.

4 1 . N. l s lam, n. 39, p. 28.

42. M.A. Mohit, "Institutions for Planning and Dhaka Metropolitan Area: Problems and research monograph, No.lO, Department Regional Planning <Dhaka: Bangladesh Engineering and Technology, 1990), p.4.

196

Development Prospects", of Urban University

of a

and of

Apart from these agencies, a large number of national and

sector~!, governmental bcdies are involved in the process of

urban development and they perform some of the essential urban

functions; e.g. The Housing and Settlement Girectorate < HSD) ,

Dept. of Public Health Engineering, PWD, Roads and Highway

Departments etc.

5.5.5lnter-agency Coordinati-on:

The involvem~nt of large number of agencies <Table5.4) in

the process of urban planning and development has resulted in

plurality of institutions and overlap of functions. For

example, both DIT and DMC have responsibility of urban planning

and development. Similarly, DMC and Rajuk or WASA have some

urban functions common to them. According to a World Bank

report, "there is considerable overlap between two streams of

responsibility and between many of the individual . " 43 agenc1es .

There is "an overlap of functions between RAJUK and DMC, DMC and

DPHE and between DPHE and WASA". 44 Moreover "the boundaries of

most of these special authorities do not coincide with the

municipal boundary". 45 Co-ordination is, "perhaps the most

difficult job in Banglades's urban planning and development". 46

Table 5.4, showing a matrix of the developmental agencies

and their functional overlap, reveals that, on an average there

are five institutions involved in each function. A large number

43. World Bank: No.3422-BD,

"Bangladesh Urban Sector 1981, p. 19.

4 4 . K. Siddiqui , e t a I . n. 22, p. 409.

4S. N. Islam, et al., n.39, p.25.

46 • ibid • t p o 23

197··

Memorandum" Report

Agenc1es/ Institutions

DMC RaJuk DWASA PWD HSD UDD DPHE HCS Roads & Hlgh-ways Deott. Titas Gas Housing Estate JWTA PDB Dhaka Metro-ool! tan Pollee Deoutv Coman-ss10ner !DCI Cant on men t Board BRTC HBFC BF'C Zila Paf'ishad CAA HE llWOB BR TTB

Total

!'latrix Showing Aqenciesiinstitutions and their

Functional Overlap in Dhaka City

~r~!!l E~!l~ilf!!l~ Land Road Drain- Water Traffic El- Parks Markets Plan- To-and Constr- age & Supply Con- ect- and ning tal Hous- uction Sewer- & Man- troll ric Shops & Dev. 1ng & main- age ageme- Trans- 1ty

tenance nt port (1) (?\ (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

X X X 8 X X 5

X X 2 X X 4

X X X X X 5 X

X

X

X

2

X ,(

"

9 7 4 4 b 2 5 3 5 45

198

of institutions are in operation in the land and housing and the

planning and development, causing a high degree of functional

overlap. The degree of functional overlap is also more in the

case of road construction and maintenance, traffic control and

transport, than any other function.

The multiplicity of institutions and overlapping of

functions create confusion not only in the civic functioning but

also in the citizens' minds. It has been observed that, "the

citizens are confused as to who - WASA, DMC or PWD, is

responsible

drains in

for the maintenance and cleaning of underground

Dhaka". 47 Moreover, the city lacks an effective

control mechanism and accountability. For example, although,

DMC is the controlling authority for construction and repair of

the roads of the city, there often occurs reckless· digging of

the city roads by WASA, Telephone and Telegraph Board, Titas

Gas, Roads and Highways Development agencies etc, for their own

purposes. They very often leave the roads unrepaired, causing a

hazard to traffic flow and aggravate traffic congestion and

accidents.

It has been argued that, "the present institutional

framework and capacities of institutions in the urban sector are

the major constraints to urban development" 48 in Bangladesh in

gneeral and Dhaka city in particular. The multiple

47. The Bangladesh Observer, 25 March 1989.

48. World Bank, n.48, p. ii.

199

institutional arranagements for the development of DHA, "in the

absence of a strong co-ordinating agency, has created various

socio-physical problems" 49 .

5.5.6 Revenue Resource Base QL Dhaka City:

The tax resources contribute nearly one-third of the total

finance of Dhaka Municipal Corporation. In the Municipal

revenue, the property tax is by far the single largest source of

income <Table 5.5>.

Year

1

1985-86

1986-87

1987-88

1988-89•

Table 5.5

Local Revenue Resource base of DHC (1985-86> <Million Taka>

Tax Revenues

Property- Other-tax taxes

2 3

107.3 68.1

119.7 83.3

117.6 81.0

150.2 84.4

Total­taxes

4

175.4 (35.7)

203.0 (32.9)

198.6 ( 31. 6)

234.6 (35.6)

Non- Total Reve-tax nues from

Revenues Internal Sources

5 6 (4+5)

315.6 491.0 (64.3> (100.0)

414.2 617.2 ( 67. 1) <100.0)

429.4 628.0 (68.4) (100.0)

429.8 664.4 (64.7) (100.0)

---------------------------------------------- --------------------Source: Budget

Dhaka, Estimates of the Dhaka Municipal

1987-88, 1988-89 and 1989-90. Corporation,

Figures in parenthesis show the percentage share to revenues from internal sources.

* Revised Estimates.

49. M.K. Alam, "A Proposal for Integrated Development Planning Organization for the Dacca Metropolitan Area" in M.A. Mohit, n.47, p.9.

2008

The oroperty tax contributes about 60-70 per cent of the

total tax revenue and between 17-21 per cent of the total

internal revenue receipts <Table 5.6). The tax resource base of

Dhaka city is very weak and the Corporation generates a major

share of inccme from the non-tax sources and depend on the

government grants for its finance. The non-tax sources of

revenue include rates for street lighting, conservancy and water

fees, fines, rents and profits from the properties (Appendix-VI)

Years

1985-86

1986-87

1987-88

1988-89*

Sources:

Table - 5.6 ---

Significance ~Property Tax in Dhaka City

l bid.

Property tax

as percentage of total tax revenues

61.2

59.0

59.2

64.0

as percentage of total internal sources of

revenue

21.9

19.4

18.7

22.6

* Revised estimates.

The most significant aspect of municipal finance of Dhaka

Municipal Corporation in the recent years, is the trend of an

increase in revenue from non-tax sources and a simultaneous

decrease of tax revenues in general, and the property tax in

particular <Table 5.7). There has been an increasing dependence

on government grants as a source of income.

201

Tab I e :.. 5. 7

Trends ~Share ~Different Sources ~Revenue to Dhaka

Municipal Corporation <1985-1989)

Proportion of total Revenue Receipts percent

Source 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89*

I. Tax Revenues

a. Property tax 21.4 18.6 18.2 17.0

b. Other taxes 13.6 12.9 12.5 9.6

Total taxes<a+b) 35.0 31.5 30.7 26.6

II. Non-tax Revenue 63. 1 64.4 66.3 48.8 Sources

I I I. Total Internal 98.1 95.9 97.0 75.4 Sources (!+II>

b IV. Government Grants 0.7 0.8 0.6 22.9

a v. M i see II aneous 1.2 3.3 2.4 1.7 ----------------------------------------------------------------Total Revenue 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Receipts <lll+IV+V>

Source: Ibid.

a. includes interest on investment and other miscellaneous items.

b. includes compensation for repair of flood affected roads.

* revised estimates.

The collection or property taxes and other service charges

remain poor. On an average. the collections do not exceed more

than 60 per cent of the total estimated demand <Table 5.8>. Tax

evasion by the relatively wei I off, improper and irregular

202

50 assessment of property tax" are the common features in DMC

finance. "Improper records of municipal ~roperty, absence of

proper assessors and collectors, large,number of appeals and 51

corruption" are the main reasons for a narrow tax base in

Dhaka city. Moreover, assessments generally lag from five to 52

eight years. In the "absence of assessors, the assessment is

totally based on guess and a collusion between landlord tenant 53

and assessor is very common".

Table=- 5.8

Property Tax Collection Efficiency~ Dhaka Municipal Corporation

Year Total Demand

<TD>

1986-87 350.2

1987-88 368.5

1988-89 424.2

Total Collection

<TC>

205.8

212.4

232.3

<million Takka)

Collection Efficiency Ratio <TC:TD>

0.59

0.58

0.55

Source: Data from the Chief Revenue Officer, DMC, Dhaka, 1990.

In terms of resource utlisation there exists a low

proportion of resource availability under the head of

operational expenditure. The civic authorities of Dhaka city,

50. N. Islam, et al., n.39, p.5.

51. Ibid., pp.68-69.

52. United Nations, n.7, p.32.

53. N. Islam, et al., n.39, p.68.

203

"gives high priority to capital projects rather than to the more 54

basic urban services". A high proportion of the revenue

receipts - nearly two-thirds, are transferred from the revenue

account, to be utilised for the capital projects and only 30-35

per cent of the revenue receipt is utilized for the performance

of the day to day urban functions .

It is evident from the foregoing analysis of the budget of

Dhaka city that, a low proportion of available revenue resource

is utilized for the improvement of the day to day urban

services. Wrong priorities of investment and an overal 1

financial mismanagement are at the root of a financial crisis in

Dhaka city.

5.5.7 Local Power Structure: Political Parties and Pressure Groups

The special purpose authorities and the developmental

bodies in Dhaka city are partly or fully controlled by the

government. The National Government plays a dominant role in

Dhaka Municipal affairs and in the performance of urban

functions. It has been observed that the national government to

a large extent influences the Dhaka Municipal Corporation's

decisions over urban issues and it controls municipal politics,

which is the support base of national politics.

Dhaka city being the locus of national politics, many

urban issues become politicised. Various political parties and

pressure groups are at work in the city's political structure.

54. United Nations, n.7, p.31.

204

However, in the political structure of Bangladesh in general

and Dhaka city in particular, "it is the bureaucratic structure

which is predominantly involved than any othe~ structure". 55

The prominent political parties involved in Dhaka's politics

include the ruling Jatiya Party, Bangladesh National Party

< BNP >, Awami League <AL>, Bangladesh Community Party, Jatiya

Samajtantrik Dal and so forth.

There are a few associational interest groups in Dhaka

city which are weak and poorly organised. "Most of the

organisations are either government sponsored or have flourished

under the governmental patronage". 56

Among the organisational pressure groups, commercial

organisations such as Chambers of Commerce and Industry and

other trade associations, social welfare and religious bodies,

play a role in Dhaka's politics. Besides, there are a number of

organised and unorganised trade unions and employee associations

present in the city. For example, in the transport sector, there

are very active associations such as Dhaka Sarak Paribahan

Sami ti, Biplabi Sarak Paripahan Sramik fedration, Dhaka

Metropolitan Rickshaw Pullers-owners Association etc. and the

Labour unions for example, Sramik Karmachari Oikya Parishad.

They a II frequently join hands with the political parties

against the government and its decisions over the urban and

national issues.

55. N. Abedin, Modernising NIPA, 1973>.

56. I bid.

Agitational politics is typical in Dhaka city.

Local Administration and Politics in Societies: Bangladesh and Pakistan <Dhaka,

205

In the urban planning and development front, the role of

amenity and development interest groups such as property

developers, builders and real estate agents etc. are

insignificant in the city. However, in recent years, many

individual entrpreneurs have prompted to development of high

rise buidlings, resulting in an increased number of real 57

estate

companies in the city.

With a rapid urban growth, lack of integrated

institutional framework, poor performance of the civic

authorities and fiscal mismanagements, the city of Dhaka faces

serious urban problems leading to chaos and disorder.

from such a situation, socio-political conflicts,

and violence are rooted in the structure of the city.

Dhaka, with four century old history, s t i l 1

Resulting

instability

"lacks the 58

cosmopolitan and many modernization characteristics". With a

low percapita tax resource and economic base, coupled with a high

proportion of landless, jobless and homeless population, the city

of Dhaka, remains the most atypical mega city in the world.

57. The Bangladesh Observer, 10 April 1987, p.5.

58. United Nations, n.7, p.38.

206