Chapter 31Nationalism Triumphant: The Emergence of

Independent States in South and Southeast Asia

Modern South Asia

Modern South Asia

1. On July 15, 1947, by act of Parliament, India and Pakistan were granted independence. All authority was surrendered to the two new states on August 15. Their creation was based upon a division according to the Hindu and Muslim religions. Not only were Hindu and Muslim provinces separated but Bengal, the Punjab, and Assam were split in order to prevent large Hindu minorities from being assigned to Muslim Pakistan. Even before the partition was completed a mass exodus of more than ten million people took place. Hindus and Sikhs fled for fear of Muslim domination and Muslims sought refuge fearing Hindu persecution. The worst violence was in the eastern half of the province of the Punjab which had been a Sikh kingdom but was mostly assigned to Pakistan. The Sikhs had preferred a separate state but neither India nor Pakistan were supportive of such. The border separating the two territories in the Punjab became a killing ground between the Sikhs and Muslims. Half a million were left dead and two million made refugees.

2. India and Pakistan clashed over control of the border states. In Hyderabad on the Decca, the prince was deposed and its administration taken over by India. In Kashmir, the maharaja who had hoped to remain independent asked for Indian help to stem invading Muslims but the price was Indian control. What ensued was a struggle between Indian and Pakistani troops. Peace, brokered by the U.N. in 1949, resulted in a partition. The desire for independence remained strong, however.

3. An enemy of colonialism, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ordered in 1961 the forced occupation of the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Diu, and Daman.

4. In 1966, Indian Punjab was split again to form the state of Haryana for the Hindus. Sikhs continued to agitate for the independence of the now reduced Punjab. The center of their activity was the Golden Temple at Axnritsar which witnessed a bloody battle as Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered troops to occupy it in June 1984. On October 31, 1984, she was assassinated by two Sikh officers. This was followed by acts of terrorism as thousands of Sikhs were murdered by Hindu mobs.

5. Pakistan and East Pakistan were separated by a thousand miles. In 1972 East Pakistan succeeded in separating itself forming Bangladesh. The war of liberation from March to December 1971 was filled with atrocities, especially an apparent program of genocide by the West Pakistani soldiers India entered the war in early December and on December 16 West Pakistan surrendered.

6. Ceylon, renamed Sri Lanka in 1972, gained freedom from Britain in 1948. It has been plagued by a guerrilla war from Tamil separatists.

Question:1. How did the Hindu-Muslim struggle affect the Indian subcontinent?

Modern South Asia

1. On July 15, 1947, by act of Parliament, India and Pakistan were granted independence. All authority was surrendered to the two new states on August 15. Their creation was based upon a division according to the Hindu and Muslim religions. Not only were Hindu and Muslim provinces separated but Bengal, the Punjab, and Assam were split in order to prevent large Hindu minorities from being assigned to Muslim Pakistan. Even before the partition was completed a mass exodus of more than ten million people took place. Hindus and Sikhs fled for fear of Muslim domination and Muslims sought refuge fearing Hindu persecution. The worst violence was in the eastern half of the province of the Punjab which had been a Sikh kingdom but was mostly assigned to Pakistan. The Sikhs had preferred a separate state but neither India nor Pakistan were supportive of such. The border separating the two territories in the Punjab became a killing ground between the Sikhs and Muslims. Half a million were left dead and two million made refugees.

2. India and Pakistan clashed over control of the border states. In Hyderabad on the Decca, the prince was deposed and its administration taken over by India. In Kashmir, the maharaja who had hoped to remain independent asked for Indian help to stem invading Muslims but the price was Indian control. What ensued was a struggle between Indian and Pakistani troops. Peace, brokered by the U.N. in 1949, resulted in a partition. The desire for independence remained strong, however.

3. An enemy of colonialism, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ordered in 1961 the forced occupation of the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Diu, and Daman.

4. In 1966, Indian Punjab was split again to form the state of Haryana for the Hindus. Sikhs continued to agitate for the independence of the now reduced Punjab. The center of their activity was the Golden Temple at Axnritsar which witnessed a bloody battle as Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered troops to occupy it in June 1984. On October 31, 1984, she was assassinated by two Sikh officers. This was followed by acts of terrorism as thousands of Sikhs were murdered by Hindu mobs.

5. Pakistan and East Pakistan were separated by a thousand miles. In 1972 East Pakistan succeeded in separating itself forming Bangladesh. The war of liberation from March to December 1971 was filled with atrocities, especially an apparent program of genocide by the West Pakistani soldiers India entered the war in early December and on December 16 West Pakistan surrendered.

6. Ceylon, renamed Sri Lanka in 1972, gained freedom from Britain in 1948. It has been plagued by a guerrilla war from Tamil separatists.

Question:1. How did the Hindu-Muslim struggle affect the Indian subcontinent?

End of the British Raj India committed to World War II without consulting

IndiansIndian rejection of dominion status after the war and

the right of secession for individual states Lord Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979) appointed viceroy

Partition Division of Bengal and Punjab Pakistan

Independence of India and Pakistan, August 15, 1947 Independent India

Problem of border disputesIndia invaded Hyderabad and annexed the areaSeizure of most of Kashmir

Democratic SocialismJawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)Political system reflective of Britain’s parliamentary

systemModerate socialism

Neutral and independent positionContinued friction with Pakistan

War between India and Pakistan, 1965 Supports East Pakistan in confrontation with

Pakistan, 1971Problems with China

Post-Nehru Era Indira Gandhi (1917-1984), 1966-1984

Endorses democratic socialismNeutrality in foreign affairsConcern over povertyProblem of population growthRise of ethnic and religious strifeAssassinated by Sikh bodyguard

Rajiv Gandhi (1944-1991)Problems on Sri Lanka

Pakistan Independence in August, 1975 West Pakistan perennially short of water East Pakistan (parts of East Bengal) made up of marshy

deltas Islamic state sought by the Muslim League Division between supporters of a state based on Islamic

principles and those who supported Western-style democracy

East Pakistan riots in 1952 over government’s decision to adopt Urdu the national language

New Democracy, 1958 Election of 1970

East Pakistan declares independence, March 1971, becomes Bangladesh

General Zia Ul Ha’q, 1977

Poverty and Pluralism in South Asia Indian constitution of 1950 Communalism Corruption Sikh separatism Hindu and Muslim antagonism Issue of caste

Economy Nehru sought socialist ownership through five-year plans Agricultural problems Overpopulation Privatization and foreign investment Environmental damage

Rich and poor in Bombay. Slum housing, with upscale apartments in background

Caste, Class, and Gender Caste determines marriage, occupation, moral and social-

obligations, social status, and eating habitsCastes accepted by the 1950 constitution but tried to

eliminate the worst abusesUntouchablesRole and women and sexual relationships

Purdah Indian Art and Literature

Indo-Anglian literature Anita Desai and Salman Rushdie Art affected by the colonial experience

Post-War Conflicts in East Asia

Post-War Conflicts in East Asia

1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its long ago promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electoral victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Anericans, however, maintained military bases in the Philippines until 1992 when the last was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in control since then.

3. In Malaysia, the native people feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaysia became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a "guided democracy." In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists, radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno, whose communist ties angered the army, was eased out by General Suharto in 1967. Suharto permitted a return to representative government and was elected president. Suharto's government collapsed in 1998. In 1999 the Indonesia came under world criticism for its actions in East Timor which sought independence (the Portuguese half of the island of Timor had been annexed by Indonesia in 1975).

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. United States troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that would remove of American forces and require the north to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations failed and in early 1975 communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and Vietnam was unified.

6. Britain acquired Hong Kong from the Chinese by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 that ended an opium war. It was returned to China, by treaty, in 1997.

7. Defeated by the forces of Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek and about one million Chinese fled to Taiwan where they proclaimed the Republic of China. Worried about the communist threat in Asia at the beginning of the Korean War, the United States promised to defend the island from mainland China. In 1954 this was formalized into a mutual defense treaty. In 1972, the U.S. began removing troops from Taiwan. Diplomatic relations were ended in 1978 when relations were opened with China. The following year the mutual defense treaty was ended.

8. On the eve of the Japanese surrender, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to divide Korea into two zones at the 38th parallel. As U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated, two separate governments emerged. On June 25, 1950, with Soviet approval, North Korea invaded the south. The United States and the U.N. responded immediately. The conflict lasted until an armistice was signed July 27, 1953.

Question:1. Why did the U.S. get involved in Southeast Asian affairs? Consequences?

Post-War Conflicts in East Asia

1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its long ago promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electoral victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Anericans, however, maintained military bases in the Philippines until 1992 when the last was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in control since then.

3. In Malaysia, the native people feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaysia became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a "guided democracy." In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists, radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno, whose communist ties angered the army, was eased out by General Suharto in 1967. Suharto permitted a return to representative government and was elected president. Suharto's government collapsed in 1998. In 1999 the Indonesia came under world criticism for its actions in East Timor which sought independence (the Portuguese half of the island of Timor had been annexed by Indonesia in 1975).

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. United States troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that would remove of American forces and require the north to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations failed and in early 1975 communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and Vietnam was unified.

6. Britain acquired Hong Kong from the Chinese by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 that ended an opium war. It was returned to China, by treaty, in 1997.

7. Defeated by the forces of Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek and about one million Chinese fled to Taiwan where they proclaimed the Republic of China. Worried about the communist threat in Asia at the beginning of the Korean War, the United States promised to defend the island from mainland China. In 1954 this was formalized into a mutual defense treaty. In 1972, the U.S. began removing troops from Taiwan. Diplomatic relations were ended in 1978 when relations were opened with China. The following year the mutual defense treaty was ended.

8. On the eve of the Japanese surrender, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to divide Korea into two zones at the 38th parallel. As U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated, two separate governments emerged. On June 25, 1950, with Soviet approval, North Korea invaded the south. The United States and the U.N. responded immediately. The conflict lasted until an armistice was signed July 27, 1953.

Question:1. Why did the U.S. get involved in Southeast Asian affairs? Consequences?

The Vision of Mahatma Gandhi India has not rejected its past, but adjusted it to meet the

needs of the present Gandhi glorified poverty and the simple Indian village Importance of karma and predestination

Dismantling of Colonialism in Southeast Asia Philippines granted independence from U.S., July 1946 Britain gave independence to Burma in 1947 and after

subduin communist guerrillas, Malaya in 1957 Dutch resist Indonesian independence until 1950 France withdraws from Vietnam in 1954

Modern Southeast Asia

Modern Southeast Asia

1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electorial victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Americans, however, maintained a military presence until 1992 when the last American base was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in power since then.

3. In Malaya the native Malays feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaya became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a guided democracy. In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965 which included the murder of seven generals, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists1 radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno was forced to resign and Muslim generals have ruled since.

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. U.S. troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that called for the removal of all American forces. In return, the north was to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations tailed and in early 1975 the communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and was soon unified.

Question:1. What was the role of the communists in Southeast Asia?

Modern Southeast Asia

1. On July 4, 1946, the United States fulfilled its promise to grant independence to the Philippines. In 1965 Ferdinand Marcos subverted the constitution and ruled as a dictator until 1986 when ousted in a spectacular electorial victory for the presidency by Corazon Aquino. The Americans, however, maintained a military presence until 1992 when the last American base was closed.

2. Burma (Myanmar) received its independence from the British in 1948. The army seized power in 1962 and has remained in power since then.

3. In Malaya the native Malays feared and disliked the Chinese who had immigrated in the nineteenth century. Local Chinese communists launched guerrilla activity after Britain indicated it would give the Malays a dominant voice in government. The communists were defeated and in 1957 Malaya became self-governing. Independence was granted in 1961. Four years later, largely Chinese Singapore withdrew from the Federation of Malaysia.

4. Dutch efforts to reconquer the Netherlands East Indies after World War II failed and independence was granted for Indonesia in 1949 under Achmed Sukarno. Beginning in 1957, he initiated a guided democracy. In reprisal for a communist uprising in 1965 which included the murder of seven generals, the army killed a half million or more Indonesian communists1 radicals, and non-communist Chinese. Sukarno was forced to resign and Muslim generals have ruled since.

5. After World War II, the French sought to reimpose their rule over Indochina. At the time of the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Indochinese Communist Party, launched a general uprising and seized power throughout most of Vietnam. By fall, the French had regained the southern area followed by all out war in December 1946. Despite American aid, the French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Subsequent peace brought Indochina independence. Laos and Cambodia became independent while Vietnam was divided into two sections at the 17th parallel. The United States opposed any settlement involving loss of the whole territory to communism. In 1959 Ho returned to war in the south. With the southern government on the verge of collapse in 1963, the South Vietnamese military seized power. U.S. troops were rushed in to preclude total defeat in 1965. Unwilling to engage in all-out war for fear of provoking a larger conflict, the war became a stalemate. In 1969 withdrawal of U.S. troops began. A peace treaty was signed in January 1973 that called for the removal of all American forces. In return, the north was to seek a political settlement with the south. Negotiations tailed and in early 1975 the communists resumed the offensive. At the end of April, South Vietnam surrendered and was soon unified.

Question:1. What was the role of the communists in Southeast Asia?

Era of Independent States Burma’s government gives way to the military Thailand’s democracy undermined by influential landed

elite Indonesia fell under the control of Sukarno (1901-1970)

and “Guided Democracy” Ethnic disputes

ASEAN and Issue of Regional Integration Association for the Southeast Asian Nations sought

cooperation on social and economic endeavors After Vietnam sought political and military cohesion to

resist further communist encroachment in the region

Problems of National Development Failure to bring material prosperity Ethnic differences Economic and regional tensions

Relevancy of Western-style democracy and materialistic culture

DisillusionmentOpposition from the army and orthodox Muslims

Trends toward more representative governments and growth of affluence

Daily Life: Town and Country People moving from the country to the city

New urban workers change attitudes and values Increased manufacturing to take advantage of cheap

labor Growth of materialism Developing secular attitudes Changes in the middle class Increased inroads of the West Women