chapter 4The Research Process: An Overview

>IearningobjectivesAfter reading this chapter, you should understand ...

Research is decision- and dilemma-centered.

2 The clarified research question is the result of careful exploration and analysis and sets the direction for the researchproject.

3 How value assessments and budgeting influence the process for proposing research and, ultimately, researchdesign.

4 W~lat is included in research design, data collection, data analysis, and reporting.

5 Research process problems to avoid.

>bringingresearchtolife Mind~

We rejoin Henry and Associates' Jason Henry as he works on the MindWriter CompleteCarecustomer satisfaction project. At this stage in the MindWriter research process, Jason Henry's

task is to help MindWriter's project director, Myra Wines, define the correct information to collect..Jason Henry's partner Sara Arens, Henry, and Wines have just spent the day at the CompleteCare

facility in Austin and with other MindWriter managers who are influential to CompleteCare'ssuccess. They spent part of their time with Gracie Uhura, MindWriter's marketing manager.

>;;~:::(~. !:~~:g:~~{}( :,..::,.::....;.~....:..~.•....~..:~,:..?..,:.~..;.~:~:.~..,'.:.:,~,·:".1.~~..' ..:' ...",';.:...' ...,i-.•,:!""..~....:-,~.·.•~.:..~•••;.~.·.i...." ., .. ::.,'(." <':...>~:/f(::~J.:;:\~~-'t ,',' _7_'_,-~~- ','; On the return flight JromAustiii';'q~"'f: .. :,!1[y":i!n.

!~:i~1~r;!~&:e,r:!~~~i't§¥;~~~l\~i{\i;!:1<!"'~""r. . "There are: going' to be a feW:pr.9blems;", 4isi:tg't~s:,ot!i$'~lY

J;'~"Cie wants the sun,",e';'~nd:: ~~6;s~e: i'~i~~'lW~~~L!",""~!,,'tW,~iI;;W¥I~<;:o"vhat,like most managers, wants to know the demographic a dealer tOldthem?'A~iI()(&'ttidyor~f~w hundred

~~:~~E~!:~~~:;~~~;;=~;~~~~~~1!!t~~;~tll'l;lij/"And your point is?" asks Myra. firsthand experience' witl{;;>Ml:W;~i' ""';."

lin~:~:U :~nG~:;~o::=::~~~P ~:tr :~:wth~::tt;= deP<~~:~~~'tout OfilieCQ~pi~;j;]1

and Gracie call justify asking all these questions. They .helped 'me understand tb.e'coiit~xf~

:;:Ue:c;::;t c:s!:~;~:'d";; :o::~;~:o:~~:;:;:ii:~f(~fi\~iil~explain the justification for needing the information,. the.service department?" ' .. '

.. if one of you can't establish that the dollar benefit of 'Jasb~'dig~' into.ihis bri~f~llS~-:''!~~i:.. ',[tck:!'~,.,'knowing is at least as great as the dollar cost.of finding small sheaf of photocopies. "yes:aM';'S~t5t,,:'p.lf9~.

,

..

~~:, ..~_,.~.:,~,".;...·.,'.•.'.'.,t.,.,,:.,:>, •. ,::.:.'.: .• ~,.; .. ,.:.,., :~;: ,~estionwillgetstruck fromthe developing~;r~j~~~~:;r.:~ii~;~'C;:;'4°;f:;~J~¥~~~'""","Is there no way we can justify knowing everything ·person-Vi-ites;'MyMindWriter· was' B~qii:'~~'qi~~dcir""

,

t'~j~':""':':_:""""~:;':'" . Gracie wants to know?" inquires Myra.onarrival. .Lcouldnot believe its conditiori~he~ji."Wecan do a pilot study by survey of a few hundred. unpacked it.' • And' here, 'The servic~t~chhiGi~iiS'

~~t\customers and-see if the ethnic background, or the~eein.~(rto be unabletounderstandmycoilipliti~i,k~i'

It:0;salary level, or any other.item that Gracie cares aboutiS,~~c~the¥und~~~}9qdiJ, they perform~dt~~~i~!~

~,,,,",,:~.,,,,,,,,::,'."','..':'_.'''':'''''''.y'_'~'~'.:''..'~,'.,....,:.-,'.;.. ,:::.',..:: •..,.: ..:..~".:.::'.• ;.' ',.'.:.: .• '~goodjndicaiotbfs~tiifaction, willingness to m~et. '. repairs',.' You; @dJwiU collaborate t9P:QiPgqwp;;;: repeat purChase: postpurch~se service satisfactio~:r ~~d''. th~s~:~;';d~ossibly do~~ris more like th~m,; 16 a c~tipfe~ .'.so forth. If it is, maybe more extensive measurement Of representative questions that can be pilot-tested'

i can be justified." for clarity, consistency, and representativeness. You

~.....r.~.~._.".:,.. ·,....i_:.-.:.'.: .. ,,-.:~:. "So you feel we need to propose an exploratory don't want MindWriter to pay for everything Grade=. study to whittle down the information to critical items, saYSS?'~ wants, just what she wants that has a payoff'

~j followed by a larger study."'" and is researchable."

80 e-part I Introduction to Business Research

> The Research Process

r1r;

fi

f

Writers usually treat the research task as a sequential process involving several clearly defined steps.No one claims that research requires completion of each step before going to the next. Recycling,circumventing, and skipping occur. Some steps are begun out of sequence, some are carried outsimultaneously, and some may be omitted. Despite these variations, the idea of a sequence is useful fordeveloping a project and for keeping the project orderly as it unfolds.

Exhibit 4-1 models the sequence of the research process. We refer to it often as we discuss each stepin subsequent chapters. Our discussion of the questions that guide project planning and data gathering

>Exhibit 4-1 The Research Process

Research DesignStrategy

(type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment)

Data Collection. Design

SamplingDesign

Data Collection & Preparation

Data Analysis & Interpretation

Q)Cl Chapters 2-5C1l-(J)

~

tC\IQ)ClC1l Appendix A-(J)

1r Chapters 6-14

(')

Q)ClC1l-(J)

!t-=tQ)Clet!ent Chapter 15•It)Q)Clro•... Chapters 16-19ent••(£J

ClCl Chapters 20-21(1l•...

(J)

t

--e-chapter 4 The Research Process: An Overview 81

is incorporated into the model (see the elements within the pyramid in Exhibit 4-1). Exhibit 4-1 alsoorganizes this chapter and introduces the remainder of the book.

The research process begins much as the vignette suggests. A management dilemma triggersthe need for a decision. For MindWriter, a growing number of complaints about postpurchase ser-V ice started [he process. In other situations, a controversy arises, a major commitment of resourcesis called for, or conditions in the environment signal the need for a decision. For MindWriter,the critical event could have been the introduction by a competitor ofnew technology that would"revolutionize the processing speed of laptops. Such events cause managers to reconsider theirpurposes or objectives, define a problem for solution, or develop strategies for solutions they haveidentified.

In our view of the research "process, the management question-its origin, selection,sfatement,exploration, and refinement-is the critical activity in the sequence. Throughout the chapter we em-phasize problem-related steps. A familiar quotation from Albert Einstein, no less apt today than whenit as written, supports this view:

The formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathemati-calor experimental skill, To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle requirescreative imagination and marks real advance in science, 1

Whether the researcher is involved in basic or applied research, a thorough understanding of the man-agement question is fundamental to success in the research enterprise.

:>,1Stage 1: Clarifying the Research QuestionA useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts the researchand then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down the original question into morespecific ones, You can think of the outcome of this process as the management-research questionJrierarchy. Exhibit 4-2 follows the MindWriter example through the process.

The process begins at the most general level with the management dilemma. This is usually asymptom of an actual problem, such as:

Rising costs.The discovery of an expensive chemical compound that would increase the efficacy of

Ia drug,

" Increasing tenant move-cuts from an apartment complex.o Declining sales.

" Increasing employee turnover in a restaurant.

A larger number of product defects during the manufacture of an automobile.An increasing number of letters and phone complaints about postpurchase service (as inMindWriter; see Exhibit 4-2).

The management dilemma call also be triggereel by an early signal of an opportunity or grow-ing evidence that a. fad may be gaining staying power-like the growing interest in hybrid cars-indicated by the number of broadcast news segments and print stories over an extended period oftime.

Identifying management dilemmas is rarely difficult (unless the organization fails to track its per-formance factors-like sales, profits, employee turnover, manufacturing output and defects, on-timedeliveries, customer satisfaction, etc.). However, choosing one dilemma on which to focus may bedifficult. Choosing incorrectly will direct valuable resources (time, manpower, money, and equipment)Oil a path that may not provide critical decision-making information (the purpose of good research). Asa manager, only practice makes you proficjenr. For new managers, or established managers facing newre'tponsibilities, developing several management-research question hierarchies, each starting with adi11'ferent dilemma, will assi:-;t in the choice process. lnall tigul'cs related to the research process model,in this and subsequent chapters, we use an inverted pyramid to represent the management-researchquestion hierarchy.

,132 »part I Introductionto BusinessResearch

t Exhibit 4-2 Formulating the Research Question for MindWriferTo move from the management dilemma 10the management question and subsequent research questions takes exploratory research.Such research may include examining previous studies, reviewing published studies and organizational records, and interviewing expertsr Inlormallon galekeepers

\~fif,':~'iiJj[F;,\i""o~;:;,,-·.·_: _' . --,

r------' -,·.!:jDi

1a Exploration

An increasing number of lettersand phone complaints about

postpurchase service.

Stage~: Post-Austin:Brainstorming & companyletters .1. Possible problems:

(a) Employee shortages(b) Tech-line operator training(c) Uneven courier performance(d) Parts shortages(e) Inconsistent repair servicing(I) Product darnaqe during repair(g) Product damage during

shipping(h) Packaging and handling

problems

Stage 1: Pre-Austin1. PC magazines: annua.lsurvey

of service, repair, & techsupport

2. Published customersatisfaction cornpariscns '

Stage 2: Austin Meeting1. Production: 5,OOO/mo.2. Distribution through computer

superstores and independentmail order eo.

3. Custom Care process~----------------------~

What should be done to improvethe CompleteCare program for

MindWriter product repairsand servicing?

2a ExplorationInterviews with

• Service manager• Call center manager• Independent package

company accountexecutive

• Should the tech-support operator begiven more intensive training?

• Should ABC Courier Service bereplaced by an air-transport service?

• Should the repair diagnostic andrepair sequencing operations bemodified?

• Should the return packaging bemodified to include premolded rigidfoam inserts, or c.onforming-expandingfoam protection?

• Should metropolitan repair centersbe established to complementor replace in-factory repair facilities?

»chapter 4 The ResearchProcess: An Overview 81

is incorporated into the model (see the elements within the pyramid in Exhibit 4-1). Exhibit 4-1 alsoorganizes this chapter and introduces the remainder of the book.

I The research process begins much as the vignette suggests. A management dilemma triggersrhe need for a decision. For MindWriter, a growing number of complaints about postpurchase ser--vice started the process. In other situations, a controversy arises, a major commitment of resourcesis called for, or conditions in the environment signal the need for a decision. For MindWriter,the critical event could have been the introduction by a competitor of new technology that wouldr volutionize the processing speed of laptops. Such events cause managers to reconsider theirpurposes or objecti ves, define a problem for solution, or develop strategies for solutions they havejqentified.

In our view of the research process, the management question-its origin, selection, statement,eJploration, and refinement-is the critical activity in the sequence. Throughout the chapter we em-pl\asize problem-related steps. A familiar quotation from Albert Einstein, no less apt today than whenit ~as written, supports this view:

The formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathemati-calor experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle requirescreative imagination and marks real advance in science.' I

Whether the researcher is involved in basic or applied research, a thorough understanding of the man-agement question is fundamental to success in the research enterprise.

:::1. Stage 1: Clarifying the Research QuestionA useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts the researchand then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down the original question into morespecific ones. You can think of the outcome of this process as the management-research questionJuerarchy. Exhibit 4-2 follows the MindWriter example through the process.

The process begins at the most general level with the management dilemma. This is usually as mptom of an actual problem, such as:

c Rising costs .

.o The discovery of an expensive chemical compound that would increase the efficacy ofa drug.

" Increasing tenant move-cuts from an apartment complex.o Declining sales.c Increasing employee turnover in a restaurant.

A larger number of product defects during the manufacture of an automobile.An increasing number of letters and phone complaints about postpurchase service (as inMindWriter; see Exhibit 4-2).

The management dilemma can also be triggered by an early signal of an opportunity or grow-ing evidence that a fad may be gaining staying power-like the growing interest in hybrid cars-indicated by the number of broadcast news segments and print stories over an extended period oftime.

Identifying management dilemmas is rarely difficult (unless the organization fails to track its per-formance factors-like sales, profits, employee turnover, manufacturing output and defects, on-timedeliveries, customer satisfaction, etc.). However, choosing one dilemma on which to focus may bedifficult, Choosing incorrectly will direct valuable resources (time, manpower, money, and equipment)on a path that may not provide critical decision-making information (the purpose of good research). Asa manager, only practice makes you proficient. For new managers, or established managers facing newresponsibilities, developing several management-research question hierarchies, each starting with adinerent dilemma, will assist in the choice process. Inall figures related to the research process model,in this and subsequent chapters, we use an inverted pyramid to represent the management-research

~ question hierarchy.

l

82 s-part I Introduction to Business Researchr

>Exhibit 4-2 Formulating the Research Question for MindWriterTo move from the management dilemma to the management question and subsequent research questions takes exploratory research.Such research may include examining previous studies, reviewing published studies and organizational records, and interviewing expertsor information gatekeepers.

An increasing number of lettersand phone complaints about

postpurchase service.

1a Exploration

What should be done to improvethe CompleteCare program for

MindWriter product repairsand servicing?

.Stage 3: Post-Austin: "Brainstorming &. compa"r:»Y"letters"1. Possible problems: "."

(a) Employee shortages. (b) Tech-lin~ operator training(c) Uneven courier performance(d) Parts shortages(e) Inconsistent repair servicing(fj Product damaqe during repair(9) Product damage during

shipping(h) Packaging and handling

problems

2a ExplorationInterviews with

• Service manager• Call center manager• Independent package

company accountexecutive

Stage 1: pOre-Austin1. -PC magazines: annual survey

of service, repair, & techsupport

2. Published customersatisfaction comparisons"

Stage 2: Austin Meeting1. Production: 5;OOO/mo.2. Distribution through computer

superstores and independentmail order eo.

3. Cus\omCare process~----------------------~

• Should the tech-support operator begiven more intensive training?

• Should ABC Courier Service bereplaced by an air-transport service?

• Should the repair diagnostic andrepair sequencing operations bemodified?

• Should the return packaging bemodified to include premolded rigidfoam inserts, or conforming-expandingfoam protection?

• Should metropolitan repair centersbe established to complementor replace in-factory repair facilities?

»chapter 4 The Research Process: An Overview 83

According to the US. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 32.6 percent

of teens nationwide worked during the summer of 2008, another

year of decreased participation in the labor force. With the econ-

omy in recession, it's no wonder that teen employment is downalong with overall employment.

For the summer of 2008, according to the Bureau of Labor

Statistics, teens had an unemployment rate of 23.6 percent, an

increase of more than 9 percent from just two years ago andalmost three times the unemployment rate for adults. Economiststhink that teen unemployment may be significantly understated

by the number of teens who felt locked out of the job market anddid not actively seek employment.

Let's assume you are a manager of an organization that is

questioning whether it should hire teen workers. A study spon-

sored by The Conference Board, Partnership for 21 st Century

Skills, Society for Human Resource Management, and Corpo-

rate Voices for Working Families, "Are They Really Ready to

Work?" reports the opinions of more than 400 U.S. executives

and human resource professions. Their unfavorable opinion wasthat "far too many young people are inadequately prepared to besuccessful in the workplace." Assessing teens with a WorkforceReadiness Report Card, "10 skills that a majority of employer

respondents rate as 'very important' to workforce success are

on the Deficiency List." The report further defines the problem of

teen workplace skills: "At the high school level, well over one-half

of new entrants are deficiently prepared in the most important

skills-Oral and Written Communications, Professionalism/VVork

Ethic, and Critical Thinking/Problem Solving."You remember how important work was in building self-

confidence and independence, so you don't want to write off

all teens, but you are also concerned that supporting a "hire

teens" initiative might be counter-productive to your own job

advancement if the study proves to be true. What research

could you do to help formulate your recommendation on

whether your organization should or should not hire teen

workers?

www.bls.gov

Subsequent stages of the hierarchy take the manager and his or her research collaborator throughvarious brainstorming and exploratory research exercises to define the following:

Management question-a restatement of the manager's dilemma(s) in question form.»: Research questions-the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the

question(s) that focuses the researcher's attention.

o Investigative questions-questions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily answer theI

research question; what the manager feels he or she needs to know to arrive at a conclusionabout the management dilemma.

" Measurement questions-What participants in research are asked or what specifically isobserved in a research study.

The definition of the management question sets the research task. A poorly defined managementquestion will misdirect research efforts. In Chapter S we explore this critical stage in more detail in ourt""h to clarify the research question

84 »part I Introduction to Business Research

,t

i't

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), a health care

philanthropy, sponsors the Covering Kids initiative for one rea-son: Millions of children in low- to moderate-income families who

are eligible for the State Children's Health Insurance Program(SCHIP) are not enrolled, RWJF initially became involved because

it was concemed that the federal government and the states

were not actively or effectively publicizing Medicaid and SCHIP,

The initial goal of RWJF's involvement was to make eligible fami-

lies aware of SCHIP and Medicaid and encourage enrollment

To this end, RWJF obtained the services of advertising agencyGMMB, research firm Wirthlin Worldwide, and veteran social

marketer Elaine Bratic Arkin.The Foundation initially asked, "What must be done to en-

roll the largest percentage of eligible children in Medicaid andSCHIP?" Before GMMB could move forward, the team needed

to determine whether the communication program needed to

correct misconceptions, communicate benefits, overcome per-

ceived process complexities, or do some combination of these,

Early exploratory research sought answers to "What keeps

eligible families from taking advantage of the prescription and

doctor-visit programs of SCHIP and Medicaid?" The team alsoasked, "Is a negative stigma attached to participation in gov-

ernment health care programs?" When research indicated theanswer to this question was "No, "subsequent efforts focused

'on identifying other critical factors that discouraged families from

enrolling, After research revealed that most wor1king parents did

not realize their children were eligible for a govemment program,

the management question was refined to "What must be com-

municated to parents of eligible children to get them to enroll

their children in these programs?"

Ultimately a creative combination of research design and data

analysis revealed: (1) the winning communications framewor1k:

• DOCTOR '/ISITS • HOSP;'''-U;:ATION

• PR~SCRIPTIONS. • CTl-\~~ 8ENEflrs

Ask about the low-cost or free health care coverageprograms in your state.

Being a good parent means raising happy, healthy Children,

and enrolling a program offering low-cost or free health care is

a smart choice for families, and (2) every communication must

give working parents an easy, foolproof way to determine if their

children are eligible while reinforcing the logic that making the

call to enroll their children would address parents' innate desire

to be good parents,

www.wirthlin.com; www.gmmb.com; www.rwjf.org

> Stage 2:,Proposinq F«esearchR ",..S #''1 !If'''"'' R"< ~ 3~,R. 6"'''~::Ilt i,.-~n -:;;1\I!ptF~ !r~1I i ;r,H n",,,it!1;.,,v~.\lJ ~bljIi ~..o~ ff"l~It s» ~1 {[J1 I!. ti {J iJ U (L'ltJ [1\~;.•.L r):~~.A~\0~;~ I!;;J Q",-:::.-;,)

General notions about research budgets have a tendency to single out data collection as the most costlyactivity. Data collection requires substantial resources but perhaps less of the budget than clients expect.Employees must be paid, training and travel must be provided, and other expenses incurred must bepaid; but this phase of the project often takes no more than one-third of the total research budget. Thegeographic scope and the number of observations required do affect the cost, but much of the cost isrelatively independent of the size of the data-gathering effort. Thus, a guide might be that (I) projectplanning; (2) data gathering; and (3) analysis, interpretation, and reporting each shares about equallyin the budget.

»chapter 4 The Research Process: An Overview

d> Exhibit 4-3 Proposing Research

c.2U;m::J0-

m(j)

'>ma:

Cost exceedsvalue

Rejected

Execute'Research Design

'Withoutbudgetary approval, many research efforts are terminated for lack of resources (see,.E.~hibit 4-3). A'budget may require significant development and documentation as in grant and contract''research, or-it may require less attention as in some in-house projects or investigations funded out of theresearcher's own resources. The researcher who seeks funding must be able not only to persuasivelyjustify the costs of the project but also to identify the sources and methods of funding. One authoridentifies three types of budgets in organizations where research is purchased and cost containment iscrucial:

" Rule-of-thumb budgeting involves taking a fixed percentage of some criterion. For example, apercentage of the prior year's sales revenues may be the basis for determining the marketingresearch budget for a manufacturer.

o Departmental or functional area budgeting allocates a portion of total expenditures in the unitto research activities. Government agencies, not-far-profits, and the private sector alike willfrequently manage research activities out of functional budgets. Units such as human resources,marketing, or engineering then have the authority to approve their own projects,

r. Task budgeting selects specific research projects to support on an ad hoc basis. This type is theleast proactive but does permit definitive cost-benefit analysis.'

Valuing Research InformationThere is a great deal of interplay between budgeting and value assessment in any management decisionto conduct research. An appropriate research study should help managers avoid losses and increasesales or profits; otherwise, research can be wasteful. The decision maker wants a firm cost estimate fora project and1an equally precise assurance that useful information will result from the study. Even ifthF researcher can give good cost and information estimates, the managers still must judge whether thebenefits outweigh the costs.

85

86 »part I Introduction to Business Research

Conceptually, the value of applied research is not difficult to determine. In a business situation, theresearch should produce added revenues or reduce expenses in much the same way as any other inves t-ment of resources. One source suggests that the value of research information may be judged in termsof "the difference between the result of decisions made with the information and the result that wouldbe made without it.'? While such a criterion is simple to state, its actual application presents difficu I tmeasurement problems.

Evaluation Methods

Ex Post Facto Evaluation If there is any measurement of the value of research, it is usually anafter-the-fact event. Twedt reports on one such effort, an evaluation of marketing research done at amajor corporation.' He secured "an objective estimate of the contribution of each project to corporateprofitability." He reports that most studies were intended to help management determine which one oftwo (or more) alternatives was preferable. He guesses that in 60 percent of the decision situations, thecorrect decision would have been made without the benefit of the research linformation. In the remain-ing 40 percent of the cases, the research led to the correct decision. Using these data, he estimates thatthe return on investment in marketing research in this company was 3.5 times for the year studied.However, he acknowledges the return-on-investment figure was inflated because only the direct re-search costs were included.

This effort at cost-benefit analysis is commendable even though the results come too late to guide acurrent research decision. Such analysis may sharpen the manager's ability to make judgments aboutfuture research proposals. However, the critical problem remains, that of project evaluation before thestudy is done.

Prior or Interim Evaluation A proposal to conducta thorough management audit of operationsin a company may be a worthy one, but neither its costs nor its benefits are easily estimated in advance.Such projects are sufficiently unique that managerial experience seldom provides much aid in evaluat-ing such a proposal. But even in these situations, managers can make some useful judgments. Theymay determine that a management audit is needed because the company is in dire straits and manage-ment does not understand the scope of its problems. The management information need may be so greatas to ensure that the research is approved. In such cases; managers may decide to control the researchexpenditure risk by doing a study in stages. They can then review costs and benefits at the end of eachstage and give or withhold further authorization.

Option Analysis Some progress has been made in the development of methods for assessing thevalue of research when management has a choice between well-defined options. Managers can conducta formal analysis with each alternative judged in terms of estimated costs and associated benefits andwith managerial judgment playing a major role.

If the research design can be stated clearly, one can' estimate an approximate cost. The critical taskis to quantify the benefits from the research. At best, estimates of benefits are crude and largely reflectan orderly way to estimate outcomes under uncertain conditions. To illustrate how the contribution ofresearch is evaluated in such a decision situation, we must digress briefly injto the rudiments of decisiontheory.

Decision Theory When there are alternatives from which to choose, a rational way to approachthe decision is to try to assess the outcomes of each action. The case of two choices will be discussedhere, although the same approach can be used with more than two choices.

Two possible actions (A, and A2) may represent two different ways to organize a company, pro-vide financing, produce a product, and so forth. The manager chooses the action that affords thebest outcome-the action choice that meets or exceeds whatever criteria are established for judgingalternatives. Each criterion is a combination of a decision rule and a decision variable. The deci-sion variable might be "direct dollar savings," "contribution to overhead and profits," "time requiredfor completion of the project," and so forth. For MindWriter, the decision variable might be numberof postservicecomplaints or the level of postservice satisfaction. Usually the decision variable is

"!IIIII!

JI!

»chapter 4 The Research Process: An Overview 87

expressed in dollars, representing sales, costs, some form of profits or contribution, or some otherquantifiable measure. The decision rule may be "choose the course of action with the lowest losspossibility" or perhaps "choose the alternative that provides the greatest annual net profit." ForMindWriter, the decision rule might be "choose the alternative that provides the highest level ofpostservice satisfaction."

The alternative selected (AI versus Az) depends on the decision variable chosen and the decisionrule used. The evaluation of alternatives requires that (I) each alternative is explicitly stated, (2) a deci-sion variable is defined by an outcome that may be measured, and (3) a decision rule is determined bywhich outcomes may be compared.

IThe Research ProposalExhibit 4-1 depicts the research proposal as an activity that incorporates decisions made during earlyproject planning phases of the study, including the management-research question hierarchy and ex-ploration. The proposal thus incorporates the choices the investigator makes in the preliminary steps,as depicted in Exhibit 4-3.

A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. This is especially truF if anoutside research supplier will be contracted to conduct the research. The written proposal ensuresthat the parties concur on the project's purpose, the proposed methods of investigation, the extent ofanalysis, and the timing of each phase as well as of delivery of results. Budgets are spelled out, as

I

are other responsibilities and obligations. The proposal may serve the purpose of a legally bindingcontract.

A research proposal also may be oral, wherein all aspects of the research are discussed but notcodified in writing. This is more likely when a manager directs his or her own research or the researchactivities of subordinates. We describe detailed research proposals in Appendix A, and you will find asample proposal on the text website.

~

.. ~.rr~fif1";'i>.o.;;v ~,€21Y ~

;;-,.,..._i

:~~esearch3~Designing the Research ProjectDesiqn

The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and answering questions. Selecting adesign may be complicated by the availability of a large variety of methods, techniques, procedures,protocols, and sampling plans. For example, you may decide on a secondary data study, case study,survey, experiment, or simulation. If a survey is selected, should it be administered by mail, computer,telephone, the Internet, or personal interview? Should all relevant data be collected at one time or atregular intervals? What kind of structure will the questionnaire or interview guide possess? What ques-tion wording should be employed? Should the responses be scaled or open-ended? How will reliabilityand validity be achieved? Will characteristics of the interviewer influence responses to the measure-ment questions? What kind of training should the data collectors receive? Is a sample or a census tobe taken? What types of sampling should be considered? These questions represent only a few of thedecisions that have to be made when just one method is chosen.

Although selecting an appropriate design may be complicated by this range of options, the creativeresearcher actually benefits from this confusing array of options. The numerous combinations spawnedby the abundance of.tools may be used to construct alternative perspectives on the same problem. Bycreating a design using diverse methodologies, researchers are able to achieve greater insight thanif they followed the most frequently used method or- the method receiving the most media attention.Although pursuing research on a single research problem from a multimethod, multi study strategy isnot currently the norm, such designs are getting increasing attention from researchers and winning

umerous industry awards for effectiveness. The ad~antages of several competing designs should be. Iconsidered before settling on a final one.

88 »part I Introductionto BusinessResearch

e-plcprofileKraft research won well-deserved recognition for research that helped diagnose and improve sales of sliced cheese by11.8 percent with a 14.5 percent increase in base volume. Kraft started by sending ethnographers from Strategic Frame-

.working to interview moms aged 25 to 64 who were fixing sandwiches in' their kitchens. Focus groups then reinforced that.rnoms feel good about giving their kids cheese because of its nutritional value, but that momswould choose' a lower-pricedcheese, even though their kids preferred Kraft. A subsequent phone survey by Market.Facts revealed that moms would buythe pricier Kraft slices due to its extra calcium. Two TV commercials were tested 'using the "qood-taste-plus-the-calciurn-they-need" message. The tests revealed that the commercial showing kids scarfing down thei gooey sandwiches wherethe Dairy Fairy delivered the calcium message outperformed a more serious commercial with the same message. Subse-

"quent copy-testing research by Millward Brown Group revealed that the dual message {taste-preferred/calcium} was heard.www.kratt.com: ~VVtfVtJ~strategicframe'.'\forksng~com; \ll/lf'JV'J.matketfacts.conl; \ViM\t\f.rnifhl\rardbrQwn~com

Jason's preference for MindWriter is to collect as much information as possible from an explorationof company records, interviews with company managers of various departments, and multiple phonesurveys with CompleteCare service program users. Financial constraints, however, might force Mind-Writer to substitute a less expensive methodology: a self-administered study in the form of a postcardsent to each CompleteCare program user with his or her returned laptop, followed by phone contactwith those who don't return the postcard.

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I

Another step in planning the research project is to identify the target population (those people, events,or records that contain the desired information and can answer the measurement questions) and thendetermine whether a sample or a census is desired. Taking a census requires that the researcher examineor count all elements in the target population. A sample examines a portion of the target population, andthe portion must be carefully selected to represent that population. If sampling is chosen, the researchermust determine which and how many people to interview, which and how many events to observe, orwhich and how many records to inspect. When researchers undertake sampling studies, they are inter-ested in estimating one or more population values (such as the percent of satisfied service customerswho will buy new MindWriter laptops when the need arises) and/or testing one or more statisticalhypotheses (e.g., that highly satisfied CompleteCare service customers will be far more likely to repur-

chase the MindWriter brand of laptops).

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schapter 4 The ResearchProcess: An Overview

If a study's objective is to examine the attitudes of U.S. automobile assemblers about quality im-provement, the population may be defined as the entire adult population of auto assemblers employedby the auto industry in the United States. Definition of the terms adult and assembler and the relevantj ob descriptions included under "assembly" and "auto industry" may further limit the population understudy. The investigator may also want to restrict the research to readily identifiable companies in themarket, vehicle types, or assembly processes.

The sampling process must then give every person within the target population a known nonzeroc ance of selection if probability sampling is used. If there is no feasible alternative, a non probabilityapproach may be used. Jason knows that his target population comprises MindWriter customers whohave firsthand experience with the CompleteCare program. Given that a list of CompleteCare programtrsers (a sample frame) is readily available each month, a probability sample is feasible.

~FHot TestingT e data-gathering phase of the research process typically begins with pilot testing. Pilot testing maybe skipped when the researcher tries to condense the project time frame.

A pilot test is conducted to detect weaknesses in design and instrumentation and to provide proxydata for selection of a probability sample. It should, therefore, draw subjects from the target populationand simulate the procedures and protocols that have been designated for data collection. If the study isa survey to be executed by mail, the pilot questionnaire should be mailed. If the design calls for obser-vation by an unobtrusive researcher, this behavior should be practiced. The size of the pilot group mayrange from 25 to 100 subjects, depending on the method to be tested, but the respondents do not haveto be statistically selected. In very small populations or special applications, pilot testing runs the riskof exhausting the supply of respondents and sensitizing them to the purpose of the study. This risk isgenerally overshadowed by the improvements made to the design by a trial run.

There are a number of variations on pilot testing. Some of them are intentionally restricted to datacollection activities. One form, pretesting, may rely on colleagues, respondent surrogates, or actualrespondents to' refine a measuring instrument. This important activity has saved countless surveystudies from disaster by using the suggestions of the respondents to identify and change confusing,awkward, or offensive questions and techniques. One interview study was designed by a group of col-lege professors for EducTV, an educational television consortium. In the pilot test, they discoveredtt/at the wording of nearly two-thirds of the questions was unintelligible to the target group, laterfound to have a median eighth-grade education. The revised instrument used the respondents' lan-guage and was successful. Pretesting may be repeated several times to refine questions, instruments,or procedures.

> Stage 4: Data Colrection and PreparationThe gathering of data may range from a simple observation at one location to a grandiose survey ofmultinational corporations at sites in ciifferent parts of the world. The method selected will largely de-termine how the data are collected. Questionnaires, standardized tests, observational forms, laboratorynotes, and instrument calibration logs are among the devices used to record raw data.

But what are data? One writer defines data as the facts presented to the researcher from the study'Senvironment. First, data may be further characterized by their abstractness, verifiability, elusiveness,and closeness to the phenomenon.' As abstractions, data are more metaphorical than real. For ex-ample, the growth in GDP cannot be observed directly; only the effects of it may be recorded. Second,data are processed by our senses-often limited incomparison to the senses of other living organisms.When sensory experiences consistently produce the same result; our data are said to be trustworthybecause they may be verified. Third, capturing data is elusive, complicated by the speed at whichervents occur and the time-bound nature of observation. Opinions, preferences, and attitudes vary from0fe milieu to another and with the passage of time. For example, attitudes a.bout spending durin~ theIre 1980s differed dramatically one decade later within the same population, due to the sustained

89

90 spart I Introduction to Business Research

prosperity within the final four years of the millennium. Finally, data reflect their truthfulness bycloseness to the phenomena. Secondary data have had at least one level of interpretation insertedbetween the event and its recording. Primary data are sought for their proximity to the truth andcontrol over error. These cautions remind us to use care in designing data collection procedures andgeneralizing from results.

Data are edited to ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions. In the case ofsurvey methods, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear andinappropriate responses. Edited data are then put into a form that makes analysis possible. Because itis impractical to place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses toa more manageable system for storage and future processing. The codes follow various decision rulesthat the researcher has devised to assist with sorting, tabulating, and analyzing. Personal computershave made it possible to merge editing, coding, and data entry into fewer steps even when the finalanalysis may be run on a larger system.

> Stage 5: Data Analysis and InterpretationManagers need information, not raw data. Researchers generate information by analyzing data after itscollection. Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developingsummaries, looking for patterns, and applying statistical techniques. Scaled responses on question-naires and experimental instruments often require the analyst to derive various functions, as well as toexplore relationships among variables. Further, researchers must interpret these findings in light of theclient's research question or determine if the results are consistent with their hypotheses and theories.Increasingly, managers are asking research specialists to make recommendations based on their inter-pretation of the data.

A modest example involves a market research firm that polls 2,000 people from its target populationfor a new generation of wallet-sized portable telephones. Each respondent will be asked four questions:

1. "Do you prefer the convenience of Pocket-Phone over existing cellular telephones?"

2. "Are there transmission problems with Pocket-Phone?"3. "Is Pocket-Phone better suited to worldwide transmission than your existing cellular phone?"4. "Would cost alone persuade you to purchase Pocket-Phone'?"

The answers will produce 8,000 pieces of raw data. Reducing the data to a workable size will yieldeight statistics: the percentage of yes and no answers to each question. When a half-dozen demographicquestions about the respondents are added, the total amount of data easily triples. If the researcherscaled the four key questions rather than eliciting yes-no responses, the analysis would likely requiremore powerful statistical analysis than summarization.

> Stage 6~Reporting the Results

49Finally, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to the man-ager for the intended purpose of decision making. The researcher adjusts the style and organization of

the report according to the target audience, the occasion,and the purpose of the research. The results of applied re-search may be communicated via conference call, letter,written report, oral presentation, or some combination ofany or all of these methods. Reports should be developedfrom the manager's or information user's perspective. The

sophistication of the design and sampling plan or the software used to analyze the data may help toestablish the researcher's credibility, but in the end, the manager's foremost concern is solving themanagement dilemma. Thus, the researcher must accurately assess the manager's needs throughout theresearch process and incorporate this understanding into the final product, the research report.

The percent of hiring managers whodiscovered a lie on a resume.

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»chapter 4 The Research Process: An Overview 91

The management decision maker occasionally shelves the research report without taking action.Inferior communication of results is a primary reason for this outcome. With this possibility in mind, aresearch specialist should strive for:

• Insightful adaptation of the information to the client's needs.c Careful choice of words in crafting interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations.

Occasionally, organizational and environmental forces beyond the researcher's control argue against theimplementation of results. Such was the case in a study conducted for the Association of American Publish-ers, which needed an ad campaign to encourage people to read more books. The project, costing $125,000,found that only 13 percent of Americans buy general-interest books in stores. When the time came to commit$14 million to the campaign to raise book sales, the membership'S interest had faded and the project died."I At a minimum, a research report should contain the following:

• An executive summary consisting of a synopsis of the problem, findings, and recommendaiions.An overview of the research: the problem's background, literature summary, methods and pro-cedures, and conclusions.

A section on implementation strategies for the recommendations.o A technical appendix with all the materials necessary to replicate the project.

> Research Process IssuesAlthough it"is desirable for research to be thoroughlygrounded in management decision priorities, studies canwander off target or be less effective than they should be.

The Pavored-TechruqueSyndromeSome researchers are method-bound. They recast themanagement question so that it is amenable to their fa-vorite methodology-a survey, for example. Othersmight prefer to emphasize the case study, while still oth-ers wouldn't consider either approach. Not all research-ers are comfortable with experimental designs. The pastreluctance of most social scientists to use experimentaldesigns is believed to have retarded the development ofscientific research in that arena.

The availability of technique is an important factorin determining how research will be done or whether agiven study can be done. Persons knowledgeable aboutand skilled in some techniques but not in others are too

.often blinded by their special competencies. Their con-cern for technique dominates the decisions concerningwhat will be studied (both investigative and measurementquestions) and how (research design).

Since the advent of total quality management(TQM), numerous, standardized customer satisfactionquestionnaires have been developed. Jason nl~y havedone studies using these instruments for any number ofhis clients. Myra should be cautious. She must not let~ason steamroll her into the use at" an instrument he hasieveloped for another client, even though he might be

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92 spart I Introduction to Business Research

very persuasive about its success in the past. Such a technique might not be appropriate for Mind-Writer's search to resolve postpurchase service dissatisfaction.

Company Database Strip-MininqThe existence of a pool of information or a database can distract a manager, seemingly reducing theneed for other research. As evidence of the research-as-expense-not-investment mentality mentioned illChapter I, managers frequently hear from superiors, "We should use the information we already havebefore collecting more." Modern management information systems are capable of providing massivevolumes of data. This is not the same as saying modern management information systems providesubstantial knowledge.

Each field in a database was originally created for a specific reason, a reason that mayor maynot be compatible with the management question facing the organization. The MindWriter servicedepartment's database, for example, probably contains several fields about the type of problem, thelocation of the problem, the remedy used to correct the problem, and so forth. Jason and Sara canaccumulate facts concerning the service, and they can match each service problem with a particularMindWriter model and production sequence (from a production database), and, using yet anotherdatabase (generated from warranty registration), they can match each problem to a name and addressof an owner. But, having done all that, they still aren't likely to know how a particular owner useshis or her laptop or how satisfied an owner was with MindWriter's postpurchase service policies andpractices.

Mining management information databases is fashionable, and all types of organizations increas-ingly value the ability to extract meaningful information. While such data mining is often a startingpoint in decision-based research, rarely will such activity answer all management questions related toa particular management dilemma.

Unresearchable QuestionsNot all management questions are researchable, and not all research questions are answerable. To beresearchable, a question must be one for which observation or other data collection can provide theanswer. Many questions cannot be answered on the basis of information alone.

Questions of value and policy often must be weighed in management decisions. In the MetalWorksstudy, management may be asking, "Should we hold out fora liberalization of the seniority rules in ournew labor negotiations?" While information can be brought to bear on thisjquestion, such additionalconsiderations as "fairness to the workers" or "management's right to manage" may he important to thedecision. It may be possible for many of these questions of value to be transformed into questions offact. Concerning "fairness to the workers," one might first gather information from which to estimatethe extent and degree to which workers will be affected by a rule change; then one could gather opin-ion statements by the workers about the fairness of seniority rules. Even so, substantial value elementsremain. Questions left unanswered include "Should we argue for a policy that will adversely affect thesecurity and well-being of older workers who are least equipped to cope with this adversity?" Even ifa question can be answered by facts alone, it might not be researchable because currently accepted andtested procedures or techniques are inadequate.

m-Defined Manaqernent ProblemsSome categories of problems are so complex, value-laden, and bound by constraints that they prove tobe intractable to traditional forms of analysis. These questions have characteristics that are virtually theopposite of those of well-defined problems. One author describes the differences like this:

To the extent that a problem situation evokes a high level of agreement over a specified community of problem solversregarding the referents of the attributes in which it is given. the operations that are permitted. and the consequences of

those operations, it may be termed unambiguous or well defined with respect to that community. On the other hand,

schapter 4 The ResearchProcess: An Overview

to the extent Ihat a problem evokes a highly variable set of responses concerning referents of attributes, permissibleoperations, and their consequences, it may be considered ill-defined or ambiguous with respect to that community.'

Another author points out that ill-defined research questions are least susceptible to attack fromquantitative research methods because such problems have too many interrelated facets for measure-ment to handle with accuracy." Yet another authority suggests there are some research questions ofthis type for which methods do not presently exist or, if the methods were to be invented, still mightnot provide the data necessary to solve thern.? Novice researchers should avoid ill-defined problems.E~en seasoned researchers will want to conduct a thorough exploratory study before proceeding withthe latest approaches.

I

lAolitically Motivated ResearchIt is important to remember that a manager's motivations for seeking research are not alwaysobvious. Managers might express a genuine need for specific information on which to base a deci-sion. This is the ideal scenario for quality research. Sometimes, however, a research study may notreally be desirable but is authorized anyway, chiefly because its presence may win approval for acertain manager's pet idea. At other times, research may be authorized as a measure of personalprotection for a decision maker in case he or she is criticized later. In these less-than-ideal cases,the researcher may find it more difficult to win the manager's support for an appropriate researchdesign.

»summary

Research originates in the decision process. A manager

needs specific information for setting objectives, defin-ing tasks, firiding the best strategy by which to carry

out the tasks, or judging how well the strategy is beingimplemented.

A dilemma-centered emphasis-the problem's origin,

selection, statement, exploration, and refinement-

dominates the sequence of the research process. A

management dilemma can originate in any aspect of an or-

ganization. A decision to do research can be inappropriately

driven by the availability of coveted tools and databases. To

be researchable, a problern must be subject to observation

or other forrns of empirical data collection.

2 How one structures the research question sets the direc-tion for the project. A management problern or opportunitycan be formulated as a hierarchical sequence of questions.

At the most general level is the management dilemma. This

is translated into a management question and then into

a research question-the major objective of the study. In

turn, the research question is further expanded into inves-

tigative questions. These questions represent the various

facets of the problem to be solved, and they influence

research design, including design strategy, data collec-

tion planning, and sampling. At the most specific level are

measurement questions that are answered by respondentsin a surveyor answered about each subject in a[l observa-

I tional study.

Exploration of the problem is accomplished through

familiarization with the available literature, interviews with ex-

perts, focus groups, or some combination. Revision of the

management or research questions is a desirable outcome

of exploration and enhances the researcher's understandingof the options available for developing a successful design.

3 Budgets and value assessments determine whether most

projects receive necessary funding. Their thorough docu-mentation is an integral part of the research proposal. Pro-

posals are required for many research projects and should,

at a minimum, describe the research question and the spe-

cific task the research will undertake.

4 Decisions concerning the type of study, the means of datacollection, measurement, and sampling plans must bemade when planning the design. Most researchers under-take sarnpling studies because of an interest in estimating

population values or testing a statistical hypothesiS. Care-fully constructed delimitations are essential for specifying an

appropriate probability sample. Nonprobability samples are

also used.

Pilot tests are conducted to detect weaknesses in

the study's design, data collection instruments, and pro-

cedures. Once the researcher is satisfied that the plan is

sound, data collection begins. Data are collected, edited,

coded, and prepared for analysis.Oata analysis involves reduction, summarization, pattern

exarnination, and the statistical evaluation of hypotheses.

93

94 spart I Introduction to Business Research

A written report describing the study's findings is used to

transmit the results and recommendations to the intended

decision maker. By cycling the conclusions back into the

original problem, a new research iteration may begin, and

findings may be applied.

5 Several research process problems can diminish the value

of research. Included in these are using a technique that

>keyter,ms

is inappropriate for the information needed just because

it is familiar or the researcher ~as experience with it; at-

tempting to substitute data mining for research; focusing

on an unresearchable question; failing to correctly define

the management problem; and conducting politically

motivated rather than management dilemma-motivated

research.

census 88 management question 83

data 89 management-research questionhierarchy 81

research process 80

research question{s) 83

sample 88data analysis 90measurement questions 83

target population 88

decision rule 86I

decision variable 86 pilot test 89

primary data 90

research design 87investigative questions 83

management dilemma 81

! »dlscusslonquestions

I Terms in Review

Some questions are answerable by research and oth-

ers are not. Using some management problems of your

choosing, distinguish between them.

2 Discuss the problems of trading off exploration and pilottesting under tight budgetary constraints. What are the im-mediate and long-term effects?

3 A company is experiencing a poor inventory management

situation and receives altemative research proposals.

Proposal 1 is to use an audit of last year's transactions asa basis for recommendations. Proposal 2 is to study and

recommend changes to the procedures and systems usedby the materials department. Discuss issues of evaluation

in terms of:

a Ex post facto versus prior evaluation.

b Evaluation using option analysis and decision theory.

Making Research Decisions

4 Confronted by low productivity, the president of Oaks

International Inc. asks a research company to study job

satisfaction in the corporation. What are some of the im-

portant reasons that this research project may fail to make

an adequate contribution to the solution of management

problems?

secondary data 90

5 Based on an analysis of the last six months' sales, your

boss notices that sales of beef products are declining in

your chain's restaurants. As beef entree sales decline, so

do profits. Fearing beef sales have declined due to severalnewspaper stories reporting E. coli contamination discov-

ered at area grocery stores, he suggests a survey of arearestaurants to see if the situation is pervasive.

a What do you think of this research suggestion?

b How, if at all, could you improve on your boss's formula-

tion of the research question?

Bringing Research to Life L6 What are the benefits to Mindl riter if Henry and Associ-

ates implements a pilot study?

7 How can MindWriter's existing database of service com-

plaints be used to accumulate service problem information

in advance of the proposed research. What information

should be sought?

From Concept to Practice

8 Using Exhibit 4-1 and case examples from some research

company's website, discover how favored technique

approaches to research design dominate many firms'

activities.

9 Using Exhibit 4-1 , find a case study of a research example

in which a clear statement of the management dilemma

leads to a precise and actionable research. (Hint: Visit re-

search company websites - see Appendix 1a for company

ideas-or use a search engine to find examples.)

From the Headlines

1I) By some estimates. it costs approximately $55.000 to gen-

erate an application (APP) for the Apple iPod. Just offering

I»cases=

Akron Children's Hospital

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Calling Up Attendance

Covering Kids with Health Care

Donatos: Finding the New Pizza

Goodyear's Aquatred

HeroBuilders.com

Inquiring Minds Want to Know-NOW!

Lexus SC 430

schapter 4 The ResearchProcess: An Overview 95

an APP is not a guarantee of success. The most success-ful APPs, sold as downloads, have to offer true functional

value. Apple takes weeks to review an APP proposal; only

with Apple's approval can an APP be officially offered for

the iPod. If you were Apple, what research would you want

to see within the proposal to approve a new APP for the

iPod?

Mastering Teacher Leadership

NCRCC: Teeing Up a New Strategic

Direction

Ohio Lottery: Innovative Research

Design Drives Winning

Ramada DeJonstrates Its Personal

State Farm: Dangerous Intersections

USTA: Come Out Swinging

• You will find a description of each case in the Case Abstracts section of this textbook. Check the Case Index todetermine whether a case provides data, the research instrument, video, or other supplementary material. Written casesare downloadable from the text website (www.mhhe.com/cooper11e). All video material and video cases are avail-able from the Online Learning Center. The film reel icon indicates a video case or video rmteriat relevant to the case.

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