Chapter 29Europe and the Western Hemisphere since 1945

The New Europe

The New Europe

1. The Soviet Union broke up into its fifteen constituent republics in December 1991. The new states included Russia, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkinenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. They are loosely joined in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Independence unleashed many of the people's frustrations that have turned some states such as Georgia and Azerbaijan into war zones.

2. In East Germany the continued economic slump of the 1980s created popular unrest. Mass demonstrations followed the government's refusal to institute reforms and increasing use of violent repression. Capitulating to popular pressure, the Communist government opened its entire border to the West. Moreover, the Soviet Union declared it would no longer support the leaders of the East German Communist Party. In 1990 East Germany had its first ever free election. That same year Germany was economically and politically united.

3. Czechoslovakia peacefully divided itself into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on January 1, 1993.

4. Yugoslavia fell into violent civil war in 1991.

Questions:1.Why did the breakup of the Soviet Union have an impact on the restructuring of Europe?2.What is the impact upon Europe with the creation of several new nations, especially the former Soviet states?

The New Europe

1. The Soviet Union broke up into its fifteen constituent republics in December 1991. The new states included Russia, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkinenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. They are loosely joined in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Independence unleashed many of the people's frustrations that have turned some states such as Georgia and Azerbaijan into war zones.

2. In East Germany the continued economic slump of the 1980s created popular unrest. Mass demonstrations followed the government's refusal to institute reforms and increasing use of violent repression. Capitulating to popular pressure, the Communist government opened its entire border to the West. Moreover, the Soviet Union declared it would no longer support the leaders of the East German Communist Party. In 1990 East Germany had its first ever free election. That same year Germany was economically and politically united.

3. Czechoslovakia peacefully divided itself into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on January 1, 1993.

4. Yugoslavia fell into violent civil war in 1991.

Questions:1.Why did the breakup of the Soviet Union have an impact on the restructuring of Europe?2.What is the impact upon Europe with the creation of several new nations, especially the former Soviet states?

The Recovery of Western Europe Impact of the Marshall Plan France

Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), 1958-1969Fourth Republic

Algerian crisisFifth Republic, 1968

Greater global presence Growth of the economy Weaknesses in the 1970s

François Mitterand (1916-1995), 1981-1995 Reforms and nationalization Economic weaknesses of the 1990s

The Economic Division of Europe during the Cold War

The Economic Division of Europe During the Cold War

1. France, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Italy formed the European Coal and Steel Company (ECSC) in 1951. This was the first post-war attempt to create a sense of European economic unity. The arrangement sought to establish a common market for coal and steel among the members by eliminating tariffs and trade barriers.

2. The success of the ECSC led the Europeans in 1957 to create the European Economic Community (EEC). The Common Market, as it is called, by 1968 had eliminated customs barriers for the six member nations and created a large free trade area protected from the outside nations by a common external tariff. In 1973 it expanded to include Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark. Spain, Portugal, and Greece were added in 1986.

3. In 1959, Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal formed the European Free Trade Area. Nevertheless, Britain sought membership in EEC but was turned down in 1963 and 1967 due to the veto of France's president Charles de Gaulle who said that Britain was too closely tied to the United States. Finally, Britain was admitted in 1973.

4. The leaders of the EEC (now called the European Union) in 1991 signed the Treaty of Maastricht that would eventually lead to a universal currency and a strong central bank. It failed to be adopted in Denmark and only narrowly was approved in France and Britain. On January 1, 1999, Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain fixed their currencies according to the value of the Euro. By 2002 the national currencies of these states will be replaced by the common currency of the Euro.

5. In 1949 the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established by the Eastern European states for economic cooperation and integration. This was more to serve the Soviet Union than anything else.

Questions:1. Why is it important for the European states to form a single economic community?2. What kind of difficulties could undermine the EEC?3.Why was France opposed to British membership in the EEC?

The Economic Division of Europe During the Cold War

1. France, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Italy formed the European Coal and Steel Company (ECSC) in 1951. This was the first post-war attempt to create a sense of European economic unity. The arrangement sought to establish a common market for coal and steel among the members by eliminating tariffs and trade barriers.

2. The success of the ECSC led the Europeans in 1957 to create the European Economic Community (EEC). The Common Market, as it is called, by 1968 had eliminated customs barriers for the six member nations and created a large free trade area protected from the outside nations by a common external tariff. In 1973 it expanded to include Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark. Spain, Portugal, and Greece were added in 1986.

3. In 1959, Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, and Portugal formed the European Free Trade Area. Nevertheless, Britain sought membership in EEC but was turned down in 1963 and 1967 due to the veto of France's president Charles de Gaulle who said that Britain was too closely tied to the United States. Finally, Britain was admitted in 1973.

4. The leaders of the EEC (now called the European Union) in 1991 signed the Treaty of Maastricht that would eventually lead to a universal currency and a strong central bank. It failed to be adopted in Denmark and only narrowly was approved in France and Britain. On January 1, 1999, Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain fixed their currencies according to the value of the Euro. By 2002 the national currencies of these states will be replaced by the common currency of the Euro.

5. In 1949 the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance was established by the Eastern European states for economic cooperation and integration. This was more to serve the Soviet Union than anything else.

Questions:1. Why is it important for the European states to form a single economic community?2. What kind of difficulties could undermine the EEC?3.Why was France opposed to British membership in the EEC?

GermanyKonrad Adenauer (1876-1967), 1949-1963

German rearmament and membership in NATO, 1955 Ludwig Erhard and economic recovery

Willy Brandt (1913-1992), 1969-1974 Ostpolitik

Rise of neo-Nazis Decline of Great Britain

Welfare state and reduced expenses abroadNorthern IrelandMargaret Thatcher (b. 1925), 1979-1990

Thatcherism Falklands War, 1982 Anti-tax riots force her to resign, November 1990

Western European unity

NATO, 1949European Coal and Steel Community, 1951European Economic Community, 1957 Treaty on European Union

The United States Economic boom after World War II Red Scare of the 1950s John F. Kennedy (1917-1963), 1961-1963 Lyndon Johnson (1908-1973), 1963-1969

War on PovertyDesegregation, Civil Rights Act, 1964Race riots 1965-1967Vietnam War, Anti-war protests

Shift to the RightRichard Nixon (1913-1994) elected in 1968

Visits China, 1972 Ends Vietnam war, 1973 Resignation, August 9, 1974

Jimmy Carter (b. 1924), 1976-1980 Stagflation – high inflation and unemployment Oil embargo, 1973 53 hostages held by Iran

Ronald Reagan (b. 1911), 1981-1989 Reverses the welfare state Military buildup Supply-side economics

Political trends in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s

Development of Canada Lester Pearson (1897-1972)

Welfare state created Brian Mulroney (b. 1939)

Privatization of industryFree trade agreement with the United States

Quebec Democracy, Dictatorship, and Development in Latin

America since 1945 Economic dependency and import-substitution Debt crisis Move to democracy Population growth and increased gap between rich and

poor Role of the church

Cuban RevolutionFidel Castro (b. 1926) overthrows Fulgencio Batista, 1959October 1960 U.S. trade embargo on CubaU.S. breaks diplomatic relations with Cuba, January 3, 1961Failed Bay of Pigs invasion, April 17, 1961Missile Crisis, October 1962

ChileSalvador Allende (1908-1973), 1970-1973

Marxist socialist society Nationalization of corporations, especially copper Overthrown by the army, March 1973

NicaraguaGeneral Anastasio Somoza seized the government in 1937Sandinista National Liberation Front gain control, 1979

ArgentinaGroup of United Officers overthrows government,

June 1943Juan Perón (1895-1974), elected president 1946

Increased industrialization Frees Argentina from foreign investors Eva Perón Overthrown by the military 1955 Returns in 1973 and elected president, died in

1974Military seizes power, 1976

Disappearance of opponents Falkland Islands (Malvinas) War, April 1982 Return of civil power, 1983

Barrio, Rio de Janeiro. Slum site south of Copacabana Beach in Rio

NicaraguaGeneral Anastasio Somoza seized the government in

1937Sandinista National Liberation Front gain control, 1979

BrazilGetúlio Vargas (1883-1954), 1935-1945

New State, 1938-1945 Vargas forced to resign, 1945 Military seizes power, 1968 Return to democracy, 1985

MexicoInstitutional Revolutionary Party controls Mexican

politicsForeign debtNorth Atlantic Free Trade Association

Society and Culture Changes in the middle class; managers and technicians Changes among the traditional lower class Leisure activity Education Student protests of the 60s and 70s The “permissive society”

Sexual revolutionBreakdown of the traditional familyDrug culture

WomenWorking women at lower wagesSimone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)

Terrorism Munich Olympic games, 1972 Denounce injustices of capitalism Militant nationalism Antiterrorism and counterterrorism

Guest workers and immigrantsGreen movements and Green PartiesModern artLiterature

“Theater of the Absurd”Science and technology

Government and military sponsorship of scienceReligionAmericanization of the world