Chapter 18

States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa

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Effects of Early African Migrations

n  Bantu-speaking peoples settle south of equator n  Agriculture, herding spreads with Bantu

migrations n  Iron metallurgy

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Cultivation of Bananas

n  Domesticated in southeast Asia n  Malay sailors colonize Madagascar, 300-500 C.E.

q  Introduce bananas, yams, chickens n  Well-adapted to African climate n  Food supply increases with this key crop

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Population Growth

0

5

10

15

20

25

400 BCE 0 800 CE 1000 CE

Millions

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Kin-Based Societies

n  Stateless, segmented societies n  No elaborate hierarchies, bureaucracies n  Average population of village: one hundred n  Ruled by elders n  Network of villages resolve disputes in ad hoc

manner n  Higher government authorities rare

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Chiefdoms

n  Population pressures after 1000 C.E. increase competition, disputes

n  Small chiefdoms appear, overrule kin-based groups

n  Small kingdoms form q  Ife, Benin

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Kingdoms, Empires, and City-States of Sub-Saharan Africa, 800-1500 C.E.

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Kingdom of Kongo

n  Basin of the Congo (Zaire) river n  Conglomeration of several village alliances n  Participated actively in trade networks n  Most centralized rule of the early Bantu kingdoms n  Royal currency: cowries n  Ruled fourteenth to seventeenth century, until

undermined by Portuguese slave traders

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Islamic Kingdoms and Empires

n  Islam spreads to west Africa q  Trans-Saharan caravans q  Coastal east Africa through maritime trade

n  Profound influence after eighth century

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Trans-Saharan Trade and Islamic States in West Africa

n  Desiccation of Sahara begins ca. 5000 B.C.E. n  Introduction of Arabian camels revolutionizes

trade q  70-90 days to cross Sahara

n  Arabs establish trading communities q  Gao

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The Kingdom of Ghana

n  Not related to modern State of Ghana n  Developed fourth to fifth century C.E. n  Protection against camel-driving raiders n  Center of African gold trade

q  Imported from south to Ghana

n  Also sold ivory, slaves

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Koumbi-Saleh

n  Capital of kingdom of Ghana n  Principal trading center n  High point ninth to twelfth century

q  Population 15,000-20,000 n  Military, cultural center

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Islam in West Africa

n  Kings of Ghana convert, tenth century n  Positive impact on trade, relations with north

Africa n  Synthesized Islam with local traditions

q  Nearby Takrur, aggressive missionaries

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Sundiata (r. 1230-1255)

n  Empire of Mali extends over kingdom of Ghana q  Neighboring kingdoms as well

n  Took greater advantage of trans-Saharan trade n  Nominally Muslim, but did not force conversions

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Mansa Musa (r. 1312-1337)

n  Grand-nephew of Sundiata n  Fervent Muslim n  Performed hajj in 1324-25

q  Constructed numerous mosques q  Supported Muslim scholars

n  Empire declines after his rule

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Mansa Musa

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The Indian Ocean Trade and Islamic States in East Africa

n  East coast maritime trade weak until second century

n  Bantu peoples populate coast n  Swahili (“coasters”) engage in trade with Arabs

q  Language a form of Bantu, influenced by Arabic n  Tenth century, trade increases

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The Swahili City-States

n  Great wealth, eleventh to twelfth century C.E. n  Development of city-states n  Architecture moved from wood/mud to coral,

stone n  Chinese silk, porcelain imported

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Nok Sculpture

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Kilwa

n  City-state on east African coast n  Fishing, limited trade, 800-1000 C.E. n  Turn to agriculture, increased trade in pottery and

stoneware n  Major trading center by fourteenth century

q  Exporting over a ton of gold per year by fifteenth century C.E.

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Zimbabwe

n  “Dwelling of the chief” n  Stone complex called “Great Zimbabwe” built

early thirteenth century C.E., capital n  Population 18,000 in late fifteenth century n  Managed trade between internal and coastal

regions

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Islam in East Africa

n  Ruling elites in east Africa accept Islam without forcing general population to convert

n  Often retained pagan religious traditions and practices

n  Islam serves as social glue with other merchants, states

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Arabian Society and Cultural Development

n  Some kingdoms, empires, city-states with well-defined classes q  Ruling elites q  Merchant class q  Peasant class

n  Other areas in sub-Saharan Africa continue to use traditional kin-based groups

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Kinship Groups

n  Extended families, clans n  Idea of private property less prevalent n  Land held communally n  Harvests distributed by elders

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Sex and Gender Relations

n  Men work with specialized skills q  Tanning, iron work q  Heavy labor

n  Both sexes work in agriculture n  Male rule more common, but some expanded

roles for women q  Merchants, some military activity

n  Islamic norms slow to penetrate African society

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Age Grades

n  From early agricultural period, Sudan n  Peer groups of single age cohort n  Crosses lines of family and kinship

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Slavery

n  Practiced since ancient times n  Most slaves captives of war

q  Debtors q  Suspected witches q  Criminals

n  Used principally in agricultural labor n  Slaves a form of personal wealth, social status

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Slave Trading

n  Increased trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trade stimulates slave trade, ninth century C.E.

n  Africa replaces eastern Europe as principal source of slaves

n  Creates internal African slave trade q  More powerful states attack smaller kinship-based

groups q  10,000-20,000 slaves per year

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Arabian Swahili Slave Trade

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The Zanj Revolt

n  Slaves from Swahili coast exported to work in Mesopotamia q  Sugarcane plantations q  Salt deposits

n  869 C.E., slave Ali bin Muhammad mounts revolt of 15,000 slaves

n  Captures Basra n  Later crushed by Abbasids

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African Religion

n  Great diversity of religious belief n  Common element: single male creator god

q  Lesser deities associated with natural phenomena n  Ancestor worship n  Diviners

q  Religious specialists, principally men q  Oracle reading, spells, other rituals

n  Limited emphasis on theology n  Morality, balance of nature important

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Early Christianity in North Africa n  First century: popular in Egypt, north Africa

q  Initially weak in sub-Saharan Africa n  The Christian Kingdom of Axum, fourth century

C.E. q  Ethiopia q  Merchants, then kings convert q  Bible translated into Ethiopian q  Isolated during Islamic period, renaissance during

twelfth century C.E. q  Massive churches carved out of solid rock

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The Obelisk at Axum

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Ethiopian Christianity

n  Isolation from other Christian areas until sixteenth century

n  Independent development n  Strong African influence

q  Spirit world q  amulets

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