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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK OF THE RESEARCH

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter lays out the theoretical framework of the research

underpinned by the literature review. It analyses the various facets of a

pedestrian environment, to detail out the important parameters which

characterize pedestrian space. A study of the works of researchers and

planners, who have contributed to an understanding of the characteristics of

pedestrian spaces, helps to identify their desirable attributes. The results of

some surveys carried out to assess the needs and opinions of a space’s actual

users also throws some light on the desirable characteristics. An analysis of

the existing evaluation methods developed by various researchers helps to list

out the important parameters which have been used to assess pedestrian

spaces. These parameters, in turn, help to gain an understanding of the

requirements of an ideal pedestrian environment. This chapter also takes a

look at the policies, guidelines and standards concerning pedestrian space in

urban areas, as well as at City Development Plans and Master Plans of

selected cities in India.

2.2 CHARACTER OF PEDESTRIAN ORIENTED STREETS

Various researchers, planners and designers have attempted to

characterize the elements of an ideal pedestrian environment. For instance,

Kroll classified the function of streets as:

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· Utilitarian equipment,

· Cultural manifestation, and

· Local focal points. (Kroll 2001)

These three principal street functions provide various stages for the

personal experience of walking. This personal experience takes place in a

physical, social, and cultural milieu. Any method that attempts to evaluate this

multifaceted personal experience should be equally rich in analytical rigor and

insight.

Another researcher offered a definition that an “ideal” pedestrian

environment would be one where many activities occur simultaneously

without conflicts among users such as pedestrians, cyclists and drivers (Sarkar

1993).

In the evaluation of pedestrian and bicycle facilities in Texas, the

important attributes of the pedestrian network were identified to be surface

type of the pedestrian sidewalk, surface maintenance of the pedestrian

sidewalk, width of the pedestrian sidewalk, separation from the vehicular

carriageway, places for shopping, places for eating, drinking water fountains,

lighting facilities, presence of steep gradients, signage, amount of litter on the

pedestrian sidewalk and presence of police patrols (Shafer et al 1999).

Untermann (1984) states that the attributes for enhancing the

pedestrian environment are convenience, comfort, safety, and attractiveness .

Fruin (1971) emphasized the importance of pedestrian safety, security,

continuity, convenience, comfort, system coherence and attractiveness.

According to Uhlig (1979), pedestrian areas serve the tasks of being a

framework of urban design, a means of urbanity, an instrument of town

conservation, leisure and play areas, and elements of the residential

environment.

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Jacobs (1961) lays a lot of emphasis on the importance of safety,

security, width of the pedestrian sidewalk, visual image of streets and

comfort. In Future Transport, Brian Richards states that the success of large

scale pedestrian areas, in cities such as Hamburg or Munich, depends partly

on how animated they are by day and by night; and according to him,

pedestrian areas should ensure comfort and safety (Richards 2001).

Kunstler (1994) in The Geography of Nowhere, provides a scathing

critique of vehicle-friendly streets. According to him, the important elements

of a pedestrian-oriented street are comfort, safety and visual image. Jacobs,

in Great Streets, explains that the best streets are memorable; they help to

create a sense of community and history, and provide a space for urban public

life. According to him, the qualities of a good pedestrian environment are

enclosure/definition, complexity of path network, building articulation,

complexity of spaces, transparency, buffer, shade trees, overhangs/awnings/

varied roof lines and physical components/condition (Jacobs 1993).

Antoniou (1971) writes in Planning for Pedestrians, that the general

aim of providing a pedestrian system is to express a uniform design identity in

terms of function and visual quality, and to aid the pedestrian to orient

himself.

According to Brambilla and Longo (1977), the elements of

pedestrian planning essential to the effective realization of a pedestrian zone

are accessibility, zoning, design, construction, public participation, reduction

of congestion, organization of parking, promotion of public transit, alternate

modes of individual transport, improving the walking experience, mobility of

goods, street-scene beautification, generating street-life, programmed events –

special events such as musical and street theatre performances, design as

communication, art in public places and attracting tourists.

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Marcus et al (1998) developed design recommendations for urban

open spaces. According to them, features like size and proportions, visual

complexity, uses and activities, microclimate, circulation, seating,

landscaping, level changes, public art and sculpture, paving, food kiosks,

programs and special events, street-vendors, information and signs,

accessibility, maintenance and amenities, are critical to the success of a

pedestrian space.

Tibbalds (2001) states that the public realm is the most important

part of towns and cities. According to him, some essential features of a

people-friendly environment are pedestrian scale of design, individuality,

variety and complexity of uses and activities, a pedestrian network consisting

of streets, squares, public footpaths, parks and open spaces and extending also

to riversides and seafronts, accessibility, quality of urban design, safety,

comfort, permeability, psychological comfort, convenience and legibility.

Brambilla and Longo (1977) identify convenience, security,

comfort and safety, as the parameters that are essential for a pedestrian-

friendly environment. In Personal Space, Robert Sommer (1969) states that,

the two important goals of a design program, are variety and flexibility. Ritter

(1964) writes that a few elements like pedestrian-scale design, convenience

and comfort are essential for a pedestrian-friendly environment. In Social Life

of Small Urban Spaces, William H. Whyte (1980) lists out security, variety of

activities, well-defined details and provision of Shops and eateries as the

important components of a pedestrian space.

Another author, Cliff Moughtin (1992) cites significant issues as

diversity of activities, creation of a “sense of place”, dimensions of the street,

quality of enclosure, comfort and unified street design. In Hidden Dimension,

Edward Hall (1966) establishes the importance of a diversity of uses which

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lend visual and olfactory variety to the street. He also highlights the concept

of spatial experience – both kinesthetic and visual. Camillo Sitte (1889) in

Der Städtebau emphasizes the value of urban design that conforms to

traditional principles like the human scale, closure, intimate details and

diverse motifs.

Constantin Doxiadis (1968) stresses the significance of the human

scale, safety and interesting architecture for pedestrians to appreciate. In

Urban Space for Pedestrians, Pushkarev and Zupan (1969) highlight the

importance of comfort, convenience, quality of the urban environment and

landscaping. Rob Krier (1979) states that the provision of commercial

amenities and cultural centres enlivens the pedestrian environment. Some

other significant issues identified by him are comfort, convenience,

dimensions of the street and articulation of the urban environment.

A number of studies illustrating the influence of the urban

environment and walking as an activity have been reported. Convenient

facilities, presence of shops and parks, more aesthetically favorable and safe

environments, play an important role in encouraging walking and other

outdoor activity (Ball et al 2001, Corti et al 1997). Giles-Corti and Donovan

(2002) suggest that recreational physical activity seems to be influenced by

spatial access, convenience, and neighborhood safety. Researchers also state

that circulation and urban design elements like lighting and proper sidewalks

are critical to encourage walking (Brownson et al 2001, Craig et al. 2002).

There are six characteristics of the built environment that can affect

the choice of walking: 1) density and intensity; 2) land use mix; 3) street

connectivity—directness and availability of alternative routes; 4) street scale;

5) aesthetic qualities; and 6) regional structure (i.e., distribution of activities

and transportation throughout the region) (Handy et al. 2002). Greenwald and

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Boarnet (2002) emphasize the importance of the built environment in

determining walking behaviour, while Frank and Engelke (2001) describe

how the manipulation of urban design, land use and transportation can

promote more active and healthy communities.

2.2.1 User Perception of Pedestrian Spaces

Various researchers have studied the perceptions of pedestrians to

gauge their preferences and attitudes. A case study of Chennai city’s

responsiveness towards pedestrians, revealed that subways are the most

preferred form of pedestrian facility, as depicted in Figure 2.1. But, very few

pedestrians ventured into the subways, because of a variety of reasons, as

highlighted in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1 Preferred pedestrian crossing facilities

Source: ‘Pedestrian Safety in India, A Far Cry – Case Study of Chennai City’, Subramanian

and Kanagaraj (2001)

The study determined that time factor for the economically active

group, and inability for the aged, are the prime reasons for avoiding subways.

The study also showed that a large number of pedestrians preferred to cross at

grade or use subways rather than climb over-bridges.

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Figure 2.2 Causes for not using Subways

Source: ‘Pedestrian Safety in India, A Far Cry – Case Study of Chennai City’, Subramanian

and Kanagaraj (2001)

In another study about 13,000 persons were surveyed for their

opinion on various issues concerning pedestrian safety (IRT 1990). “Lack of

proper sidewalks” and “Encroachments by shopkeepers and hawkers” were

some of the major issues identified by pedestrians. A study on the need for

pedestrianization of the central area of Calicut city in Kerala by Nagaraj

(2001), highlighted issues such as proper design of sidewalks, insufficient

sidewalk widths, and encroachment by parked vehicles, adjacent property and

other obstructions, abrupt changes in grade and alignment, and illumination.

These could be further categorized under the broad headings of Comfort,

Convenience, Safety and Security.

A study conducted in San Francisco by Appleyard (1981), helped to

reveal pedestrians’ preferences and dislikes about the pedestrian environment.

Issues considered “very important” were Safety, Convenience and Comfort.

2.3 PEDESTRIAN SAFETY ISSUES

An analysis of road accidents in Chennai city, in the year 2000,

reveals that 647 pedestrians were involved in road accidents out of a total of

3032 victims (Ramachandran 2000). This analysis clearly shows that

pedestrians are the most vulnerable category of road users after two-wheeler

riders.

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Pedestrians in developed countries are not better off. The U.S. has a

pedestrian fatality rate of 2.13 per 100,000 persons (NHTSA 1996), and Great

Britain has a crash rate of 1.83 per 100,000 persons. In Great Britain in 1996,

there were 320,302 reported casualties of which 46,381 (14.5%) were

pedestrians. They make up approximately one in three of all road users killed,

some 20 percent of the casualties in built-up areas, and the casualty rates for

child pedestrians (particularly 11-13 years old) and elderly pedestrians are

particularly high (DETR 1997). All these result as the reason of poorly

designed or ill-maintained pedestrian facilities.

2.3.1 The Man-Vehicle Relationship

The automobile is one of the most versatile and useful inventions of

man (Ritter 1964). The nature and characteristics of man and automobile are

intrinsically different, so their needs have to be judged sensitively. The aim of

all planners and urban designers should be an ecologically harmonious

environment for man, in which an efficient use of the vehicle plays a crucial

part.

2.3.2 The Vulnerable Pedestrian

A large percentage of the pedestrian population consists of a

category of users, which can be classified as “vulnerable”. Children, the

elderly and the physically challenged, who constitute this category, deserve

equal access to pedestrian facilities and protection from vehicular traffic.

Thus, adequate consideration should be given to this segment of pedestrians,

when planning a pedestrian environment. Australia has a high rate of casualty

in this segment (Anderson et al 1989).

Figure 2.3 shows four separate curves representing the crash rates

for male and female pedestrians at different times of the day.

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Figure 2.3 Crash rates for male and female pedestrians of different

ages at different times of the day

Source: “Pedestrian Safety in Australia”, Federal Highway Administration (1999)

2.3.2.1 Safety of children

The sight of children playing on the streets is quite common in

almost every town and city. Children in cities need a variety of places in

which to play and learn – an unspecialized outdoor home base from which to

play, hang around in, and to help form notions of the world (Jacobs 1961).

Lively city sidewalks can serve splendidly as such outdoor home bases.

Children learn the first fundamentals of a successful city life from

the ordinary adults of the city’s sidewalks; the opportunity of playing and

growing up in a daily world composed of both men and women is possible

and usual for children who play on lively, diversified city sidewalks. (Jacobs

1961). Children are confronted by various problems usually arising from their

lack of height, when trying to adapt to traffic conditions on streets.

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2.3.2.2 Safety of the elderly

Like children, the elderly too encounter a lot of problems in the

pedestrian environment. Physiological changes like sight and hearing

impairments, and reduced walking speeds, put the elderly at a considerable

disadvantage when confronting vehicular traffic on the roads (Standards

Australia 1990).

2.3.2.3 Safety of the disabled pedestrian

The disabled pedestrians – visually impaired, wheelchair users and

pedestrians who use special aids to walk – experience significantly higher

accident risks. The accessibility of the pedestrian environment to all

categories of users is a prime concern, which has to be considered when

framing design requirements for the vulnerable groups (Standards Australia

1990).

2.3.3 Design Principles for Pedestrian Safety

This section analyses the various elements of the pedestrian

environment, which prevent or safeguard the vulnerable pedestrian from

coming into conflict with the automobile.

2.3.3.1 Techniques to minimize pedestrian-vehicular conflict

The basic nature of man and automobiles is fundamentally so

different, that separation of the modes is the most beneficial method of

preventing or at least minimizing pedestrian-vehicular conflict (Pushkarev

and Zupan 1969, Brambilla and Longo 1977, Fruin 1971).

The various types of mode separation are:

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a. Horizontal mode separation

b. Vertical mode separation

c. Time-based mode separation

In this system, the motorized and non-motorized modes utilize

the same street infrastructure, but at different time intervals.

d. Soft separation

In this method, the motorized and non-motorized modes are

treated equally and are integrated into one overall system,

using traffic calming principles.

2.3.3.2 Elements of the pedestrian environment

The various types of pedestrian facilities are as follows:

1. Footpaths / Sidewalks

Footpaths — commonly known as sidewalks in the west — are

defined as paths for pedestrians adjacent to the carriageway. They are

provided on nearly all roads in urban areas. However, the standard of

provision varies considerably with the age of the town, the function of the

street and the townscape.

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC 1998) stipulates that footpaths

should be at least 1.5 metres (5 feet) wide. But this guideline is rarely

followed in practice. The height of the sidewalks is not stipulated even though

it is one of the major problems which daunt the pedestrian. Dropped crossings

should be provided to enable the disabled pedestrian to cross conveniently.

Lighting and maintenance are other issues which impact pedestrian safety.

Parking on the sidewalk, frequent digging-up of the sidewalk due to

infrastructural service work, and degradation of the sidewalk materials over a

period of time, are the usual problems which take their toll on the condition of

the sidewalk. Street lighting is seldom designed keeping the pedestrian in

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mind. Safety at night consequently acquires prime importance, and

pedestrians especially women and the elderly, avoid ill-lit routes after dark.

This is an easily avoidable problem if only shorter pedestrian-scale lights at

more frequent intervals are adopted.

In the west, tactile paving – using different textured materials – is

often used to aid the disabled pedestrian (DETR 1997a) as shown in

Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Tactile warning in a curb ramp

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety Facilities in the

United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

Pedestrian guard rails are sometimes used to restrict pedestrians

from crossing at locations which could prove hazardous, such as at junctions

or roads with high-speed traffic. It is also used to channel pedestrians towards

designated crossing points. It is effective in reducing pedestrian accidents, but

is disliked by pedestrians because their freedom is curtailed, and because most

of them are poorly designed. Figure 2.5 depicts an example of guardrails in

the United Kingdom. The result is that many pedestrians are thus forced to

cross three legs of an intersection rather than one, tripling both the number of

potential conflicts with a vehicle and the actual distance that a pedestrian has

to walk (STPP 2002).

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Figure 2.5 Example of pedestrian guardrails

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety Facilities in the

United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

2. Crossings

a) Without Signal Control (Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7)

· Zebra crossing: Indicated by black and white bands painted

on the carriageway. Pedestrians on the crossing have

priority over vehicles.

· Pedestrian Refuge Island: Consists of kerbing, bollards and

signs in the center of the carriageway, enabling pedestrians

to cross more easily, in two stages.

· Curb build-out: Consists of curbing, bollards, and signs at

the edge of the carriageway, reducing the crossing width

and making pedestrians more visible to drivers.

· Flat-top road hump: A hump usually 75 to 100 mm high,

designed to reduce vehicle speeds and to enable

pedestrians to cross on the level (at grade).

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Refuge islands, curb build-outs and road humps offer no

pedestrian priority.

b) With Signal Control

· Pelican crossing (Pedestrian light controlled crossing) -

activated by the pedestrian pushing a button. A "red/green

man" signal on the far side alerts the pedestrian.

· Puffin crossing (Pedestrian User-Friendly intelligent

crossing) - activated by the pedestrian pushing a button.

The "red/ green man" signal is located on the side close to

the pedestrian, as shown in Figure 2.8. Intended as a

replacement for the Pelican, it monitors the presence of

pedestrians waiting and crossing, and lengthens or shortens

the crossing time accordingly, as depicted in Figure 2.9.

· Toucan crossing: "Two can cross." It is similar to the

Pelican and the Puffin, but shared with bicycles.

Figure 2.6 Example of a zebra crossing, a curb build-out and a flat-top

speed hump

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety

Facilities in the United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

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Figure 2.7 Example of a refuge island

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety

Facilities in the United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

c) Pedestrian Phase at Traffic Signals

· A "red/ green man" signal on the far side of the

carriageway shows the pedestrian when to cross. Activated

by the pedestrian pushing the button.

Figure 2.8 Signal hardware at experimental Puffin Crossing

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety Facilities in the

United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

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Figure 2.9 Pressure - sensitive mat at experimental Puffin Crossing

Source: “Research, Development and Implementation of Pedestrian Safety Facilities in the

United Kingdom”, Federal Highway Administration (1999a)

In Australia, the minimum pedestrian green time specified is 6s,

and the pedestrian clearance phase is calculated to give a pedestrian time to

complete a crossing of the road, assuming a walking speed of 1.2 m/s (4 ft/s),

with a minimum of 5s (Standards Australia 1990).

Researchers have suggested that at sites where pedestrian activity is

high and vehicle occupants are to be given low priority, the signals should

default to red-to-vehicles rather than (as at present) red-to pedestrians (Hunt

and Lyons 1977). New all-red pedestrian “scrambles” at some intersections in

California provide pedestrians with an “all-walk” phase during which the

pedestrian can actually cross the intersection diagonally (STPP 2002).

It has been shown that providing a pedestrian crossing does not

necessarily reduce pedestrian casualties, partly because the crossing may

cause changes in levels and type of pedestrian activity (Ekman 1988). "Each

type of crossing has advantages and disadvantages; the type chosen should be

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appropriate to the circumstances of the site and the demands and behaviour of

the road users" (DOT 1995).

3. Signage

Signage for pedestrians should be preferably symbol signs

(Standards Australia 1990). The signs should consist of a large symbol with

good legibility distance. Other signs of particular importance for pedestrian

safety include the written Safety Zone, School and School Zone signs, and the

hybrid Shared Zone signs.

4. Medians and Pedestrian Refuge Areas

The narrowest medians (1.2 m) (4 ft) on arterial roads were found

to have four times the pedestrian crash rate of those with the widest medians

(2.9 m) (10 ft) (Scriven 1986).

5. Provision for the Disabled Pedestrian

The issues which concern disabled pedestrians are the provision of

adequate width of footpaths to accommodate wheelchairs, the need for

obstruction-free paths, placement of gratings and manhole covers, treatment

of ramps and curb ramps, installation of textured paving at waiting areas to

provide tactile cues for the visually impaired, loops to detect wheelchairs and

allow longer pedestrian green times at signalized crossings, provision of

information on routes used by the visually impaired, and signage of facilities

and routes for the disabled (Standards Australia 1993).

6. School Zone Safety

School zone safety is generally addressed by the provision of

warning signs, and the provision of pedestrian-operated traffic signals or

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children’s crossings. They may be enhanced by the provision of curb

extensions (bulb-outs) (Federal Highway Administration 1999).

7. Pedestrian Grade-separated Crossings

They are also referred to as overbridges and subways in India, and

over-passes and under-passes elsewhere. They appear to attract little use,

unless pedestrians have no other means of crossing the road (Federal

Highway Administration 1999).

2.3.3.3 Sidewalk surface conditions

Pedestrians are highly susceptible to the surface conditions of

sidewalks. Potholes, broken paving materials and uneven surfaces, are the

main causes of pedestrian accidents on the sidewalks. The elderly and

disabled are especially prone to falls on sidewalks, due to poor surface

conditions. Encroachment by Government agencies like the Telephones

department and the Electricity Board also create hazards for the pedestrians.

Illegal parking, drainage problems and poor maintenance, make the pedestrian

environment extremely perilous for the visually impaired (Federal Highway

Administration 1999a).

2.3.4 Importance of Security

Not all pedestrians have good intentions. A pedestrian assesses a

street for dangers before venturing into it. Hence, the pedestrian environment

should be designed keeping in mind the perceptions of security among

pedestrians.

An attitude survey carried out in four countries (Federal Highway

Administration 1999b) highlighted the main impediments for walking, with

the feeling of insecurity ranking highest. A survey carried out in Chennai to

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list out the reasons for lack of use of pedestrian subways, revealed insecurity

to be one of the main reasons, apart from saving time (Subramanian and

Kanagaraj 2001). Researchers have illustrated the link between stressed

neighbourhoods and the lack of street and outdoor activity (Ross and

Mirowski 2001, Klinenberg 2002). Three broad factors: 1) personal safety;

2) aesthetics; and 3) presence of destinations have been listed as the most

important for walking in the neighborhood (Pikora et al. 2003). “Perceiving

footpaths to be safe for walking” had a significant impact on the prevalence of

walking (Booth et al 2000).

2.3.4.1 Design Principles for Pedestrian Security

Some principles of design proposed by researchers and planners for

increasing the feeling of security among pedestrians are:

1. Diversity of uses

Diversity of uses breeds an environment which is safe for

pedestrians, as they ensure the presence of people who use the street for

different purposes on varying time schedules. Jane Jacobs states that the four

conditions indispensable to generate diversity are mixed primary uses, short

blocks, mixture of old and new buildings, and dense concentration of people

(Jacobs 1961).

2. Orientation of buildings

Since the 1920s, streets have been subjugated to a secondary role

by buildings. The Garden city concept, Radiant city and other planning

schemes emphasized the idea that buildings should be oriented away from the

street. It was only in the 1960s that activists and planners like Jane Jacobs

brought the street back into focus. Jacobs states that buildings facing the

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street, especially retail stores, attract users and help to keep it safe. She also

appeals for old buildings to be retained as they encourage diversity. Thus,

they indirectly help in keeping the pedestrian environment secure (Jacobs

1961).

In Pedestrian Planning and Design, Fruin emphasizes the

importance of building orientation to enhance clear observation by

pedestrians and security personnel and avoiding configurations which could

provide concealment (Fruin 1971). Urban plazas, parks, pathways and parking

lots should be designed not only to allow people to see and be seen but also be

provided with call boxes and graphics clearly indicating ways of helping

oneself or getting help (Wekerle and Whitman 1995).

3. Foster street activities

According to Jane Jacobs, a well used street is apt to be a safe

street. She states that in order to handle strangers, a city street must possess a

clear demarcation between public and private space, and the sidewalks must

have users on it fairly continuously. Substantial number of stores / bars /

restaurants helps in surveillance on streets. They give people concrete reasons

for using sidewalks. Jacobs adds that safe streets encourage children’s play

activities (Jacobs 1961). In Safe Cities - Guidelines for Planning, Design and

Management, Wekerle and Whitman (1995) assert that measures which

detract from street life, such as overhead walkways and underground malls

might increase security risks.

4. Pedestrian-oriented lighting

Street lighting is an important aspect of pedestrian security. This is

completely different from road lighting (Uhlig 1979). Low-level pedestrian-

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oriented lighting has been emphasized by innumerable researchers and

planners as instrumental in altering the perception of pedestrian environments.

5. Presence of security personnel / devices

Television surveillance is increasingly being used in buildings,

transit stations, and major street locations. This helps in increasing the

perception of security (Fruin 1971). Frequent patrolling by security personnel

would also act as a deterrent to crime.

2.3.5 Significance of Traffic Calming

Traffic calming indicates a diverse range of physical measures,

including vertical and horizontal deflections, changed surfaces, planting, etc.

It may include specific facilities for pedestrians, such as pedestrian refuges,

curb build-outs, or zebra crossings. Although traffic calming is not a

pedestrian facility, it can be very beneficial to pedestrians as they are most

vulnerable to excessive speed. Speed limits by themselves are highly effective

in reducing pedestrian casualties. In addition, the streets in a town could be

categorized under various subdivisions such as residential, mixed or arterial,

etc., with separate regulations for each. Most traffic calming techniques

involve modifying intersections or roadway channelization, to encourage

motorists to (1) drive slower or (2) stop using residential streets as bypasses.

By lowering speeds and/or discouraging through traffic, the number of

crashes can be reduced, and pedestrian safety can be enhanced.

2.3.5.1 Concepts and benefits of traffic calming

A list of traffic calming techniques that both slow and discourage

traffic includes:

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· Traffic circles or roundabouts – They are raised islands located

in the middle of an intersection, to slow traffic.

A large-scale experiment with small roundabouts on arterials in

the Swedish town Växjö carried out in 1991 (Hyden et al., 1992,

Hyden et al 1995) demonstrated that mean speeds and number

of accidents were significantly reduced.

· Speed humps and tables – They are raised strips on the

carriageway, to slow traffic.

In a study in Australia, humps were found to be effective in

reducing speeds (Taylor and Rutherford 1986). Another study

documented the reduction in pedestrian accidents from 18 per

year to 3 per year, due to the introduction of raised pedestrian

crossings (Jones and Farmer 1993).

· Partial street closures – Access to a road is barred in one

direction, though the rest of the road remains two-way.

· Diverters – They are structures placed at intersections, to

prevent through traffic, by forcing motorists onto another street.

· Curb extensions or bulb-outs – They are sidewalk extensions at

intersections, that reduce crossing distances, and increase

pedestrian visibility.

· Chicanes – They are obstacles or parking bays, staggered on

alternate sides, to create an obstructed route for motorists.

· Choke points – They serve to reduce the width of a road over a

short distance, to a single lane, in order to slow traffic.

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· Gateway treatments – They are raised intersections and surface

alteration to demarcate a change from arterial to residential

streets.

· Woonerven – They are surface alteration to demarcate a change

from arterial to residential streets.

· 32 km/h (20 mi/h) zones – In the U.K. thirty-two km/h (20

mi/h) zones appear to be highly successful in reducing vehicle

speeds and casualties, with a significant reduction in the average

accident frequency (Webster and Mackie 1996).

In the United States a number of cities, such as Palo Alto and Santa

Monica in California, Portland, Seattle, and New York City have

implemented different versions of traffic calming programs, reporting good

results (NHTSA 2003).

2.3.6 Pedestrian Safety Audits

A Pedestrian Safety audit, which should be carried out by a

qualified, independent assessor, is a formal assessment of the accident

potential and likely safety performance of an existing or future project. One of

the key principles of the audit process, is for the auditor to view the facility

from the perspective of the road user, and this applies to pedestrians and

cyclists, as much as to any other type of road users.

The Austroads audit process might be used to address the particular

needs of pedestrians, and briefly cites a number of examples where safety

audits have revealed problems for pedestrians, and which were able to be

remedied before the facilities in question were opened to the public (Jordan

1995). A rather broader view of pedestrian audits is put forward in the same

conference proceedings, in which a pedestrian audit is envisaged as

36

embracing issues relating to convenience, mobility, and personal safety (Daff

and Cramphorne 1995).

2.4 ISSUES RELATED TO PEDESTRIAN COMFORT

There are two kinds of comfort – Physiological and Psychological.

2.4.1 Physiological Comfort

On an average the urban pedestrian walks for 60 minutes a day.

Going somewhere on foot is not just a utilitarian activity. It is a complex

activity which has an effect not only on the body but also on the mind. The

pedestrian indulges in a whole lot of allied activities apart from walking, such

as satisfying one’s curiosity, dawdling along, self-representation,

communication and interacting with other people (Uhlig 1979).

The comfort level perception of a pedestrian is greatly enhanced by

the design of spaces which facilitate such allied activities. Man can be viewed

as having visual, kinesthetic, tactile, and thermal aspects of his self, which

may be either inhibited or encouraged to develop by his environment (Hall

1966).

Physiological comfort is also influenced by the standards adopted

for walkways. Congestion of sidewalks is essential to the vibrancy of the

street environment, but it becomes stifling, when it impedes the pedestrian’s

level of choice to indulge in any activity he desires.

Pedestrians are greatly accommodative of each other. William

Whyte (1980) in Social life of small urban spaces, states that people are

attracted most by other people. People did not move out of the main

pedestrian flow. They stayed in it or moved into it, and the great bulk of the

conversations were right in the center of the flow.

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2.4.2 Psychological Comfort

This facet of comfort is concerned with the mental satisfaction of

the pedestrian with the street environment. Various researchers like Hall,

Sommer and Fruin have attempted to highlight the factors, which influence

the pedestrian’s perception of psychological comfort. Man's relationship to his

environment is a function of his sensory apparatus and the manner in which it

is conditioned to respond (Hall 1966).

Proxemics, territoriality, crowding and sensory stimuli are the

factors which influence the psychological perception of the comfort of a

pedestrian. The spatial experience is not just visual, but multi-sensory.

According to Hall (1966), experience as it is perceived through one set of

culturally patterned sensory screens is quite different from experience

perceived through another.

Hediger (1950) has identified different critical distances. Personal

distance and social distance are two important spacing criteria which are

critical to psychological comfort. Hall goes on to elaborate the different

scenarios - public distance, social distance, personal distance, and intimate

distance, with close and far phases in each category.

The pedestrian L.O.S. model put forth by Fruin (1971) works on

the principle that greater spacing between pedestrians provides increased

physiological and psychological comfort, and results in a better LoS. Indian

cities, unlike their Western particularly American counterparts, offer a wide

range of sensory stimuli – visual, auditory and olfactory, which play a great

role in the psychological perception of an environment. These stimuli help a

pedestrian to position himself in the spatial environment and partake of its

charms; they helps in imageability, as smell evokes much deeper memories

than either vision or sound.

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According to Hall (1966), the skin is as much a vital sense organ in

man’s perception of space as the eyes, ears and nose. Temperature has a great

deal to do with how a person experiences crowding.

2.4.3 Sidewalk Activities Which Ensure Comfort

Sidewalks are synonymous with a wide range of activities like

standing to look at something, standing to talk to an acquaintance, sitting and

allied activities, schmoozing and looking at street events (Whyte 1980). By

ensuring the comfort with which these activities can be undertaken, the

comfort level of the pedestrian can be enhanced.

2.4.3.1 Standing

Standing is a common occurrence on the sidewalk. This activity

expresses itself in two ways:

(a) Standing to look at something momentarily.

(b) Standing to talk to an acquaintance.

If window-shopping is not taken into account in the design of the

sidewalk, it could result in impeding the pedestrian flow as well as

obstructing the view of the window-shopper. When people stop to talk on a

sidewalk, they usually do so right in the middle of the pedestrian flow. There

is a tendency to position themselves near objects, such as a streetlamp or a

statue. They like well-defined places, such as steps.

2.4.3.2 Sitting

A place to relax is an important element of a pedestrian area, e.g.,

chairs, benches, steps, beverage stalls etc. (Uhlig 1979). Sitting is a favoured

activity, and engenders other activities like chatting, eating, watching other

39

people, etc. Pushkarev and Zupan (1969) highlight the important areas of the

pedestrian network, which require auxiliary spaces for standing, sitting and

other activities.

Sitting requires attention to some important issues like protection

from the weather and placement of seating. The harsh weather in Indian urban

areas necessitates the provision of devices to shade the pedestrian from the

sun. This could take the shape of trees, buildings and canopies. Seating should

be provided where the pedestrian feels secure (Whyte 1980). Placements

abutting building facades and boundaries are ideal. Importance should also be

given to the view – of activities which enliven the street. Different elements

of the street environment can be used to provide seating – benches, steps,

low-height parapets or walls and concrete bases around landscaping elements.

2.4.3.3 Schmoozing

“Schmoozing” basically means small talk – politics, sports or just

idle gossip. In The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, Whyte (1980)

describes the typical activities of a schmoozing group. Sidewalks should be

designed to accommodate such informal gatherings. Years ago, prior to the

design of the flyover at Gandhi Mandapam, the sidewalks abutting the

compound wall of Anna University, Chennai would be filled with students

and passers-by. Students would sit on the compound wall in rows and chat

with their friends, some of them standing on the sidewalk facing them.

Pedestrians would weave their way through them, with nary a complaint.

2.4.3.4 Gazing at street activities

Impromptu musical events and vending activities are just some of

the attractions of a vibrant pedestrian environment. Provision of space and

conveniences to facilitate their enjoyment would go a long way in enhancing

40

the comfort of a pedestrian (Cutler and Cutler 1982). This naturally assumes

that vehicular noise levels are sufficiently subdued so as to ensure the

enjoyment of these activities.

2.4.4 Sidewalk Space Requirement for Comfort

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC 1998) has stipulated fundamental

standards for pedestrian facilities like Sidewalks, Guard Rails and Pedestrian

Crossings. The width of sidewalks depends upon the expected pedestrian

flows, subject to a minimum of 1.5 metres. In shopping areas, the width

should be increased by 1 metre which is treated as “dead width”. Where

sidewalks abut buildings and fences, the dead width can be taken as 0.5

metres. For areas of heavy pedestrian activity, such as bus stops, railway

stations and recreational areas, the width of sidewalks should be suitably

increased to accommodate the accumulation of pedestrians.

The places people like best for sitting, are those next to the main

pedestrian flow, and for many conversations the very middle of the flow

(Whyte 1980). According to him, walkers like proximity too, since it makes

navigation more challenging.

Instead of attempting to mathematically solve the problem of

congestion and perceived discomfort, a qualitative evaluation process would

rectify the issue. Some guidelines which could be followed in the design of

sidewalks are:

(a) The sidewalks should adhere to the minimum standards

prescribed by the planning authorities.

(b) The concept of personal and social space should be considered

in the design of sidewalks.

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(c) Sidewalk space should be linked to the floor area and land use

of abutting buildings.

According to Pushkarev and Zupan (1969), pedestrian congestion

in high density urban districts is a result not of high density as such, but rather

of inadequate allocation of space at and near the surface level for pedestrian

use. The amount of walkway space required for new buildings is firmly linked

to the amount and use of floor space in these buildings.

There are different cultural attitudes towards personal space

throughout the world (Hall 1966). He says that there are four general

categories: public distance, social distance, personal distance, and intimate

distance, with close and far phases in each category.

2.4.5 Factors Which Cause Discomfort

Apart from congestion, two important factors which cause

significant discomfort to the pedestrian are Noise and Air pollution, both of

which are caused by vehicular traffic. Consistent high levels of noise cause

stress and annoyance, and also disturb the pedestrian’s enjoyment of street

activities.

Air pollution is another irritant which detracts the pedestrian from

comfortably taking part in the street environment. Two factors influence

urban air quality: street level pollution, and upper-level pollution. Along with

encouraging nonpolluting forms of transit, such as electric vehicles, the most

effective way to clean the air is to limit automobile traffic (Brambilla and

Longo 1977).

The harmful effects of these two elements can be greatly mitigated

by restricting vehicular traffic to reduce air pollution, provision of trees and

42

shrubs to buffer pedestrian spaces, provision of open spaces to increase air

circulation, and proper design of critical areas like roadside cafes and seating.

2.4.5.1 Protection from the weather

Protection from the elements of the weather is critical to the

pedestrian’s perception of comfort. Streets should be narrow in a place having

a hot climate, while the buildings should be taller (Palladio 1965). Gehl

correlates walking and the weather in his studies of the Stroget, the pedes-

trianized main shopping street of Copenhagen (Gehl 1987).

On a day-to-day basis a more disruptive effect is caused by

precipitation (Pushkarev and Zupan 1969). According to Uhlig, weather

protection is very important. Devices which could be employed for protection,

range from awnings to umbrellas on stands, canopies, arcades and “vitrades”

(shopping displays). The passage in the form of covered shopping streets or

shopping squares is coming back into town planning as an extension of the

idea of the covered street, e.g., the urban indoor square at Harvard University.

Indoor squares can form the natural focal points of pedestrian systems (Uhlig

1979). Each region is geographically and culturally different, and hence the

steps taken to mitigate the elements of climate should be worked out

contextually (Gehl 1987).

In India, the Connaught Place in New Delhi and the Esplanade in

Kolkata are two prominent examples of pedestrian arcades. Shelters at bus

stops with seating provide intermediate relief to the pedestrian. These should

be designed to cater to all sections of pedestrians and bus goers.

Elements like trees and water bodies would also help in mitigating

the harsh summer climate. These measures will increase pedestrian comfort

43

significantly and cause them to spend more time outdoors, participating in

various street activities and enlivening the street environment.

2.5 ISSUES RELATED TO PEDESTRIAN CONVENIENCE

The act of walking is an exacting one. The pedestrian consequently

places great emphasis on convenience. There is a limit to the distance, which

a pedestrian can conveniently traverse. This distance varies across age group,

culture, and class of pedestrians. The pedestrian path has certain preferable

characteristics, like continuity, legibility, directness ,and shortcuts. Numerous

impediments are present in the pedestrian path, which serve to inconvenience

the pedestrian. Street furniture and other amenities provide conveniences to

the pedestrian. These attributes and elements of the street environment, which

enhance pedestrian convenience, are analysed in the following sections.

2.5.1 Acceptable Walking Distances

Walking distances vary greatly, according to the context, age

group, culture and economic class of the pedestrian. Fruin (1971) states that

for most persons, the maximum tolerable walk distance is in the range of a

normal 5-to-7 minute walk. He suggests that the improvement of the design

environment to reduce negative psychological factors is as important as

reducing pedestrian walking distances. Pushkarev and Zupan (1969) discuss

the proportion of walkers at various distances. Thus, studies show that the

design of the pedestrian environment is a critical factor in determining the

acceptable walking distance.

2.5.2 Preferred Characteristics of the Pedestrian Path

To provide a convenient route for the pedestrian, the desirable

characteristics of the pedestrian path have to be first determined. Pedestrians

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prefer to adopt the shortest distance to reach their destination. Any obvious

detour that the designer introduces for aesthetic or engineering reasons, is an

insult to the pedestrian. Conversely, any shortcut is viewed as a valuable gain

(Pushkarev and Zupan 1969).

Corners need to be critically designed. A splay provides the

psychological satisfaction of reduced walking distance. Sight distance is

another justification for cutting corners. Pedestrians do not turn at right angles

but rather in curves that have radii of 6 to 10 feet (Pushkarev and Zupan

1969). They also justify splays with the reasoning, that corners are places

where two pedestrian streams intersect, and hence, added space is required.

2.5.3 Continuity of Pathways

Continuity is the characteristic of pedestrian pathways, which

implies the degree to which the path system is free from interruptions and

obstacles. The path may be a direct one, but continuity may be disrupted even

by the presence of impediments on the pathway. According to Tibbalds

(2001), in many cities, it has become difficult to walk around safely and

comfortably. He states that the aim should be to create a barrier-free urban

area.

The importance of system continuity cannot be overemphasized

(Fruin 1971). He says that pedestrian improvements must be direct, accessible

and in the common pedestrian pathway of “perceived least effort”.

2.5.4 Impedances to Continuity

Impedances on the pedestrian path system can assume many forms

(Pushkarev and Zupan 1969) (Tibbalds 2001). Elements of street furniture,

45

though well intentioned, can act as obstacles in the route of a pedestrian if not

properly placed.

According to Fruin (1971), pedestrians are compelled to share their

space with countless pieces of hardware. He says that street furniture can be

an amenity but is often an impediment. Thus, deductions must be made for

the incursions by street furniture, when designing or evaluating sidewalks.

Fruin also states that design features like gratings and excessive curb-heights,

also inconvenience a pedestrian and induce him to jaywalk.

2.5.5 Pedestrian Amenities

Amenities provided on the sidewalk are critical in regard to

pedestrian convenience. Successful pedestrian areas should be architecturally

designed and properly fitted out (Uhlig 1979). He says that people desire to

avail all kinds of amenities, e.g., landscaping, benches, fountains, public

conveniences, luggage lockers and day-care centres.

2.5.6 Street Furniture

Uhlig (1979) lists out the diverse range of amenities that can be

provided for the convenience of the pedestrian like Surface design, Street

furnishings and other fittings, Furniture, Minor architectural features,

Equipment for play and leisure, Lighting, Vegetation for streets and squares,

Fountains, and Works of art.

Some researchers caution against the excessive use of street

furniture (Whyte 1980). Studies in Germany and U.S.A. have shown that

people preferred large, uncluttered, open walkway areas (Pushkarev and

Zupan 1969). Street furniture must always derive from the context (Tibbalds

2001).

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2.5.7 Convenient Pedestrian Crossings

Changes in levels – whether above grade or below grade – cause

inconvenience to pedestrians. Numerous studies have shown that pedestrians

prefer to jaywalk rather than utilize foot over-bridges and pedestrian subways

(IRT 1990). Provision of curb ramps aids the elderly, young and the

physically disabled. Provision of pedestrian phase in the traffic signal system

as well as provision of Pelican or Puffin signals would also increase the

convenience of the pedestrian (Federal Highway Administration 1999a).

2.5.8 Legibility in the Pedestrian Environment

The perceptual order of a city is related to the legibility of the

environment, or the ease with which its parts can be recognized and organized

into a coherent pattern (Moughtin 1992). Visual and functional coherence is a

necessary element of pedestrian design, if the full utility of the space is to be

realized (Fruin 1971). He says that all elements of the urban core should have

clear visual statements that convey their direction, function and purpose.

The urban designer is entrusted with the task of creating areas with

a vivid image. Lynch (1960) defines “imageability” as the quality in a

physical setting which gives it a high probability of evoking a strong image in

any given observer. The principal elements for achieving imageability are

paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks (Lynch 1960). Such places or

nodes should be at intervals of 200 to 300 m.

The architecture of the urban environment is particularly helpful in

orienting the pedestrian (Tibbalds 2001). Signage plays an important role in

ensuring legibility. The system of pedestrian signage should be distinctly

different from that of vehicular signage. Coordinated and subdued graphics

help to create visual and sensory coherence (Brambilla and Longo 1977).

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Signs should be considered as a supplementary message to confirm the visual

statements expressed by the legibility of the building design itself (Fruin

1971).

2.6 QUALITIES OF THE URBAN PUBLIC REALM

The public realm is the most important part of our towns and cities.

Most of the interactions between people take place here. The public realm is

all parts of the urban fabric to which the public have physical and visual

access (Tibbalds 2001). Its design should be based on the human scale and not

that of the automobile. The spirit of urbanism which exemplified most of our

traditional towns is slowly making its return. Modernist dogma is being

replaced by a concern for attractive, pedestrian-friendly spaces which foster

diverse activities and are responsive to their context. Architects need to accept

that the greatest contribution they can make to the built environment of the

city, is to construct good, backcloth buildings (Tibbalds 2001).

Gehl (1987) and Tibbalds (2001) state that the nature and

memorability of the spaces between buildings than the buildings themselves,

are intrinsic to the quality of the city design. In nearly all our cities, the street

is the most important forum and its definition and design is a major element

of urban design.

According to Tibbalds (2001), emphasis on contrasts and variety is

very important. Memorable urban places offer an assortment of uses and a

multiplicity of activities and experiences. Zoned separation of uses is usually

lethal to urban areas. Rob Krier (1979) explains how an experiment conducted

in the Western Electric Factory showed conclusively that environment did

create a lot of difference. What attracts people most is other people. But,

unfortunately many urban spaces are being designed as though what people

liked best were the places that they stay away from.

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Cliff Moughtin (1992) places buildings in their proper perspective

in the book Urban Design: Street and Square. According to him, architects

have been designing buildings without taking into consideration the city

context, the streets and the squares which condition the form of the building.

The public face of a building is an important element of the public realm and

is critical to its legibility.

Kevin Lynch (1960) claims that a vivid and integrated physical

setting, capable of producing a sharp image, plays a social role as well. For

the purpose of orientation, man reduces the urban environment to an

understandable pattern of signs and clues (Moughtin 1992). Man utilizes

places, paths and domains as the basic organizational structure to create an

image of a place (Norberg-Schulz 1971). The goal of urban design is the

creation of a strong urban image (Lynch 1960).

Moughtin (1992) categorizes city planning concepts into two types

– one in which buildings are the positive solid elements, and space is the

general background against which they are seen, and the other in which the

city space itself is the positive element with three-dimensional properties, and

the buildings are two-dimensional facades framing the space. The street and

the square are the primary elements of urban space, with the buildings

relegated to a subsidiary role as two-dimensional enclosures (Sitte 1889).

2.6.1 Traditional Urban Areas

Traditional towns and buildings are generally composed far better

than new ones. They strike us as comfortable and attractive with the

employment of different levels, mixed uses, residential quarters in the town

centre, unity of materials, definition of the centre by walls, definition of

entrances by arches or gateways, a distinctive skyline, a permeable structure

of passages, “Backcloth” buildings of a certain height against which special

49

buildings are highlighted, large uses accommodated in modest buildings and

changing views (Tibbalds 2001).

The street layouts of traditional towns were designed to the scale of

the human being. Most of them are not conducive to the flow of vehicular

traffic, even as they are apt for pedestrian circulation. They are almost always

part of a network and never cease to astound us with the variety of spatial

relationships they offer.

2.6.2 Qualities of the Street

The best streets are memorable; they help to create a sense of

community and history, and provide a space for urban public life (Jacobs

1993).

A street is distinct from a road. A road is a two-dimensional path

connecting two places. It fulfills the basic need of getting from place A to

place B. A street is a three-dimensional space between two rows of adjacent

buildings. It provides linkages between buildings. It assists the movement of

pedestrians and vehicles. It has immense social connotations. It fosters

interaction between people. It acts as a space where the local urban

community can indulge in recreation, conversation and entertainment. It also

plays an important role in the fulfillment of traditional rituals.

The notion of the city as a product of urban functions dominated by

transport deprives the street of its role, or meaning and such functional

analyses leave the urban street without an existence or a reason for being

(Moughtin 1992). But this does not rule out the usage of streets for the

purpose of vehicular traffic. The street, square and the public face of buildings

are the principle design elements which aid in the conception of a sense of

place.

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Walking is also an integral part of many other matters, such as

looking at shop windows, admiring the scene, or talking to people. According

to him, the freedom with which a person can walk about and look around is a

very useful guide to the civilized quality of an urban area (Buchanan 1963).

According to Barnett (1982), a second element basic to any public

open space plan is to recognize the importance of streets as the framework of

public open space. Unlike a road, a street is simultaneously a path and a place.

Unfortunately, modern city planning principles have ignored the latter role,

with the result that streets have become indistinguishable from roads. In

Corbusier’s (1967) opinion, streets had become an obsolete notion, and the

time had come to create something that would replace them. On the contrary,

Alexander et al (1977) says that streets should be for staying in, and not just

for moving through, the way they are today. Characterizing a street as a road

for vehicular traffic is very different from designing it as a path for people.

The traffic route designed by the engineer to serve a number of passenger car

units (PCUs) per hour relegates the street to the level of a sewer, a conduit

which facilitates the efficient movement of an effluent (Moughtin 1992). This

is in stark contrast to Norberg-Schulz's (1971) symbolic definition of a path.

A path has a beginning and an end, places or nodes all along its

length - places of special use and activity; such paths can be scaled, have

contrasting elements and should create an interesting and memorable image in

the mind of the pedestrian (Lynch 1960).

It should be remembered that in the context of the street, the

volume of space has predominance over the individual buildings. The ideal

street must form a completely enclosed unit (Gibberd 1955). He states that the

street is not building frontage but a space about which dwellings are grouped

to form a series of street pictures; alternatively, the street is a space that may

be expanded into wider spaces such as squares.

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A number of techniques have been suggested for the design of

comfortable streets.

2.6.2.1 Street Length

The Essex design guide (County Council of Essex, 1973)

recommends that the perceptible length of a street can be reduced using

offsets, while Hegemann and Peets (1922) advocate the use of gateways. If a

street or a section of a street is to possess the quality of enclosure, then it must

be considered to have three main elements, an entrance, the place itself and a

termination or exit (County Council of Essex 1973). Sitte (1889) feels that the

ideal street must form a completely enclosed unit, since one feels at ease in a

space where the gaze cannot be lost in infinity.

The maximum limit for an uninterrupted length of street is

approximately 1,500 metres (1 mile). Beyond this distance the human scale is

lost. Even at distances lesser than 1,500 m, the closure of the view is difficult

to attain. The distance to the terminal building should not be too far

(Hegemann and Peets 1922); they suggest that below an angle of 18 degrees

even a prominent building will lose its significance and merge into a

silhouette with the adjacent environment. The long vista should be reserved

for special streets, great ceremonial routes, and public pathways used on state

occasions.

2.6.2.2 Street Width

The wide street preferred by transportation planners is incompatible

with shopping. The narrow pedestrianized urban streets with uninterrupted

enclosing walls slightly higher than street width, are extremely successful for

their purpose and are more pleasing to the eye of the pedestrian (Moughtin

1992). Narrow streets of width 6-9 metres (20-30 ft) adjoined by three or four

52

storied buildings impart a quality of unity and enclosure to the street scene.

The Essex design guide suggests that a ratio of height to width, of 1: 1 is not

too tight for comfort while 1: 2.5 is as open as can be tolerated (County

Council of Essex, 1973). Narrow streets also assist shopping as pedestrians

feel free to walk across the street and back, for window shopping.

2.6.3 The Role of the Architectural Environment

There are diverse factors which contribute to a unified street design.

One of the most important factors is that the form of the buildings should

seem to be two-dimensional surfaces rather than solid masses. The sense of

unity can also be reinforced by the usage of a harmonious language of

building materials and architectural details, a consistent roofline and

comparable plot sizes. But this does not mean that all buildings should look

similar. Unity can be achieved by the inclusion of one powerful motif across

the lower floors of all the buildings.

Street architecture -- the architectural design and façade treatment

of buildings bordering the pedestrian zone -- is very important in the sense of

continuity of building facades (Uhlig 1979). The detailing at eye-level is what

is most important. Height is not a critical element as many high-rise buildings

contribute to the pedestrian environment with the help of a pedestrian-friendly

façade. A height limit can be set for a particular context, with exceptions

made for special buildings like government buildings or landmarks.

Blank and featureless frontages, facades set back from the street

and unintentional left-over spaces are detrimental to the variety and

attractiveness of the pedestrian milieu. The elements of entrances, display

windows and galleries are design opportunities which should be exploited to

create interesting street facades, consistent with the overall grain of the area.

A human-scale exterior is required, which clearly communicates the function

53

of the building and does not try to conceal it behind the façade of privacy

(Tibbalds 2001). There should be a healthy, active dialogue between the

internal and external, and the private and public spaces. A vibrant internal

space should be visible from the street and not obstructed from view by high

walls.

Certain factors such as the aesthetic quality of adjacent houses,

harmony of the facing frontages, demarcation of different sections of the

street and a balanced scale, fulfill a precise cultural role in the functional

coherence of the street and square (Krier 1979). The Planning authorities

should prescribe local design guidelines and apply them prudently - as a

checklist to promote good design, and not as a restraint to repress originality

(Tibbalds 2001). Many cities have building regulations which provide

guidelines regarding height, use, bulk, colour and setbacks. The Urban Art

Commissions of Delhi and Mumbai are good examples. Krier (1979) has

demonstrated the effect of building sections on urban space. He describes

twenty-four different building sections that significantly alter the perception

of urban space.

2.6.3.1 The Importance of Context

Buildings and development must be appropriate to, and unique to,

the particular town or city in which they are located. They must not be a

collection of inappropriate copies, or tired, anonymous solutions that can be

seen almost anywhere in the world. People do not want bland, international

places; they want places that are unique and special.

Many towns and cities have a number of distinct quarters, which

are of a homogeneous or potentially homogeneous townscape character. Such

a character will derive from the uses: the height, the scale and bulk of

buildings, colour, materials and texture, topography, edges, roof profiles,

54

landscape, landmarks and so on. The salient features need to be identified for

each area and these must be taken into account in devising development or

rehabilitation proposals, with a view to emphasizing the uniqueness of not

only the town or city, but also each of the constituent parts thereof,

underlining the differences from the adjoining ones. But great care is needed.

2.6.3.2 Human Scale

The human scale is a critical factor of urban design. The

dimensions of buildings, squares and streets should be scaled to the

proportions of the human figure. There is a limit to the size of everything and

this holds true even for urban spaces. The correct scaling of the urban

landscape from the intimate human scale of the housing cluster to the extra

human scale of the metropolitan area is of great importance for the way we

appreciate our surroundings (Moughtin 1992).

2.6.3.3 Visibility

Maertens (1884), in the seminal book The Optical Scale in the

Plastic Arts, states that we cannot distinguish any object at a distance of more

than about 3,500 times its size. This restraint defines the categories of urban

scale. According to Maertens, the features of the human face cannot be

distinguished beyond a distance of 35 metres (115 feet). A man can be

distinguished from a woman till a distance of 135 metres (445 feet) and

human beings can be identified as such till a distance of 1200 metres (4000

feet).

To appreciate the unity and wholeness of a building, it should be

perceived at a glance (Moughtin 1992). He states that a street width of 21 to

24 metres (70-80 feet) for streets three storeys high, and 12 metres (40 feet)

for streets of two storey buildings, adhere to a common-sense definition of the

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human scale. Most medieval towns had a maximum total dimension of 800

metres (1/2 mile), and thus were completely according to the human scale.

Contemporary urban areas are much more complex. Not all aspects

of the metropolis can be slotted into the human scale. The art of urban design

is to use a hierarchy of scales - the intimate human scale where 12 metres (40

feet) is a critical horizontal measure; the normal human scale where this

horizontal dimension is about 21-24 metres (70-80 feet); the public human

scale where 1.6 km (1 mile) dictates the limit of perception; the superhuman

or spiritual scale of monumental design; and finally the extra-human scale of

untamed natural landscape with those structures used to exploit its resources –

appropriately and to achieve a smooth transition between the scales so as to

avoid chaos (Moughtin 1992).

An urban area can be appreciated only by a pedestrian. It is not just

about the sights alone. The urban area is a feast for all the senses. The noise

and bustle of people and markets, the odour of food, the touch of bodies and

the heat emanating from people and building surfaces, all envelop the

pedestrian in the urban environment. There is a limit to the distance a person

can walk comfortably, so that he or she can actively participate in the city. An

area of 1 sq. km (l mile) across is the largest unit of urban design. This is the

module which provides scale and proportion to the pedestrian environment.

Moughtin (1992) points out that scale and proportion have social connotations

for urban design. He states that a domain becomes a ‘home’ only if it is small;

the settlement and its parts must remain within an imaginable scale for it to

become home.

2.6.3.4 Height of Buildings

The relationship between the 'effective height' of the buildings and

the width of the space is critical if a harmonious urban place is to be created

56

(County Council of Essex, 1973). The guide goes on to suggest the maximum

harmonious proportion of height to width as being 1:4. A proper height for the

buildings about a square is one third of the breadth of the open area, or one

sixth at the least (Alberti 1955).

Palladio specifies the width of a square to be between 1 3/4th and 2

1/2 times the height of the buildings (Hegemann and Peets 1922). A building

is seen best as an overall composition at a distance of about twice its height or

at an angle of 27 degrees. Perceiving more than one building requires a

viewing distance of three times the height, or at an angle of 18 degrees. Below

18 degrees, the object loses significance in the field of vision, and the square

loses its enclosed character (Moughtin 1992).

2.6.3.5 Area of the urban space

Many researchers have emphasized the importance of the overall

size or area of the space. The largest plazas in ancient cities on average were

only 57 m x 143 m (190 ft x 470 ft) in size (Sitte 1889). The small peaceful

square found in older cities is a refuge for people from the grind of modern

city life. They are in stark contrast to the contemporary plaza - vast and

devoid of people. The Essex design guide recommends the proportion of a

square’s width to its height as 4: 1 (County Council of Essex, 1973). The

buildings enclosing a space should form a continuous surface and present to

the viewer an architectural unity. An arcade providing a covered walkway and

running along the lower floors of all the buildings will serve to increase the

sense of enclosure in the space (Moughtin 1992).

2.6.3.6 Permeability

Permeability is the extent to which an environment allows people a

choice of access through it, from place to place (Bentley et al. 1985). Both

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physical and visual permeability are equally important. Smaller blocks aid in

permeability, as they offer a greater choice of routes both physically and

visually. The decline of public permeability can be attributed to current design

trends, such as increasing scale of monolithic development, use of

hierarchical layouts with culs-de-sac and dead ends, and pedestrian/vehicle

segregation (Bentley et al. 1985).

The public-private interface can also be enhanced by permeability.

Barring the most personal spaces, private spaces can be visually permeable.

The positioning of building accesses and entries at this interface augments

physical permeability. Successful street level urban environments are

permeable to pedestrians; that is, they permit or encourage pedestrians to

move about in a variety of directions (Tibbalds 2001). He states that building

forms based on arcades, passages and courtyards draw people through them

and provide visual interest.

2.6.3.7 Variety

Permeability is of no use if the space itself lacks diversity of form,

use and meaning. Variety of use is the most important, as this will, in turn,

lead to other types of variety. A place of diverse building uses will be a

magnet for different people at different times of the day. This will result in

different images and meanings construed by different people (Bentley et al

1985). The four conditions which are indispensable to generate diversity are

mixed primary uses, short blocks, mixture of old and new buildings, and

dense concentration of people (Jacobs 1961).

In consideration to the vulnerable pedestrian – the elderly, disabled

and the very young - the designer should strive for maximum diversity in as

small an area as possible. The variety of uses an area can sustain, depends on

major factors such as demand, affordable space, and mutual support (Bentley

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et al 1985). Big cities are natural generators of diversity and prolific

incubators of new enterprises. (Jacobs 1961).

Time is a critical element in the provision of diversity. As Jacobs

(1961) says, uses should be identified that can spread the variety of consumer

needs / tastes throughout the day. The space must serve more than one

primary function; preferably more than two. Bentley et al (1985) also echo

this view by saying that variety usually requires a mixture of primary uses.

According to them people and visitors desire variety and choice; they want

things to do, things to look at, places to go to, things to buy, value for money,

and friendly local people. They feel that visitors and tourists look for some

quality of escapism - places to see and things to do, that are different from

their normal style of living and working.

2.6.3.8 Legibility

Legibility is the characteristic of a place, by virtue of which people

can easily and accurately form images of it. Good urban areas are legible -

they can be understood or read like a book (Bentley et al 1985). They explain

that what this really means is that, it should be easy for people, as pedestrians

or drivers, to understand where they are, how the town is arranged and which

way to go to different places, for the amenities and facilities that they require.

Certain physical features which affect the legibility of a place are

paths (channels of movement), nodes (focal places), landmarks (points of

reference), edges (linear elements), and districts (urban areas which possess

some particular identifiable trait) (Lynch 1960).

2.6.3.9 Robustness

Spaces which can be utilized for diverse functions provide people

with more choice than single-function places (Bentley et al. 1985). This

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characteristic is termed as “Robustness”. According to them, designers should

not think of segregating different spaces for different activities in public

outdoor space, as activities sustain one another. One of the principal

attractions of a public space is the presence of people engaged in diverse

activities. Thus, zoning activities removes robustness.

Buildings adjoining a public space influence, to a great extent, the

surrounding activities. At a macro level, the building should be able to adjust

to a change of use. At a micro level, spaces within the building should be

capable of being utilized in different ways. The design implications of this

should be considered in the initial stages of conceptualizing the building.

Three significant aspects of a building which affect its robustness are building

depth, access, and building height. Thus an ideal environment for

robustness would consist of a building which is shallow in plan, provides

many access points and is of limited height.

Bentley et al (1985) elaborate, that the principle for supporting

robustness is to design settings which, as far as possible, enable a variety of

activities to co-exist in the public realm, without inhibiting each other.

2.6.3.10 Richness

Richness is a trait that enhances the range of sensory experiences

which people can benefit from. All the sense organs contribute to the overall

experience even though vision remains the dominant sense. The space should

enable users to choose between various sensory experiences. Bentley et al

(1985) categorize these senses as the sense of motion, the sense of smell, the

sense of hearing, the sense of touch, and the sense of sight.

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The first three senses are only applicable to sufficiently large

spaces. Visual richness is enhanced by the provision of visual contrast in

surfaces. The richness of a space could also be improved by increasing the

number of elements on the surface. Different viewing distances necessitate a

hierarchy of elements, from large-scale to small-scale.

2.6.3.11 Personalisation

An attractive public realm is not solely the handicraft of

professionals - architects, town planners, engineers and landscape. They are

nurtured by the love and care of the users.

Tibbalds (2001) feels that even though individual contributions

may be quite modest like the shopkeeper who not only makes attractive

window dressings, but also arranges decorative wares on the pavement; the

owner who keeps to local colour themes in painting and decorating the

exterior of his or her building; or, the resident who lovingly arranges

colourful tiers of potted plants where they can be enjoyed by passers-by or

encourages creepers to enrich an otherwise bland or unattractive façade; on

the whole they go a long way in personalizing the environment.

Users rarely get an opportunity to design their spatial environments.

At the most, they can personalize them to suit their individual tastes.

Personalization is advantageous as it helps people identify different uses

unambiguously and more legibly. A user will usually not take the pain to

personalize a space if he / she does not have legal claim to the property. Most

buildings except for public ones will contain residences or workplaces, thus

offering a reasonable chance to personalize them. Personalization happens

within interior spaces and also at the boundaries. This boundary

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personalization impacts the public realm and occurs at windows and access

points.

This section has detailed the review of literature on the various

issues relevant to the pedestrian environment. A comprehensive analysis of a

good pedestrian environment highlights the important attributes, which are

cited by most authors and researchers. These parameters are safety, security,

comfort, convenience and quality of the urban environment.

The next section of the literature review focuses on the pedestrian

environment in Indian cities. The National Policies, Master Plans of various

cities, and standards for pedestrian facilities are taken up for review.

2.7 THE PEDESTRIAN ENVIRONMENT IN INDIA

The Indian urban environment is increasingly being overwhelmed

by the automobile. According to Sanyal (2009), walking does not figure in the

Great Indian Urban Plan. Urban travel in Indian cities principally happens

through walking, cycling and public transport, including intermediate public

transport (IPT). With the fascination for capital-intensive rail-based projects,

investments in pedestrian, bicycle and road-based public transport

infrastructure continues to be neglected (Tiwari 2007). This section takes a

look at the policies, guidelines and standards concerning pedestrian space in

urban areas, as well as at City Development Plans and Master Plans of

selected cities in India.

2.7.1 Walkability of Indian Cities

Out of India’s 285 million urban residents, nearly 100 million

people live in urban slums (Tiwari 2007). Thus, despite risks and inimical

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infrastructure, low-cost modes exist because their users do not have any

choice; they are the captive users of these modes.

The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) was adopted in 2006.

At the same time, the national government introduced the Jawaharlal Nehru

National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) to upgrade the urban

infrastructure. Under the JNNURM, the government of India has identified 63

cities for which it would provide assistance in upgrading their road

infrastructure. The JNNURM guidelines recommend that the transport

infrastructure improvement schemes are in compliance with the NUTP. Since

the NUTP’s focus is on public transport, pedestrians and bicycles, cities are

modifying the earlier road expansion projects to Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and

bicycle-inclusive plans. But, according to Tiwari, pedestrian and bicycle

facilities are not the focus of these projects, despite the fact that nearly 50 per

cent trips are made on foot, by bicycle, or by intermediate public transport

systems. The main motivation for these projects seems to be the huge grant

aid offered by the central government. It is yet to be seen whether public

transport, NMV and pedestrian-friendly infrastructure are created when these

projects are implemented.

One of the central policy suggestions that have emerged from the

Study on Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in

India, is to devote serious attention to the NMT. 40% of today’s trips in cities

are by the NMT and 25% of all fatal accidents involve the NMT. Yet planners

have not focused on the much needed infrastructure to aid these modes, as

depicted in Figure 2.10 (Wilbur Smith Associates 2008).

Pedestrian related accidents are higher compared to bicycle related

accidents across all cities, as shown in Table 2.1. This highlights the absolute

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lack of pedestrian facilities in our country, resulting in very poor values of the

Walkability Index, as displayed in Figure 2.11.

2.7.2 Policies and Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities

Indian city roads have simply forgotten the existence of

pedestrians. The percentage of roads with pedestrian footpaths is hardly 30%

in most cities (Wilbur Smith Associates 2008).

2.7.2.1 National Urban Transport Policy

The National Urban Transport Policy’s (MoUD 2006a) vision is to

bring about a more equitable allocation of road space, with people rather than

vehicles as its main focus.

Table 2.1 Share of bicycles and pedestrians in road accidents (2005)

S.No. CityBicycle

Accidents (%)

Pedestrian

Accidents (%)

1 Bangalore 5 44

2 Chennai 2 5

3 Hyderabad 5 19

4 Kolkata 5 64

5 Delhi 6 24

6 Mumbai 3 35

Source: Study of Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India

(Wilbur Smith Associates 2008).

According to the policy, the safety concerns of cyclists and pedestrians have

to be addressed along with facilities like shade-providing landscaping,

provision of drinking water and resting stations along bicycle corridors, as

they would mitigate adverse weather conditions to a large extent.

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Figure 2.10 Pedestrian Facility Ranking for selected cities

Source: Study of Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India

(Wilbur Smith Associates 2008)

Figure 2.11 Walkability Index for selected cities

Source: Study of Traffic and Transportation Policies and Strategies in Urban Areas in India

(Wilbur Smith Associates 2008)

The policy acknowledges that encroachment of footpaths affects

pedestrian safety adversely, and hence, requires strict enforcement of laws

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coupled with public participation. It states that the Central Government would

give priority to the construction of cycle tracks and pedestrian paths in all

cities under the JNNURM scheme, to enhance safety, and thereby enhance the

use of non-motorized modes.

2.7.2.2 UDPFI Guidelines

The Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation in

1996, in collaboration with the Institute of Town planners India, prepared the

“Urban Development Plans Formulation and Implementation (UDPFI)

Guidelines” (MoUD 1996), with a view to making urban planning and the

development process more effective, dynamic and participatory. Some of the

provisions focused on the width of walkways in various contexts.

2.7.2.3 CPWD Guidelines (CSE 2009)

These guidelines state that walkways should be constructed with a

non-slip material and be different from the rest of the area. The walkway

should not cross vehicular traffic and obstructions should be avoided. Guiding

blocks made of a distinct material should be provided at the starting and

ending of the walkway.

2.7.2.4 Report of the Working Group on Urban Transport for the

Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012)

The report of the working group on urban transport (MoUD 2006b)

states, that wherever pedestrian traffic is of high intensity, grade separated

facilities like FOBs, subways and under bridges need to be created. It is also

mentioned that while designing underpasses the depth of pedestrian subways

needs to be reduced by raising the road level half way.

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Sidewalks/footpaths need to be physically segregated from the

carriageway to avoid conflicts and their width should not be less than 2

meters. The informal sector operating on footpaths should be planned and

integrated with the design of the pedestrian facility. Crowded areas, especially

market places, where the intensity of pedestrian traffic is high, should be

declared as pedestrian zones with a limited number of eco – friendly vehicles.

Appropriate street furniture should be designed according to IRC norms.

2.7.2.5 Service Level Benchmarks for Urban Transport

The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) has advised all

JNNURM mission cities to undertake the process of service level

benchmarking, as this initiative would facilitate the development of

Performance Improvement Plans using the information generated by the

benchmarking exercise. Service level performance benchmarks (MoUD 2009)

have been identified for various intervention areas like “Pedestrian

infrastructure facilities”. Four levels of service (LoS) have been specified,

viz., 1, 2, 3, and 4, with 1 being the highest LoS and 4 being the lowest.

2.7.3 Master Plans vis-a-vis Pedestrian Facilities

An analysis of the City Development Plans (CDPs) of twenty

Indian cities vis-à-vis urban form and walkability reveals, that Kolkata and

Mumbai make no mention about pedestrian facilities. Chennai’s CDP talks

about pedestrian subways. In Delhi, “Special Integrated schemes for

movement” include pedestrianisation. A total of Rs.1.25 billion has been

allocated for pedestrian facilities (Sanyal 2009).

2.7.3.1 Delhi Master Plan – 2021

The Delhi Master Plan (DDA 2007) acknowledges that the safety

of road users is one of the prime considerations while planning road network

and infrastructure. The Plan also lays down certain measures to be taken by

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the concerned agencies concerning pedestrians. The Master Plan also

addresses issues relating to richness of the pedestrian network, making

historically-important areas pedestrian-friendly, universal accessibility, and

flexible land usage.

2.7.3.2 Bangalore Master Plan – 2015

The Bangalore Master Plan – 2015 (BDA 2007) proposes the

development of a networked city through a sustainable transportation system.

The Master Plan’s intervention concerning pedestrians is its advocacy of

mixed-use zoning.

2.7.3.3 Visakhapatnam City Development Plan – 2015

The Strategic Action Plan (2005-12) for the Traffic and

Transportation Sector has a component for “Improved Pedestrian Facilities,

Comfort and Safety” which consists of various activities like accessibility to

the disadvantaged, pedestrianisation, infrastructure / signage for pedestrian

crossings, and subways / foot over-bridges (GVMC 2005).

2.7.3.4 Kolkata City Development Plan – Vision 2025

According to the Comprehensive Mobility Plan – 2001-2025

(Traffic and Transportation Master Plan), one of the strategies for achieving

the Metropolitan Transportation Policy for the KMA, is the development of

pedestrian facilities (KMDA 2006). As per this strategy, special attention

would be given for the safe and uninterrupted movement of pedestrians at the

locations of major concentrations by providing exclusives plazas, pedestrian

only roads, pedestrian sub-ways, elevated pedestrian crossings with provision

for escalators, elevated pedestrian walk-ways etc.

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2.7.3.5 Mumbai – Comprehensive Transportation Study for Mumbai

Urban Transport Project – II (MUTP – II) (WSAtkins

International et al 1994)

According to the Comprehensive Transportation Study, non-

motorized vehicles and walking deserve more attention of the policy makers

than has been received in the past.

2.7.3.6 Chennai – Second Master Plan – 2026

Chennai, formerly known as Madras, is the capital city of the

Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Chennai is the fourth most populous metropolitan

area (http://en.wikipedia.org a) and the fifth most populous city in India

(http://en.wikipedia.org). Located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of

Bengal, Chennai city had a population of 4.34 million according to the 2001

census within the area administered by the Corporation of Chennai and an

extended Metropolitan Population of 6.5 million (http://web.archive.org).

The urban agglomeration of metropolitan Chennai has an estimated

population of over 8.2 million people (http://www.citypopulation.de).

The road network of Chennai is dominated by a radial pattern

converging at George Town, which is the main CBD of the CMA. The road

network is primarily based on the four National Highways, leading to Calcutta

(NH5), Bangalore (NH4), Thiruvallur (NH 205) and Trichy (NH 45). In

addition to these, Arcot Road, Kamarajar Salai, Thiruvottiyur High Road, Old

Mahabalipuram Road and East Coast Road are the other important radial

roads in the CMA.

The road network is plagued by many problems, like poor quality

of riding surface, inadequate, shrunken and encroached footpaths, lack of

properly designed intersections, poor lighting conditions, missing links in the

road network, mismatch between the growth rate of vehicles and road supply,

69

and a poor drainage system compounded by frequent cutting open of

carriageways and footpaths for attending to utility / service lines repair,

thereby substantially reducing the effective availability of road space /

footpath. The travel characteristics depicted in Figure 2.12, reveal that in a

group of 100, 26 travel by bus, 3 by train, 32 by walk, 13 by cycle, 19 by two-

wheeler, 4 by car and 3 by IPT.

Figure 2.12 Distribution of person trips by mode – 2005

Source: Short term study to update CTTS (1992-95) (CMDA 2008)

Arterial roads leading to the CBD carry heavy traffic and are

congested. The level of congestion on arterial and other major roads has

increased seven-fold for the period 1984 to 2004. The city faces a severe

problem of congestion due to the runaway growth of personalised vehicles.

The traffic management in the city is marked by the introduction of a series of

one-way traffic system. The one-way traffic system has, however,

implications on pedestrian safety and fuel consumption. Traffic control

devices, traffic signs and road markings are not adequately maintained to

retain their legibility and visibility. Inadequate enforcement of traffic rules,

lack of road sense and restraint by road-users, and insufficient regulatory

measures characterise the present situation. Accident data reveals that on

an average about 620 persons die on City roads annually. The fatality rate

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works out to 35/10,000 vehicles. Other sources of data indicate that 42% of

road accidents involve pedestrians and 10% cyclists.

One of the strategies of the Second Master Plan formulated by the

Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) relates to prioritizing

non-motorised transport (CMDA 2008). The strategy envisages the

development of footpaths not less than 1.5m in residential streets and 3.0m on

major roads with commercial activities, redeeming the existing footpaths from

encroachments, a legal framework for evicting the encroachments on

footpaths / roads, demarcating stretches of roads or areas exclusively for

movement by pedestrians and cyclists and providing the safe passage of

pedestrians / cyclists by sub-ways.

Another important strategy concerns enforcement as a potential tool

for development. The strategy is to effectively keep all roads, footpaths and

designated off-street parking areas, clear of encroachments both by the asset

owning agencies and by the Chennai Traffic Police by constant patrolling. A

detailed feasibility study is also proposed for the development of a network of

pedestrian-ways and malls.

2.7.4 Guidelines and Standards for Pedestrian Facilities

The entire gamut of the pedestrian environment has been covered

by guidelines and standards stipulated by researchers as well as regulatory

bodies, especially in the Western world. In the United States, though there

are fine examples of pedestrian facilities’ standards and policies such as the

Portland Pedestrian Plan, (Portland Office of Transportation 1998) they do

not cover the gamut of different city and street hierarchies and functions. In

the United Kingdom, guidelines have been laid down under the auspices of

the Institute of Highways and Transportation (IHT 2000).

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There are no comprehensive standards developed specifically for

the Indian context. The Indian Roads Congress (IRC 1998) has stipulated

basic standards for pedestrian facilities like Sidewalks, Guard Rails and

Pedestrian Crossings – both at-grade and grade-separated.

2.7.4.1 International Guidelines and Standards for pedestrian facilities

There are numerous works dealing with standards and guidelines

for pedestrian facilities in the western world.

In the United Kingdom, The Institution of Highways and

Transportation has developed guidelines for journeys by foot (IHT 2000). The

guidelines lay down the standards for footway design, ramps and steps, kerbs,

build-outs, guard rails, signage, tactile surfaces, crossing facilities – at-grade

and grade-separated, surface treatments, surface drainage, trees and

landscaping, street furniture and street lighting.

The U.S. Department of Transportation has published a

comprehensive pedestrian facilities user guide, which details out guidelines

for sidewalks, buffer zones, curb ramps, crosswalks, bus stops, lighting,

overpasses and underpasses, street furniture, roadway design and intersection

design. It also deals with traffic calming, traffic management, signals and

other measures (Federal Highway Administration 2002).

The Department of Transportation, State of Florida, U.S.A., (2002)

has brought out “A Manual of uniform, minimum standards for the design,

construction and maintenance of streets and highways”, commonly known as

the “Florida Greenbook”. This manual also provides uniform minimum

standards and criteria for the design, construction, and maintenance of

pedestrian infrastructure.

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The U.S. Highway Capacity Manual attempts to make walking

equal to all other transport modes, but it does so only on its terms of service

measures (TRB 2000). The HCM defines the "Level of Service" as “a

qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic stream,

based on service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom to

maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience” (TRB 2000). This

definition of the level of service applies to all transportation modes, motorized

or non-motorized.

The LoS system is remarkable for its lack of relevance to the

personal experience of walking. The LoS is based on chronological time. The

quality of walking is, however, determined to a large degree by psychological

or perceived time. For instance, a lively and vibrant sidewalk tends to make

slow speeds acceptable, even enjoyable. But, according to the HCM

methodology - a high crime area, where pedestrians are hardly seen for

obvious reasons, provides a good LoS. Thus a pedestrian facility provides a

high LoS if a few pedestrians are present, and the best possible pedestrian

LoS is achieved with one pedestrian present, or none! A logical conclusion,

since pedestrian LoS is operationally defined as the freedom to maneuver.

This pedestrian perspective is unsettling and grotesque, however, when we

want to understand and improve the pedestrian realm from a social, cultural

and economic point of view (Kroll 2001).

Edward Hall and Robert Sommer have developed guidelines for

typical pedestrian spacing and typical densities in public spaces, as depicted

in Figure 2.13 (Hall 1966, Sommer 1969). Standards ranging from the

optimum walking distances (Figure 2.14) to the space requirements of

pedestrians (Figure 2.15) have also been published (Chiara and Crosbie 2001,

Neufert 2000).

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A - Typical pedestrian spacing (Desirable moving space 4’-6” long by 2’-2.5’wide)B - Waiting at curbs at an intersection

C - Gazing at the wares displayed by street vendors

D - Listening to street musicians performE - Personal Standard

F - Personal (Close Phase)

G - Dense Crowd - Average 6 – 8 sft. /person (Crowded subway)H - Loose Crowd - Average 10 sft. /person (Crowded sidewalk)

Figure 2.13 Graphical representations of pedestrian spacing and personal space

Source: Recycling cities for people, Cutler and Cutler (1982)

A B

C D

E F

G H

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Figure 2.14 Optimum Walking Distances

Source: Time Saver Standards for Building Types, Chiara and Crosbie (2001)

2.7.4.2 Indian Standards for Pedestrian Facilities

There are no comprehensive standards developed specifically for

the Indian context. IRC (1998) has stipulated basic standards for pedestrian

facilities - at-grade and grade-separated - like Sidewalks, Guard Rails and

Pedestrian Crossings. But these lack the “human” element like aesthetics,

scale, form and proportion.

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A - Pedestrian spacing

B – Pedestrians waiting in a queue

C – Spacing for pedestrians with umbrellas and/or luggage

Figure 2.15 Space requirements of pedestrians

Source: Neufert Architect’s Data (Neufert 2000)

The IRC code states that sidewalks should be provided on both

sides of the road. The width of the sidewalks depends upon the expected

pedestrian flows, subject to a minimum of 1.5 metres. The capacity of

sidewalks for various widths is shown in Table 2.2. In shopping areas, the

width should be increased by 1 metre which is treated as “dead width”. Where

sidewalks abut buildings and fences, the dead width can be taken as 0.5

metres. For areas of heavy pedestrian activity such as bus stops, railway

CB

A

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stations and recreational areas, the width of the sidewalks should be suitably

increased to account for the accumulation of pedestrians.

Table 2.2 Capacity of sidewalks

Width of

sidewalk(m)

Capacity in no. of persons per hour

All in one direction In both directions

1.50 1,200 800

2.00 2,400 1,600

2.50 3,600 2,400

3.00 4,800 3,200

4.00 6,000 4,000

Source: Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities – IRC: 103 -1998 (IRC 1998)

Guard-rails could be considered at hazardous locations. Cross-

walks of a width of 2.0 to 4.0 metres should be provided at all important

intersections wherever warranted. Pedestrian amenities, street furniture, and

context-specific standards according to the location in the city, hierarchy of

streets and functions of streets have not been thought of.

A “Levels of Accessibility” scale for various facilities has been

developed by Vastu-Shilpa Foundation, as part of the Aga Khan Award

winning project “Aranya” – a housing project at Indore, as shown in

Figure 2.16 (Vastu-Shilpa Foundation 1990).

Pedestrian plans should be made mandatory and conditional to

infrastructure funding in cities as the JNNURM programme has done.

Planning and building a sidewalk is just the first step. The urban environment

should be freed from the clutches of vehicular transport, so that people can

claim their rightful share of the public space. Spaces should be identified for

pedestrian purposes, such as shopping areas, heritage districts and CBDs.

These measures would make destinations a joy to walk to.

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Figure 2.16 Aranya – Levels of Accessibility

Source: Aranya, Vastu-Shilpa Foundation (1990)

This section examines the policies, guidelines and standards laid

down by various agencies of the Indian Government to create a network of

dedicated pedestrian infrastructure. Further, Master Plans and City

Development Plans drawn up by various Indian cities are also taken up for

analysis.

2.8 ANALYSIS OF EXISTING EVALUATION METHODS

Various researchers have, over the last few years, designed

evaluation methods for pedestrian spaces - qualitative as well as quantitative.

Fruin (1971) detailed a Level of Service Design Standard for

pedestrian spaces. According to him, the primary objectives of a planning

program for pedestrian spaces are:

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1. Pedestrian Safety – reduction or elimination of pedestrian

vehicle conflicts by space separation, either horizontal or

vertical, or by time separation.

2. Security – provision of high lighting levels, unobstructed lines

of sight, and avoidance of building, street or landscaping

configurations that provide concealment.

3. Convenience – relocation of sidewalk obstructions, aids for

the physically challenged.

4. Continuity – provision of a direct and accessible pedestrian

system with linkages to the overall pedestrian network.

5. Comfort - provision of amenities and street furniture, and

pedestrian traffic and circulation improvements.

6. System coherence – visual and functional coherence to ensure

that the full utility of the system is realized. Clear visual

statements expressed by the legibility of all elements of the

urban core that convey their direction, function and purpose.

7. Attractiveness – enhancement of the visual variety of the

cityscape by landscaping, color and texture, well-designed

street furniture, fountains and plazas, and by vistas and

panoramic views.

Fruin’s Level of Service standards permit a close approximation for

planning pedestrian zones that are safe, convenient and functional to a

specified design standard. The standard is based on the freedom to select

normal locomotion speed, the ability to bypass slow-moving pedestrians, the

relative ease of cross-and reverse-flow movements at traffic concentrations

and a range of pedestrian area occupancies (square foot of area per pedestrian)

and average flow volume (number of pedestrians per foot per minute). The

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problem with Fruin’s method is that, it only evaluates a sidewalk from the

perspective of the “walking space” or the effective sidewalk width available

to the pedestrian. The various activities which the pedestrian space

encompasses, is not taken into consideration. The urban environment, which

plays a critical role in the perception of the pedestrian environment, is

neglected.

Khisty (1994) suggested a method for the evaluation of pedestrian

facilities based on Performance Measures. These measures are

1. Safety – concerned with the reduction of pedestrian-vehicle

conflicts; the provision of necessary width, surface, signs,

guard rails etc. promotes safety.

2. Security – makes pedestrians feel safe and secure,

commensurate with the prevailing neighbourhood and street

activities.

3. System Coherence – to be achieved through straight footpaths

with proper lighting and adequate infrastructure signs to help

the pedestrians, especially those unfamiliar with the street

system, to correlate and locate their destinations with ease.

4. System Continuity – important in the case of multimodal

facilities connected to pedestrian paths which unify the system

efficiently.

5. Comfort – clean and properly protected walkways, with

necessary designed shelters, make walking comfortable.

6. Convenience – easy accessibility devoid of circuitous trip

linkages.

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7. Attractiveness - to make walking enjoyable, aesthetically

designed, visually pleasing elements on the ancillary

walkways may be provided.

Khisty’s method is more comprehensive, when compared to

Fruin’s. But, it still takes into account, only the basic pedestrian

infrastructure. Like Fruin, Khisty too does not consider the quality of the

urban environment.

Parida et al (2007) proposed a methodology for the qualitative

evaluation of sidewalks in Delhi. Ten parameters were identified to be

included in a questionnaire. Six parameters pertained to the physical

evaluation of the sidewalk facility, which included sidewalk width, sidewalk

surface, obstruction, encroachment, potential of vehicular conflict, and

continuity. The four user factors were pedestrian volume, safety, comfort and

walking environment. In this method, each parameter is not defined precisely.

This could lead to subjectivity in the evaluation process. It also neglects

various aspects of the urban environment.

In a related study, Shafer et al (1999) developed a system of

evaluation of pedestrian trails focusing on user perception and satisfaction.

The attributes of trails which contribute significantly to user satisfaction were

identified as trail surface type, trail surface maintenance, width of trail, trail’s

separation from traffic, water fountains, places for shopping, places for eating,

lighting facilities, trail markers, number of steep hills, level of patrol and litter

on trail. The factors which contributed to the quality of life were identified as

the presence of natural areas, access to public transportation, the amount of

pollution, new business development, opportunity to use transportation other

than cars, access to places for shopping, social interaction among residents,

the health and fitness of people who live there, amount of time spent traveling

to shopping areas, accessibility to work places/schools, cost of transportation,

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amount of pride residents take in their community, amount of time spent

traveling to work, diversity in the types of industry, accessibility to

recreational opportunities, the pattern of land use, equity among different

types of residents, places for wildlife to live, level of economic growth and

features that give the community a unique identity. The method is very

comprehensive, but it is focused more on pedestrian trails or paths in the

countryside, rather than urban sidewalks.

Sarkar (2003) has evolved a method which considers safety,

comfort and convenience as the principal parameters. It is a comprehensive

method. But it fails to take into account the urban pedestrian environment.

Kroll (2001) has proposed the basic structure of a comprehensive

qualitative evaluation model. He suggests the use of Lynch’s performance

dimensions to generate a pedestrian quality index or a pedestrian level of

quality.

Jaskiewicz (2000) has evolved a method for qualitative evaluation

which considers nine parameters. They are enclosure/definition, complexity

of path network, building articulation, complexity of spaces, transparency,

buffer, shade trees, overhangs/awnings/varied roof lines, and physical

components/condition. Compared to the other methods, this takes more issues

into consideration. But, it is not a comprehensive method. It is designed to act

as a supplement to the existing quantitative methods.

2.9 SUMMARY

This chapter has detailed the review of literature on the various

issues relevant to the pedestrian environment. At the outset, the qualities

which characterize a good pedestrian environment like safety, security,

comfort, convenience and quality of the urban environment are analysed.

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These attributes were chosen for a detailed analysis in the subsequent

sections.

A review of issues related to pedestrian safety and security leads to

the conclusion that the requirements of the vulnerable groups should be

identified and taken into account. Obstacle-free walkways, adequate buffers

from vehicular traffic, safe crossings and clear graphic signage, measures to

enhance security and traffic calming are critical to the safety of the pedestrian.

The literature review of the physiological and psychological

comfort perceptions of the pedestrian reveals, that Proxemics, territoriality,

crowding and sensory stimuli are the factors which influence the

psychological perception of the comfort of a pedestrian, and the standards

adopted for sidewalk design greatly influence the physiological perception of

the comfort of a pedestrian. The comfort level of the pedestrian can be

enhanced, by ensuring the comfort with which diverse sidewalk activities can

be undertaken. Protection from inclement weather would greatly increase the

comfort quotient of pedestrians. Guidelines to mitigate the effects of noise

and air pollution - the two main elements of discomfort for a pedestrian have

also been analysed.

An analysis of the literature regarding the various characteristics of

the pedestrian system that improve the convenience of pedestrians, leads to

the conclusion that acceptable walking distances invariably depend on context

and culture. Legibility, direct pedestrian walkways, provision of shortcuts,

convenient crossings with the help of pedestrian phases, pelican and puffin

signals and curb ramps, continuity in the pathway system, appropriate

placement of street furniture and a wide variety of street amenities, helps to

increase pedestrian convenience.

A review of the qualities which characterize an attractive urban

public realm, starts with an analysis of the features of a typical traditional

urban area to identify the characteristics which make it so appealing to the

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vast majority of people. The qualities of a street vis-à-vis a road are analysed

in terms of width and length. Some of the significant factors of the

architectural environment were the relevance of context, the importance of the

human scale, permeability, variety, legibility, robustness, visual

appropriateness, richness and personalisation.

This chapter also examines the policies, guidelines and standards

laid down by various agencies of the Indian Government to create a network

of dedicated pedestrian infrastructure. Further, Master Plans and City

Development Plans drawn up by various Indian cities are also analysed for

their consideration towards pedestrians. The various guidelines and

standards which have been formulated for planning pedestrian facilities by

authorities and researchers around the world are also examined. The lack of

comprehensive guidelines in the Indian context is clearly revealed as a result

of this analysis.

A review of the existing evaluation methods helps in identifying

their deficiencies. This review of issues pertaining to pedestrian safety,

security, comfort, convenience and the desirable characteristics of the urban

environment is instrumental in framing the qualitative evaluation method. The

next chapter lists out the structure of the proposed evaluation method for

pedestrian spaces.