Chapter 30:The Turbulent 60’sPresentation by:Matt Stover, Zack Jones, & Ahmed Anik

Kennedy versus Nixon

● The 1960 Election was the first election to hold televised presidential candidate debateo Democrat John F. Kennedy’s success in televised

debates against Republican Richard Nixon was crucial to JFK’s election

● Kennedy exploited the frustration Americans felt following the USSR’s Sputnik and promised a domestic program known as the New Frontier

● Kennedy’s victory signified the changes taking place in American life: Kennedy symbolized youth, energy and ambition in contrast to Eisenhower’s aging administration.

Election of 1960

● Richard M. Nixon lost to John. F. Kennedy by only two-tenths of 1 in the popular vote

Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War

● Kennedy gave foreign policy top priority from the day he took office.o Foreign policy crises arose in Berlin, the Soviet

Union, Southeast Asia, and Cuba (NOT Mexico)● Kennedy’s staff was heavily populated

with academics and intellectualso Robert McNamara, president of the Ford Motor

Company, became Kennedy’s Secretary of Defense

Flexible Response

● The first goal of the Kennedy administration was to build up the nation’s armed forces, both nuclear and conventional strengtho The US had a significant lead in nuclear power over

the Soviets by 1961 due to Eisenhower o JFK’s “flexible response” plan was to ensure that

the US would have the ability to retaliate against the USSR in several ways & not just the nuclear threats which the Eisenhower Administration relied on.

Crisis over Berlin

● Premier Nikita Khruschev, whom both Kennedy & Eisenhower had to deal with, wanted to fix the issue of skilled workers leaving East Germany through Berlin to West Germany.

● JFK was adamant in keeping American forces in Berlin declaring that the defense of Berlin is “essential” to “the entire Free World.”

● Failing to reach a compromise, the Soviets built the Berlin Wall to keep East Germans migrating to the West.

Containment in Southeast Asia● Kennedy advocated for financial and technical assistance to help Third World nations build

stable economies and pro-West governments, but had also relied heavily on the Green Berets and force to fight back Communism.

● Kennedy faced a major challenge in Southeast Asia as the North Vietnamese government, led by Ho Chi Minh, directed the efforts of the Vietcong rebels in the South (which was led by American backed Ngo Dinh Diem)

● Kennedy, to fight back against communism in Vietnam, decided to increase the number of military advisers in Vietnam but had refused to send in combat troops. The number of American advisers in the region went from less than one thousand in 1961 to more than sixteen thousand by late 1963.

● Diem had lost the favor and support of the Vietnamese people, and Kennedy had tacitly approved a coup that led to Diem’s overthrow and death.

● Kennedy had said that the situation in Vietnam was not to be determined by the US but by Vietnam, stating “It is their war. They are the ones who have to win or lose it.” However, Kennedy did not withdraw from Southeast Asia in fear of communists taking over the region as they had taken over China.

Containing Castro: The Bay of Pigs Fiasco

● The fight against communism expansion reached a peak in Cuba where ties between the Soviet Union and Fidel Castro’s regime grew.

● Kennedy supported Cuban exiles who were against Castro, calling them “fighters for freedom.”

● The US had masterminded an operation on April 17, 1961 which contained fourteen hundred Cuban exiles moving ashore at the Bay of Pigs on the southern coast of Cuba. Kennedy insisted on covert action and canceled a planned American air strike on the beachhead, which led to the failure of the plan.

● The Bay of Pigs Invasion was JFK’s most obvious foreign policy disaster

Containing Castro: The Cuban Missile Crisis

● October 1962 - Cuban missile crisis● Throughout the summer and early fall of 1962, the Soviets had armed Cuba with

missiles in fear of an American invasion of the Island.● The US had found out about these missile developments on October 14 after a U-2

flight mission took photographic evidence of the missile sites (which were near completion).

● Kennedy & his advisers had agreed to proclaim a quarantine of Cuba to stop any new missiles from arriving and threatened an invasion if the Russians did not cooperate and remove the missiles.

● October 22 - Kennedy told the public of the missiles in Cuba and his plan to deal with them

● After six days of negotiating between US and USSR officials, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in return for Kennedy’s promise not to invade the Island

Outcome of The Cuban Missile Crisis● The peaceful resolution of the Cuban missile crisis helped JFK win

reelection and his popularity reached new heights.● The crisis led to the creation of a “hot line” for direct communication

between Washington and Moscow in emergencies● American foreign policy hawks believed that the outcome of the

Cuban Missile Crisis justified a policy of nuclear superiority● The Cuban Missile Crisis DID NOT lead to a de-escalation of the US-

Soviet arms raceo Rather, the Soviets were convinced that they needed more nuclear

power and the arms race escalatedPicture: Your Tomorrow U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965

o Concerns during the Cold War Era

o Your Tomorrow U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965 : Displayed Concerns during the Cold War Era

The New Frontier at Home

● For the first time, people who were born in the 20th century and had entered political life after WWII were in charge of the nation.

● Kennedy’s new administrationo Abraham Ribicoff - Secretary of health,

education and welfareo Arthur J. Goldberg - Secretary of the interior (not

commerce)o Robert F. Kennedy - Attorney General (MOST

CONTROVERSIAL)

The Congressional Obstacle

● Despite the Democrats holding majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, a conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and southern Democrats opposed all efforts at reformo Due to this, Congress was Kennedy’s greatest

domestic obstacle as President.● Conservative coalition were against education and

health-care proposals

Economic Advance● Kennedy wanted to stimulate the sluggish American economy and achieve high rates of

long-term growth.o He believed that the US had to surpass the Soviet Union in economic vitality

● Stimulation of the economy came from increased appropriations for defense and space & not social programs

● Kennedy’s administration wanted to keep the inflation rate low & had relied on informal wage and price guidelines to hold down the cost of living.o JFK became outraged when the leaders of the Steel industry raised their

prices, publicly shaming them● Kennedy had a strained relationship with businesses, and when the stock market

suddenly fell in May 1962, many called it “the Kennedy market.”● Kennedy finally used unorthodox economic methods such as tax cuts and resulting

deficits, which improved the economy tremendously● Overall, Kennedy’s economic policy was far more successful than his legislative efforts

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights● Kennedy had portrayed himself as crusader for African American rights during

his 1960 campaign and promised to launch an attack on segregation in the Deep South.

● The conflict here was that he was afraid that in doing this he would be alienating the large bloc of southern democrats.

● Kennedy defers congressional action in favor of executive leadership● He directed his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to continue and

expand the Eisenhower administration's effort to achieve voting rights for southern blacks.

● There was many dramatic gains for African Americans during Kennedy's presidency because of a limited budget and reliance on voluntary cooperation

● Kennedy succeed in appointing a number of African Americans to high government position; for example, Robert Weaver became chief of the federal housing agency, and Thurgood Marshall, who was appointed to The US Circuit Court after pleading the Brown v. Topeka school desegregation case.

Moving Slowly on Civil Rights

● The Civil Rights movement refused to accept Kennedy’s indirect approach.

● In May 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sponsored a freedom ride in which a biracial group attempted to test a 1960 Supreme Court decision outlawing segregation in all bus and train stations.

● WHen they arrived in Birmingham Alabama, the freedom riders were attacked by a mob of angry whites. The attorney general quickly sent in several hundred marshals to protect the freedom riders

● Kennedy was deeply involved with the Berlin Crisis and was more upset at the distraction the protestor created.

"I Have a Dream"● Martin Luther King Jr. finally forced Kennedy to abandon his cautious

tactics and come out openly on behalf of racial justice.● In 1963 King began a massive protest in Birmingham, one of the south's

most segregated cities. It was a nonviolent protest in which the authorities handled violently

● Kennedy intervened on the side of the blacks and Congress asked for civil rights laws

● August 1963, civil rights leaders hold a March on Washington. There were more than 200,000 marchers who gathered for a daylong rally in front of the Lincoln Memorial where MLK delivered his speech.

● In the end Kennedy's efforts towards civil rights paid off for African Americans although many found it frustration in the way he handled it.

"I Have a Dream"The issues that Martin Luther King brought up during the speech were addressed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Supreme Court and Reform

● Defendants rights in criminal cases● In the cases of Gideon v. Wainright, Escobedo v. Illinois, and Miranda

v. Arizona the majority decreed that the defendants had to be provided lawyers, had to be informed of their constitutional rights, and could not be interrogated to confess a crime without defense counsel being present.

● Perhpas one of the most far-reaching decisions of the Warrens Court was legislative reapportionment of the states

● 1962 : Baker vs. Carr sparks the principal of "one man, one voter" where the Court had to redistribute it's legislative seats to give citizens in Memphis equal representation .

The Supreme Court and Reform

● Greater social justice now achieved● Rights of the underprivileged are protected● Dissent and free expressionism protected● The reform brought on alot of criticism as many thought

the rulings extended protection to criminals and those accused of subversive activity.

● the 1962 Engel vs. Vitale decision to ban school prayer incensed many conservative Americans, who saw the court as undermining moral values.

"Let Us Continue"● The new frontier came to a sudden and violent end on

November 22, 1963, when Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated JFK as he rode in a motorcade in downtown dallas.

● Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took the place of Kennedy as president.

● Lyndon Johnson promises to continue Kennedy’s programs.

● Johnson ultimately exceeded Kennedy’s record on economic and racial equality.

Johnson in Action

● Lyndon Johnson had a poor image on television and was inevitably always compared to JFK

● A very effective manager of Congress● Took on a domestic program called the Great

Society● Concentrated on securing the passage of

Kennedy's tax and civil rights bills in 1964.● Spring, 1964 Kennedy's tax cut is passed

Johnson in Action

Civil Rights Act of 1964● Without the help of Republican senator Everett Dirksen, civil

rights legislation would have probably been filibustered to death in the senate.

● Established the Equal Employment Opportunity Comission● Banned public segregation● Established equal employment opportunity commission to

lessen job discrimination● Protected voting rights of African Americans● Amended (by segregationists) to include women in an attempt to

reduce support for it

The Election of 1964

1964: Johnson launched a war on poverty which was inspired greatly by Micheal Harrington's book, The Other America● Programs included Head Starts, Job Corps, Community Action

Programs● Encouraged self - help● Rducing poverty gave him a good reputation and aided his shot

at re-election● Johnson won in a landslide election against Republican

Barry Goldwater.

The Triumph of Reform

● 1965: Great Society legislation advanced beyond new deal

● Medicare - mandated health insurance under the Social Security program for those over 65

● Medicaid - program for the indigent● Elementary and secondary Education Act - provides

more than 1 billion $ in federal aid to schools● Voting Rights Act

African American Voter Registration Before and After the Passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1964

Johnson Escalates the Vietnam War

● 1965: Troop sent to Dominican Republic● Determined not to lose "Vietnam to the

Communists

Foreign Policy

● Lyndon Johnson's foreign policy was widely known as a mere continuation of Kennedy's policies.

● Perhaps Johnson's greatest downfall was his obsession with the Vietnam war.

● William Fulbright criticized johnson for his actions surrounding the war in Vietnam as fulbright greatly opposed the war

The Vietnam Dilemma

• 1964: Saigon on the verge of collapse• Johnson’s initial response

– Refused to send American combat forces– Economic aid– Military advisers– Covert actions

• August 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gives Johnson authority to escalate in Vietnam

Southeast Asia and Vietnam War

Escalation• U.S. effort intended to bring Hanoi into peace

negotiations• Policy of secrecy and deceit to assure

Americans of Vietnam’s insignificance and keep Vietnam from endangering the Great Society

• Johnson’s “sins” in Vietnam were secrecy, deceit, and refusing to admit he had committed U.S. to dangerous conflict

Stalemate

❖ American side of Vietnam War hindered by bad military decisions➢ 500K troops stationed in Vietnam by 68’➢ General William Westmoreland puts emphasis on attrition-

heavy war tactics➢ American military strategy largely dependent on the sheer

quantity of firepower➢ All tactics unsuccessful

❖ 1965-Johnson begins to use air strikes in a desperate attempt to improve the situation in Vietnam➢ Failed entirely; jungle canopy shielded enemy soldiers

Years of Turmoil

❖ Public support waned as the war progressed➢ My Lai Massacre-1968-over 200 unarmed civilians killed by

American troops under Lieutenant William Calley Jr.

❖ Johnson held largely accountable for trouble in Vietnam as he was not upfront with the American populations concerning the details of the war➢ Johnson gave a false impression of winning in Vietnam; public

felt lied to after learning the truth

❖ Homefront becomes unstable as public outcry over the war increases

❖ War in Vietnam shows no signs of slowing down

The Student Revolt

❖ First student rebellion-1964-University of California Berkeley➢ Leading figure-Mario Savio

❖ Two sections of student revolt➢ Cultural Revolution➢ Protest against Vietnam War

❖ Largest protest group-Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

60’s “Drug Culture”

❖ Main Concepts:➢ Rejection of materialism➢ Rebellion against institutions➢ Emphasis on expression of the self

■ Psychedelic art similar to surrealism➢ Excessive use of drugs

■ Main drugs in use included LSD, Marijuana, & Heroin■ Harvard professor Timothy Leary encouraged students to experiment with

drugs, LSD in particular■ Project MK Ultra government experimentation

➢ Appreciation of music■ Popular bands include The Grateful Dead, The Doors, & Janis Joplin

Protesting the Vietnam War

❖ Study showed those from the upper class were significantly less likely to be drafted➢ One of many points of protest

❖ 1967-over 100K demonstrators swarmed the pentagon to protest the war

❖ 1968-SDS & African American Radicals take over Columbia University➢ NYPD took action & the protest was shut down a week later➢ Aggressive action taken by authorities prompted many more

sit-downs & various other protests

“Black Power”

❖ “Black Power”-called for African Americans to take matters into their own hands, usually through violence

❖ Poor living conditions & overall attitude of social reform prompted Civil Rights movement ➢ MLK led passive anti-poverty crusade➢ April, 1968: MLK assassinated

❖ Violent forms of protest more widespread & popular➢ African-Americans felt passive movement wasn’t effective➢ Primary advocate for “Black Power”-Stokely Carmichael,

leader of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)➢ “Political power comes through the barrel of a gun”

Ethnic Nationalism

❖ Other ethnic groups took after the Civil Rights Movement➢ The united effort of all ethnicities led to the

Ethnic Heritage Studies Act being passed in 72’

➢ Cesar Chavez founded the National Farm Workers’ Association (NFWA) in

❖ Chicanos won federal mandate for bilingual education

Women’s Liberation

❖ Betty Friedan-The Feminine Mystique ➢ Claimed women felt as though they had no worth outside of

childbearing, domestic responsibilities, & limited jobs➢ Founded National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966

❖ Multiple issues discussed➢ 1964 Civil Rights Act aided in creating equality in the

workplace■ Made it illegal to hire someone based on gender

➢ Advocated pro-choice with regards to abortion➢ Also fought for tougher rape legislation

❖ 1972: Congress sent Equal Rights Amendment to the states

Vietnam Undermines Johnson

❖ Failure to contain Vietcong offensive tainted Johnson’s chances of getting reelected

❖ Nixon’s winning of the election demonstrates nation’s desire for change concerning the war

❖ Tet Offensive of 1968 proves to be the turning point of the war➢ Vietnam seems unwinnable afterwards

❖ After the offensive Johnson begins preparations for a peace negotiation➢ Johnson decides in March to refrain from taking a second

term

The Democrats Divide

❖ Anti-war movement in full swing by election time➢ Chicago Democratic convention swamped by protest

❖ Three Democratic contenders:➢ Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy➢ Attorney General Robert Kennedy (assassinated during

campaign)➢ Hubert Humphrey (Selected)

❖ LBJ’s actions hurt the entire Democratic party & their chances of winning

The Republican Resurgence

❖ Republicans, on the contrary, firmly united behind Richard Nixon➢ Many counted him out after

losing 62’ election for governor of California

❖ Third party candidate George C. Wallace stole votes from the Democrats ➢ This allowed Nixon to defeat

Hubert Humphrey in the election of 68’

The End of an Era

❖ Election brought an end to an era of liberal reform

❖ Republican win was a sign that many were concerned with the new drug culture

❖ Americans were looking for a less reactionary government & did not want to be involved in another war like Vietnam