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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE, CONCEPTS, THEORETICALFRAMEWORK, AND RESEARCH MODEL
2.1 Review of Literature
Some research related to writing discourse using text-based approach has
been done by some students and researchers of language both in the forms of
thesis, journal and article. Among them are the first, Aria Septi Anggaira, in the
Journal entitled “Using a Genre-Based Approach to Improve the English Writing
Competence of VIIIA Students of SMPN 3 Metro Lampung in the Academic Year
2011/2012”. Anggaira’s research was an implementation of a genre-based
approach in learning writing. The implementation of the genre-based approach
was aimed to improve the writing competence of VIIIA students of SMPN 3
Metro, Lampung. That research was a collaborative classroom action research.
The result of the research showed that the improvement was achieved in every
cycle. The result of the improvement could be seen from the comparison of the
pretest result, each cycle result, and posttest result. The mean score of the students
pretest result was 55.05, the result of the first cycle was 70.08, and the second
cycle was 74.63, while the posttest result was 76.1. From those results, it could be
concluded that the genre-based approach could improve the students’ writing
competence.
The research done by Anggaira is different from this current research. The
essay is recount text. The theme is not about ecolinguistic and she used a
collaborative classroom action research method.
The second research was conducted by Siti Masitoh & Dasep Suprijadi in
2015, in the Journal entitled “Improving Students’ Ability in Writing Descriptive
Text using Genre Based Approach (GBA) at The Eighth Grade Students of SMP
Islam Terpadu Fitrah Insani”. The main objective of this study was to find out if
GBA could improve the students’ ability in writing descriptive text. Data analysis
showed that the observed value of t (9.474) was higher than the critical value of t
(2.07). GBA had a significant impact on improving students’ ability in writing
descriptive text. The difference of Masitoh and Suprijadi’s research from this
current research lies on the content of the descriptive essay which did not touch
the local cultural elements. They used quantitative research only. Their research is
also different with this current research in regard to the research method. They
used quantitative with one group pretest and posttest design while this research
used pretest-posttest control design.
Third, the research conducted in 2017 by Erni Yulianti and Reni in the
journal entitled “Utilizing Grammar in Teaching Writing Recount Text through
Genre Based Approach”. This study tried to describe GBA application in the
class, to identify how Grammar and GBA led to students’ writing recount text, and
to identify students’ perception in utilizing Grammar in GBA in writing recount
text. The finding revealed that students had positive perception in learning
writing recount text by utilizing Grammar through genre base approach. Students
understood the material explained while they were enjoying the learning process.
Getting better understanding on genre-base, students felt easier to produce recount
text.
The research conducted by Yulianti and Reni`s differs from this research in
which the text type was recount text, the content of the essay did not explain
specific description related to local wisdom or ecolinguistic but technology. Their
research used different method with this research. They used pre-experimental
design one group pretest-posttest while this research used pretest-posttest control
design.
Fourth, the research done in 2017 by Piyatida Changpueng, in a journal
entitled “The Implementation of The Genre-Based Approach in The Teaching of
Writing to Engineering Students”. The study aimed at examining the writing
achievement of Thai engineering students receiving writing instruction through
the explicit genre-based approach, or GBA (SFL genre), and their attitudes toward
this method of teaching. One lesson in teaching writing recounts was provided
during three sessions. The results of a T-test revealed clear improvement in the
students’ writing ability after attending the lesson. Regarding the attitudes of the
students, it was found that the students had a satisfactory attitude toward this
teaching method.
The difference of Changpueng`s research from this current research lies on
the subjects of the research who were the 28 fourth-year engineering students, the
text type was recount text, and the content of the essay did not explain specific
description related to local wisdom or ecolinguistic but technology.
Fifth, the research conducted in 2017 by Indah Afrianti, in her thesis
entitled “Environment-Based Learning in improving the skill in writing
descriptive text of English VII grade students of Islamic Junior High School Nurul
Ihsan, Bima.” In her research, she found that there was an increase in writing in
experimental group students. Among 17 students, 15 managed to reach KKM
(minimum criteria of mastery learning), while in the control group, from 17
students, only 3 were successful in achieving KKM. There were two factors that
influenced the success of learning, namely internal factors which included the
interest of students in writing their own essay with imagination developed after
they were given pictures about the environment around them and external factors
that included the use of the environment-based learning.
Indah's research differs from this research, especially in her research
method which used pre-experimental design in the form of intact group
comparison, the learning media used in the form of tourist spot images in Bima
city, and she did not use text based approach.
2.2. The Concepts
The concepts of applying text-based approach using ecotext to improve the
skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti,
East Sumba done by the researcher were collected from the theories stated by the
experts and the researcher`s description of the ecotext with the theme of horse
`njara`. The concepts used in this research are elaborated and explained as
follows:
2.2.1 The Text-Based Approach in Language Learning
Text-based approach is an approach in communicative English language
teaching. It is one of the approaches implemented in the 2013 curriculum in
Indonesia. It focuses more on the outcomes or products of learning. As it has been
stated in the background, it is well known as a genre-based approach in
communicative competence that involves the mastery of different types of texts
used in a special sense to refer to structured sequences of language used in
specific contexts in specific ways.
2.2.2 Ecolinguistic Perspective
Learning about discourse in the form of text with the theme of njara is
very close to the concept of ecolinguistic because njara is a part of the socio-
cultural life of the East Sumba community in NTT. Mbete (2012: 11) argues that
the educational path of families, schools and communities are the infrastructures
that ensure the die-off of language in an ecolinguistic perspective, especially in
viewing language as something alive, and placing applied linguistics especially
ecolinguistic as life science and language life in man, society, and culture.
Rewriting the local natural and cultural potential as well as Indonesian and foreign
languages for the contextual and thematic reading and learning of language
materials are means of transmitting language and culture to young generation.
2.2.3 Ecotext
Ecotext stands for ecology text. It consists of two terms ecology and text.
Ecology is the study of the relationship between all living organism and their
environment, (https://quizlet.com). In line with that Lier (2004:3) states that
originally, ecology was the study and management of the environment (ecosphere,
or biosphere) or specific ecosystem, it is also the study of movement, process, and
action (p11), while text is the verbal record of a communicative act, (Brown and
Yule, 1983). Thus, ecotext is a text that consists of the verbal record of the
relationship in communicative act between the students and their environment
through language by movement, process, and action. The content of the text is
about East Sumbanese cultural lives, mainly about horse ‘njara’, an animal that is
regarded as the symbol of pride of East Sumba regency and Sumba Island as a
whole.
2.2.4 The discourse of njara in East Sumbanese culture
Njara is a cultural symbol of East Sumba society. Many sides of the
society living in Sumba Island including east Sumba intersect with horses ‘njara’.
The cultural realities that use njara in their specific names are described below.
1. Horses for customary marriage affairs of East Sumbanese are called njara huri.
They are used for belis ‘Traditional marriage ceremony’.2. Horses for affairs of death are called njara dangangu. They are used at the time
of burial ceremony.3. Horses for financial affairs are called njara padagangngu. They are used for
barter and freight system. 4. Horses for transportation means are called njara pakaliti. They are used when
making a living and while fighting or in a war. The horses used in
transportation for carrying things or food are called njara pakalatungu.5. Horses as means for hunting and shepherding are called njara patamangu.
6. Horses for recreational purposes, such as for horse racing are called njara
palangu and horses that can dance are called njara ma pingu parenja.7. Horses function as the symbol of majesty are called njara miting.8. Horses for self identity, for pictures on woven fabric, they are called rupa
njara, for miniature on gold jewelry, they are called ama kaha'la njara, and for
ornaments on the tombstone, they are called kaha'la njara.
2.2.5 Writing skills
Brown (2004: 218) said that in the field of second language teaching, the
experts were saying that writing was primarily a convention for recording speech
and for reinforcing grammatical and lexical features of language. Writing is a
unique skill that has its own characteristics and rules. Learning to write well in
any language is not easy, even writing in our native language. Yule (2010: 2012)
states that :
“ We can define writing as the symbolic representation of languagethrough the use of graphic signs. It is a system that is not simply acquired,but has to be learned through sustained conscious effort”.
2.2.6 Descriptive Text
In term of descriptive text, Tompkins (1994) and Stanley (1988) defined
descriptive text as painting pictures with words. By reading a descriptive text,
readers feel that they see the description just like they see pictures. Descriptive
text has the purpose to describe an object or a person that the writer is interested
in. Thus, in writing a descriptive text the writers should know well what they want
to describe. They describe their ideas and thought vividly based on what they see,
hear, taste, smell, or touch. Descriptive writing describes a person, place, or thing,
Valencia (2002:77). Thus, a descriptive text is text that aims to picture people,
objects, animals, and places or certain events with words in order the readers can
visualize the description just like they see pictures.
2.2.7 Descriptive Text Structure
A descriptive text has generic structure. It consists of two parts which
become its characteristics. Each part has its own function as explained below:
1) Identification
This section is used to introduce the subject to be described. The subjects
can be people, objects, animals, and places or certain events.
Example, There is a new teacher in my school. Her name is Ms. Nina. She teaches English.
2) Description
This section discusses the characteristics of the subject being described
(attributes of things). Such characteristics may include the physical appearance,
shape, color, quality, behavior, and traits possessed by the subject.
Example,
Ms. Nina is a pretty woman. She is about 28 years hold. She is whiteand slim. She has long curly blond hair. She has an oval face with big roundeyes. I think she is a nice teacher. She is very patient and smart. After all,she is a hardworking teacher.
(Aryanto, 2009:3-4)
2.3 Theoretical framework
Some theories used in this research are text-based approach theory in
language teaching and learning, the theory of language learning in ecolinguistic
perspective, and writing theory. This theoretical framework is used as the base for
analyzing the finding in this research.
2.3.1 The Text-Based Approach
Text-based approach is the approach that is used in the 2013 curriculum
for all language subjects at schools in Indonesia. Richards (2006:6, 27) said that
text-based approach is one of the approaches to achieve the goal of
communicative language teaching – to develop students’ communicative
competence which involves being able to use different kinds of spoken and
written texts in the specific contexts of their use. Communicative competence
includes the following aspects of language knowledge:
i. knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions.ii. knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the
participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to
use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication) iii. knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts.iv. knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s
language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication
strategies)
According to Feez and Joyce (1998) as cited by Richards (2006: 36), TBA
is thus based on an approach to teaching language which involves:
a) teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and
written texts.b) linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use.c) designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole
texts.
d) providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for
meaningful communication through whole texts.Further, Richards (2006:37), commented that according to this view,
students in different contexts have to master the use of the text types occurring
most frequently in specific contexts. These contexts might include studying in an
English-medium primary or secondary school. These are identified through need
analysis and through the analysis of language as it is used in different settings.
However, the syllabus also usually specifies other components of texts, such as
grammar, vocabulary, topics, and functions; hence, it is a type of mixed syllabus,
one which integrates reading, writing, and oral communication, and which teaches
grammar through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation. For the need of this research, especially in teaching writing descriptive
discourse, the researcher modifies and uses the idea of Feez and Joyce (1998: 28–
31) on how a text-based approach is implemented as follows: I. Phase 1: Building the Context (BC)
In this stage, students: a) Are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type
being studied. b) Explore features of the general cultural context in which the text type is
used and the social purposes the text type achieves. c) Explore the immediate context of situation by investigating the register of
a model text which has been selected on the basis of the course objectives
and students need. An exploration of register involves: 1. Building knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of
the social activity in which the text is used.2. Understanding the roles and relationships of the people using the text
and how these are established and maintained.Context-building activities include:
i. Presenting the context through pictures, audiovisual materials, realia,
excursions, field-trips, guest speakers, etc. ii. Establishing the social purpose through discussions or surveys, etc.
II. Phase 2: Modeling and Deconstructing the Text (MDT) In this stage, students:
a) Investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model b) Compare the model with other examples of the same text type.
Feez and Joyce (1998) comment that “modeling and deconstruction
are undertaken at both the whole text, clause, and expression levels. III. Phase 3: Joint Construction of the Text (JCoT)
In this stage: 1. Students begin to contribute to the construction of whole examples of the
text type. 2. The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to text construction, as the
students move closer to being able to control text type independently.
Joint-construction activities include:
a) Teacher questioning, discussing and editing whole class construction, then
scribing onto board or overhead transparency.b) Skeleton texts c) information-gap activities d) Small-group construction of text
IV. Phase 4: Independent Construction of the Text (ICoT) In this stage: 1. Students work independently with the text. 2. Student performances are used for achievement assessment. Independent
construction activities include: i. Writing tasks which demand that students draft and present whole texts.
In this forth phase, students will be trained to develop their own
competence in writing English descriptive text. Because this approach will be
used together with ecolinguistic approach, students will produce their own
descriptive text through experience with their environment both inside and outside
the classroom. Experiential learning is self-evident that experience gained through
life, education and work plays a central role in the process of learning and this
perspective on learning is called ‘experiential learning’ or ‘learning by doing’, Fry
(2012:14). Experiential language teaching (ELT) initially grew out of educational
and psychological theories proposing that a subject is learned best if students are
involved in concrete, hands-on experiences with the subject. The belief is that
students will learn better if they use the language as opposed to being passive
receptors of artificial language. It is also thought that students will be able to
analyze and discover their own information about the topic and language use as
they are involved with tasks or projects. In language teaching, ELT creates
situations in which students use their new language instead of just learning about
it, Norland & Pruett-Said (2006:25).
This approach is also based on constructivism theory of learning. Bada &
Olusegun (2015:66, 67) stated that Constructivism is an approach to teaching and
learning based on the premise that cognition (learning) is the result of "mental
construction." In other words, students learn by fitting new information together
with what they already know. It says that people construct their own
understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences.
Tam (2000) cited by Bada & Olusegun (2015:68) listed four basic
characteristics of Constructivist Learning Environments. Those are,
1) knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
2) teachers and students will share authority.
3) the teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.
Further Honebein (1996) cited by Bada & Olusegun (2015:68)
summarized seven pedagogical goals of Constructivist Learning Environments as:
1) to provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students
determine how they will learn).
2) to provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation
of alternative solutions).
3) to embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).
4) to encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered
learning).
5) to embed learning in social experience (collaboration).
6) to encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text,
etc.)
7) to encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,
metacognition).
Bhattacharjee (2015: 67) stated that constructivist theoretical framework
holds that learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows;
this prior knowledge is called a schema. Because all learning is filtered through
pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest that learning is more effective when
a student is actively engaged in the learning process rather than attempting to
receive knowledge passively. Wilson & Cole (1991) quoted by Bhattacharjee
(2015: 67) stated the concepts that are considered central to the constructivist
instructional design are as follows.
1. Learning is embedded in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;
2. Authentic versus academic contexts for learning are provided;
3. Provisions for students control are incorporated;
4. Errors are used as a mechanism to provide feedback on students‟
understanding; and
5. Learning is embedded in social experience.
The 2013 curriculum that emphasizes the importance of the balance of
competence of attitudes, knowledge, and skills, and English proficiency are
shaped through continuous learning: beginning by increasing the knowledge
competence of the types, rules, and context of a text and then followed by the
performance of a well-written and orally both planned or spontaneous with proper
pronunciation and intonation, and leading to the formation of a politeness-based
attitude.
In accordance with the approach used in the Curriculum 2013, students are
invited to be courageous to find other learning resources available and stretched
around. Teachers can enrich it with creations in a variety of other proper and
relevant activities which are sourced from the social and natural environment. In
this study, the environment that will be used as a learning resource for writing
descriptive English discourse is the cultural life environment of students who are
mostly Sumbanese tribe and domicile in Waingapu town, the capital city of East
Sumba regency, NTT.
2.3.2 Theory of language learning in Ecolinguistic perspective
Language ecology may be defined as the study of interactions between any
given language and its environment (Haugen, 1972:323). Ecolinguistic is the
study of language according to the environment it is used in. The term emerged in
the 1990’s as a new paradigm of language study that speculates not only the intra-
relations, the inter-relations, and the extra- relations of language and environment,
but also combinations of these relations, (Derni, 2008:22). Lier (2004: 4-8)
presents 10 characteristics of language learning in the following ecolinguistic
perspectives. For the need of this research, the researcher takes 6 of those 10
characteristics below by the reason that these six characteristics are regarded
suitable with the implementation of text based approach using ecotext to improve
the skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti.
1) Relations
Ecological linguistics (EL) focuses on language as relations between
people and the world‚ and on language learning as ways of relating more
effectively to people and the world. The crucial concept is that of
affordance‚ which means a relationship between an organism (a student‚ in our
case) and the environment‚ that signals an opportunity for or inhibition of action.
The environment includes all physical‚ social and symbolic affordances that
provide grounds for activity. While the relation is meant in language learning is
the relationship between language, learning, activity, and curriculum.
2) Context
EL regards context as not just something that surrounds language‚ but that
in fact defines language‚ while at the same time being defined by it. A common
piece of advice in research is “to take the context into account.” Such advice
raises questions like how‚ how much‚ what aspects of the context‚ and so on. It
also suggests that contextual information is added on to whatever is
investigated‚ in a supplementary sort of way. But in ecology‚ context is the heart
of the matter
3) Emergence
EL regards language learning not as gradual‚ linear acquisition‚ but as
emergence. Emergence happens when relatively simple elements combine
together to form a higher-order system. The whole is not only more than the sum
of its parts‚ it is of a different nature than the parts. The new system is on a
different scale‚ and has different meanings and patterns of functioning than the
simpler ingredients had from which it emerged. In language‚ grammar emerges
from lexis (Bates & Goodman‚ 1999)‚ symbols emerge from tools
(Vygotsky‚ 1978)‚ learning emerges from participation (Lave & Wenger‚ 1991).
Language proficiency emerges from all these transformations.
4) Quality
EL makes the notion of quality a central construct to be investigated. The
quality of educational experience is seen to be crucially different from educational
standards‚ though a valid ecological aim of education is to harmonize quality and
standards‚ by investigating both how they are different and how they are related.
Arne Naess pointed out long ago that quality of life is not the same as standard of
living. Our standard of living may be so high that we have three shiny cars parked
in front of the house. If everybody’s standard of living is this high‚ our quality of
life may be reduced because the air is polluted‚ the noise level increases‚ and we
can’t walk around the neighborhood any more. The same may be true (in different
ways‚ of course) in education: there may be so much focus on higher standards
that there are tougher and tougher tests all the time‚ and there is no more time for
music‚ field trips‚ art‚ and just exploring knowledge and broadening one’s mind.
5) Variability
A teacher might proudly announce: “I treat them all the same.” But
children – students of all ages for that matter – are all different‚ so that equal
treatment is surely a doubtful pedagogical practice. There are many differences
among students that are relevant to their educational opportunities in general‚ and
their classroom learning opportunities in particular. A good teacher understands
the students‚ and this means taking the differences into account. However‚ there is
also variability at a much more macro level: educational systems‚ far from being
the equalizers that policy makers suggest they are‚ actually manufacture
inequalities across regional and socio–economic fault lines. Not all schools are
created equal in any country‚ so that school systems both homogenize and select
at the same time‚ however paradoxical this may seem.
6) Activity
Ecological linguistics studies language and language learning as areas of
activity. Gone is the picture of a classroom with rows of empty heads passively
soaking up knowledge issuing forth (in the form of pedagogical discourse) from
the talking head at the front of the room. Instead‚ we visualize a community of
practice in which students go about the business of learning by carrying out
activities of various kinds‚ working together‚ side by side‚ or on their own. In this
ecosystem‚ students are autonomous‚ i.e.‚ they are allowed to define the meaning
of their own acts within their social context (Shotter 1984‚ p. 147‚ cited in
Oyama‚ 2000‚ p. 189). Autonomy in an ecological approach does not mean
independence or individualism‚ however. It means having the authorship of one’s
actions‚ having the voice that speaks one’s words‚ and being emotionally
connected to one’s actions and speech (Damasio‚ 2003)‚ within one’s community
of practice (Wenger‚ 1998). This type of autonomy is dialogical in Bakhtin’s sense
(1981): socially produced‚ but appropriated and made one’s own.
Mbete (2013) suggests that language of the ecology is wide. It is not only
limited to lexicon. The discourse about environment is also the research object in
the sense of language ecology. Ecological language is a verbal form that contains
the meaning of the environment. The ecological language is a product of culture, a
product of human and society. The community knowledge (perception) about
environmental contents, both visible and invisible are verbally recorded in various
lexicon (lexicalized forms). The treasury of the lexicon lives and inherits from
generation to generation. New lexicon forms that are used grammatically and
creatively are facts of the cultural process result in material and non-material
(ideological) cultures. The ecological language is a corpus of language which
content describes the environment, both macro and human environment (with the
culture) as micro. Linguistically, the ecological language has lexicons, sentences,
poetical texts, song lyrics, discourse as products of social practice and social
discourse.
Furthermore Mbete said that in relation to critical ecolinguistic, ethnic
heritage in the form of local wisdom of ancestral heritage in verbal texts needs to
be explored and empowered for environmental sustainability. Preservation and
sustainability of the natural environment with its diversity, ensuring the
sustainability of people and cultures with their diversity or variation.
2.3.3 The Theory of Writing
Rosenblatt (1988:7) stated that writing, we know, is always an event in
time occurring at a particular moment in the writer`s biography, in particular
circumstances, under particular pressures, external as well as internal. In short, the
writer is always transacting with a personal, social, and cultural environment. (We
shall see that the writer transacts also with the very text being produced). Thus the
writing process must be seen as always embodying both personal and social, or
individual and environmental factors. According to Flower and Hayes (1981) in
Hurd and Lewis (2008:104), writing is a complex cognitive process involving the
writer’s long-term memory where knowledge of the topic, audience and writing
plans are stored; the task environment, including the rhetorical problem and the
text produced so far and writing sub processes such as idea-generation, goal-
setting, organizing, reviewing, evaluating and revising. Thus, Writing intertwines
communicative purposes, cultural and social perspectives, and linguistic features.
There are several theories related to writing used to analyze the findings in
this study, including types of writing performance, topics and genres, theory of
paragraph, syntax theory in descriptive text, writing process, and rating model of
writing. They are explained in detail as follows:
2.3.3.1 Types of Writing Performance
Brown (2004: 220) suggests four categories of written performance that
capture the range of written production as follows: A. Imitative. To produce written language, students must attain skills in the
fundamental, basic task of writing letters, words, punctuation and very brief
sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive
phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system. It is a
level in which students are trying to master the mechanic system of writing.
At this stage, form is the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and
meaning are in second concern. B. Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills
in producing appropriate vocabulary within context, collocations and idioms
and correct grammatical features up to the length of a sentence. Meanings and
contexts are of some importance in determining correctness and
appropriateness, but most assessment tasks are more concerned with the focus
on form and are rather strictly controlled by the test design.C. Responsive. Here assessment task require students to perform at a limited
discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically
connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Task responds to pedagogical
directives, list of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines. Genres of writing
include brief narratives and descriptions, short reports, lab reports,
summaries, brief responses to reading, and interpretation of charts and graphs.
Under specified condition, the writer begins to exercise some freedom of
choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas. The writer have to
master the fundamentals of sentence-level grammar and to be more focused
on the discourse conventions that will achieve the objective of the written
text. Form-focused attention is mostly at the discourse level with the strong
emphasis on context and meaning. D. Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the
processes and strategies of writing for all purposes up to the length of an
essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or even a thesis. The
writer focuses on achieving a purpose, organizing, and developing ideas
logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic
and lexical variety, and in many cases engaging in the process of multiple
drafts to achieve a final product. Focus on grammatical form is limited to
occasional editing or proofreading of a draft.
2.3.3.2 Topics and Genres
Harmer (2001: 252-253) argues that if students are interested in the topics
we are asking them to write about, they are unlikely to invest their language
production with the same amount of effort as they would if they were excited by
the subject matter. If they are completely unfamiliar with the genre we are asking
them to write in, for example, they may find it difficult to engage with the task we
have given them.
To be successful in writing, it helps if we know what we are going to write
about. However the variety in a general English classroom sometimes means that
students are asked to write about a topic they have little knowledge of.
When students with language limitation are asked to work with topics that
do not interest them, perhaps in unfamiliar genres, and without the necessary
information, then language production activities suffer. We need to have ways of
avoiding such a scenario as explained below:
a. Choose interesting topics
It is important to try a form of task (topic) that can involve students in the
classroom. We can find out students` favorite topics through interviews,
questionnaires, and observations.
b. Create interest in the topic
Because we want students to be involved in a given task, we should create
an interest in the topic to be written by talking about the topic and
communicating enthusiasm. We can ask students to discuss the topic in `buzz
groups` (divide them into some small groups) to get them involved in it, or we
can ask the group if anyone knows anything about the topic and can ,therefore,
tell the others about it. We can ask students to think about what they might
write and give them opportunities to come up with opinions about the topic
before the activities start.
c. Activate schema
Although students have been interested in the topic, they may find it
difficult to take part in any enthusiasm if they are unfamiliar with the genre of
the assigned task. For this reason, we must show the same typical writing
examples as the assigned tasks.
d. Provide necessary information
When we plan a writing task, we need to ask the students much-needed
information to do the task. Provide necessary information before they start
writing. We cannot ask them to write descriptive texts if they do not have the
necessary information to describe something, a person, an object, or an animal.
2.3.3.3 Theory of Paragraph
In addition, Keraf (2004: 69-70) states that paragraph is nothing other than
a unity of mind, a unity higher or wider than a sentence. It is the set of related
sentences in a series to form an idea. Through paragraphs we can distinguish
where a theme starts and ends. In line with this, Hogue (2008:4) said that a
paragraph is a group of related sentences about a single topic. Simpen (2008: 22-
23) said that paragraph is a unity of mind that is wider than the sentence. A
paragraph contains one main thought or one idea supported by several explanatory
sentences. All sentences in a paragraph should be centered on the basic sentence.
Hogue continued that the topic of a paragraph is one, and only one, idea. A
paragraph has three main parts.
1. Topic sentence The first sentence in a paragraph is a sentence that names the topic and
tells what the paragraph will explain about the topic. This sentence is called the
topic sentence.
2. Supporting sentences
The middle sentences in a paragraph are called the supporting sentences.
Supporting sentences give examples or other details about the topic.
3. Concluding sentence
The last sentence in a paragraph is called the concluding sentence. A
concluding sentence often repeats the topic sentence in different words or
summarizes the main points.
Furthermore, Keraf says that the formation of a paragraph at least has a
purpose:
a) to facilitate understanding and comprehending by divorcing a theme with
another theme. Therefore, every paragraph, can only contain one theme. For
the writer, the paragraph aims to focus the main idea in one unity (Simpen:
2008: 25)b) to separate and confirm the stops fairly and formally, to enable us to stop
longer than the stop at the end of the sentence.
There are some kinds of paragraph in writing. Keraf (2004:71-83) devided
the paragraph into:
1. Opening paragraph
Each type of essay will have a paragraph that opens or delivers the subject
in the passage. The short opening paragraph is much better, because long
paragraphs will only cause the boredom of the readers.
2. Connecting Paragraph
Connecting paragraphs will be all paragraphs between the opening and
closing paragraphs. The essence of the matter which the writer will present is in
these paragraphs.
3. Closing paragraph
The closing paragraph is a paragraph which is intended to end the essay or
part of the essay. In other words, this paragraph contains the conclusions of what
has been described in the connecting paragraphs. In good writing, there are four
ways to place a topic sentence or the main sentence. Those are,
a) at the beginning of the paragraph
The initial sense of this paragraph may be in the first sentence or the
second sentence. First, put forward the main subject which are then followed by
the detailed descriptions.
b) at the end of the paragraph
The topic sentence can also be placed at the end of the paragraph. In this
case, the paragraph is inductive. Such paragraphs should be arranged in such a
way that they can reach the climax in the main sentence at the end of the
paragraph.
c) in the beginning and end of paragraph
The topic sentence can also be placed at the beginning and end of the
paragraph. In this case, the last sentence often repeats the idea in the first sentence
with little pressure or variation.
d) throughout the paragraph
The topic or main sentence can also be contained throughout the
paragraph. In this case there is no special sentence that becomes the subject line.
Such a paragraph is mainly found in descriptive or narrative descriptions.
2.3.3.4 Writing process
Brandvik & McKnight (2013: 118-119) argue that writing activities, as a
process, requires repetition with many steps as follows.
I. Prewriting (activities before writing). This is the preparation time before
starting to write the first draft. This step helps the authors generate and
explore ideas for the topic of writing and is essential for achieving success in
the overall writing process. The pre-writing stage is generally defined by idea
generation, shaping, refining, and organization (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992) in
Hurd and Lewis (2008:108). II. Drafting (drafting). A finished result will usually go through several drafts. In
the first draft, students write ideas quickly in rough drafts without worrying
about neatness or improvement. Not all drafts are taken in the whole writing
process. These drafts will go through further revisions and improvements in
subsequent draft writing. A first draft is not the final version of your writing.
In fact, you will revise your first draft several times and will make changes in
both content and wording (Valencia, 2002:80).III. Revising and Editing (revision and editing). The revision is to review the
writing. Making early changes might put ideas and circuits appropriately. The
subsequent drafts will take into account the rearrangement, re-establishment,
and unify the parts that exist into a unity. The latter revision requires
proofreading (making a few changes better than ever), polishing (polishing /
refining work) and editing (editing). Revising requires several readings of the
first draft. You must first consider each sentence in relation to the paragraph
and to the writing as a whole (Valencia, 2002:80). Further, Hurd and Lewis
(2008:111-113) said that revising strategies may be used at any point during
the writing process. IV. Presenting and Publishing (presentation and publishing). This is a stage often
deleted in school writing activities. The students only write for the teacher.
Today we will encourage them to write and deliver the results in front of
various audiences. These activities include reading aloud in front of the class,
in groups, or in public forums. Present the paper to someone outside the
classroom, show it off, or submit it for publication purposes.
2.3.4 The Descriptive Text
Semi (1990: 42), affirms that the descriptive text aims to give details about
an object so that it can affect the imagination of the readers or listeners as if they
hear, see, feel or experience the object directly. Objects can be people, things,
animals, and something that are described. Tompkins (1994) and Stanley (1988)
defined descriptive text as painting pictures with words. By reading a descriptive
text, readers feel that they see the description just like they see pictures.
Descriptive text has the purpose to describe an object or a person that the writer is
interested in. They describe their ideas and thought vividly based on what they
see, hear, taste, smell, or touch. Descriptive writing describes a person, place, or
thing, Valencia (2002:77). Aryanto (2009: 4) suggests the characteristics of the
language of descriptive text that distinguishes it from the other types of texts as
follows:
1. Using the simple present tense to explain the characteristics of the subjects
discussed, for example, She is my English teacher.2. Using certain nouns: My English teacher, My house, My cat, and Our school.3. Using detailed noun phrases to provide information about the subject, for
example, a sweet young lady, a comfortable small house, a rare plant, a sandy
beach and a very kind-hearted old man.4. Using a variety of adjectives for describing, numbering, and classifying, such
as two strong horns, four sharp claws, and two big round eyes.5. Using related verbs to provide information about the subject, eg: it is white in
color, it has a beautiful voice, it is really kind, the park is near the traditional
market, and Bandung is south of Jakarta.6. Using thinking verbs or feeling verbs to express personal views of the author
on the subject, for example, I think he is the best teacher in my school, I think
my house is a nice person to live, and feel he is a nice person.7. Using analogy or figurative language, such as she is as sweet as candy, Paul is
white as chalk, and the room is as cold as in the polar.8. Using action verbs to explain the subject's behavior or habits, for example, she
never comes late, it always sings every morning, and my father goes to work
early in the morning.
2.3.5 ESL Composition Profile
To evaluate the level of achievement of students in writing descriptive
essay, then the teacher must assess the students` descriptive writing using the
predefined standards. The table of scale for rating composition tasks follows the
ESL Composition Profile by Jacobs et al (1981:236-237). It consists of scoring the
content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. It can be seen
clearly in the table below.
Table 2.1 ESL Composition Profile (Jacobs et al, 1981: 236-237)
Analysis Level CriteriaContent 30-27 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: #knowledgeable #substantive
development of thesis #relevant to assigned topic.26-22 GOOD TO AVERAGE: #sure knowledge of subject
#adequate range #limited development of thesis #mostlyrelevant to topic but lacks detail
21-17 FAIR TO POOR: #limited knowledge of subject #littlesubstance #inadequate development of topic.
16-13 VERY POOR: #does not show knowledge of subject #non-substantive #not pertinent #OR not enough to evaluate.
Organization 20-18 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: fluent expression #ideasclearly stated/supported #succinct #well-organized #logicalsequencing #cohesive
17-14 GOOD TO AVERAGE: somewhat choppy #loosely organizedbut main idea stand out #limited support #logical butincomplete sequencing.
13-10 FAIR TO POOR: non-fluent #ideas confused or disconnected#lacks logical sequencing and development.
9-7 VERY POOR: does not communicate #no organization #ORnot enough to evaluate.
Vocabulary 20-18 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: sophisticated range#effective word/idiom choice and usage #word form mastery#appropriate register.
17-14 GOOD TO AVERAGE: adequate range #occasional errors ofword/idiom form, choice, usage but meaning not obscured.
13-10 FAIR TO POOR: limited range #frequent errors ofword/idiom form choice, usage #meaning confused orobscured.
9-7 VERY POOR: essentially translation #little knowledge ofEnglish vocabulary, idiom, word form #OR not enough toevaluate.
Language
Use
25-22 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: effective, complexconstructions #few errors of agreement, tense, number, wordorder/function, articles, pronouns, preposition.
21-18 GOOD TO AVERAGE: effective but simple construction,minor problems in complex construction #several error of
agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles,pronouns, prepositions, but meaning seldom obscured.
17-11 FAIR TO POOR: major problems in simple/complexconstruction #frequent errors of negation, agreement, tense,number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositionsand/or fragments, run-ons, deletions #meaning confused orobscured.
10-5 VERY POOR: virtually no mastering of sentence contructionrules #dominated by errors #does not communicate, OR or notenough to evaluate.
Mechanic 5 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: demonstrate mastery ofconventions #few errors of spelling, punctuation,capitalization, paragraphing.
4 GOOD TO AVERAGE: occasional errors of spelling,punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, but meaning notobscured.
3 FAIR TO POOR: frequent errors of spelling, punctuation,capitalization, paragraphing #poor hand writing, meaningconfused/obscured.
2 VERY POOR: no mastery of conventions #dominated byerrors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing#handwriting illegible #OR not enough to evaluate.
2.3.6 Research model
To teach English as a foreign language in Junior High School level in East
Sumba is not easy, especially related to writing. The teachers are required to be
creative in order that the achievement of the curriculum can reach the target. One
form of learning that can be done to improve students' interest in learning English
is to include local wisdom/social and cultural environment of students such as
descriptive text themed njara using text based approach.
The design used in this research was experimental design. Dornyei
(2007:116) asserts that the answer to a cause-effect dilemma has been provided by
a simple but ingenious methodological idea that has been labelled `experimental
design`: first, take a group of learners and do something special with/to them,
while measuring their progress. Then compare their results with data obtained
from another group that is similar in every aspect to the first group except for the
fact that it did not receive the special treatment. If there is any discrepancy in the
result of the two groups, this can be attributed to the only difference between
them, the treatment variable. A typical experimental design would be an
intervention study which contains at least two groups: the `treatment` or
`experimental group`, which receives the treatment or which is exposed to some
special conditions, and the `control group`, whose role is to provide a baseline for
a comparison.
In this study, the researcher used true experimental design model in the
form of pretest-posttest control design. In this design there were two groups
chosen randomly. One group became experimental group and the other acted as
control group. Both groups were given a pretest to know their competence and
performance in writing descriptive text, then experimental group was treated by
applying text based approach using ecotext to improve the skill in writing
descriptive text, and after that, they were given a posttest to know their
improvement in writing descriptive text. The design in the experimental method
of this model can be described as follows:
R O1 (X) O2O3 (-X) O4
Description:
R = Random
O1= Experiment group pretest
O2= Experiment group posttest
O3= Control group pretest
O4= Control group posttest
X = Treatment.
Table 2.2 Planning paradigm of Pretest-Posttest Control Design.
Group Pretest Treatment PosttestExperimentgroup
O1 Applying Text-Based Approach Using Ecotextwith the theme njara
O2
Controlgroup
O3 Conventional Approach without Ecotext O4
The effectiveness or the influence of independent variable to dependent
variable can be seen from the difference of pretest scores (O1) and Posttest (O2).
If there is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores in which the posttest
score is significantly higher than the pretest score, it can be concluded that the
treatment provided has an effect or effective on the changes occurring on the
dependent variable.
The research design with true experimental design model is pretest-posttestcontrol design as follows.
Applying Text-Based Approach using Ecotext to improve DescriptiveWriting Skill of the 7th Graders of SMP Kristen Payeti, East Sumba
1. How is the result of descriptive writing skill of the 7thgraders of SMP Kristen Payeti before the implementation oftext-based approach using ecotext with the theme horse
2. How is the strategy to apply text-based approach usingecotext with the theme of horse `njara` in improving descriptivewriting skill of the 7th graders of SMP Kristen Payeti?
3. How is the improvement of the descriptive writing skill of the 7thgraders of SMP Kristen Payeti after the implementation of text-based approach using ecotext with the theme horse `njara`?
Pretest-Posttest control design
Pretest
Control classExperiment class
Ecolinguistics theory
Text-based approach Conventional approach
Writing theory
Posttest
Thesis
The findings
Based on this design, there were some steps implemented in order to
obtain the data for this thesis. The steps were to answer the problems in this
research. The first step began with the stage before the treatment, the next steps
dealt with the process during the treatment and the last step included the activities
after the treatment. The detail steps are described below.
1. Observing the teaching and learning process in the classrooms, interviewing
the English teacher, choosing and demining the experiment and control class
randomly, and distributing questionnaires to students which were intended to
get qualitative data about the process of teaching and learning descriptive text.
The pretest was given to the students in order to answer the formulation of the
first problem quantitatively and qualitatively, that is about how the result of the
skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti
before the implementation of text-based approach using ecotext with the theme
horse `njara` was. The data obtained on both qualitative and quantitative were
analyzed using the theory of text-based approach, ecolinguistic perspective,
and theory of writing.2. Doing treatment to both experiment and control classs. The experimental class
were treated using ecotext with the theme horse `njara` mainly Sumba racing
horse `njara palapangu`, phases in text-based approach, ecolinguistic
perspective, and theory of writing involving topics and genre, paragraph
theory, syntax theory in descriptive writing, and the process of writing, while
the control class was treated using the descriptive text about animals outside
Sumba, the conventional approach including conventional theory, strategy, and
method without ecotext. The second stage was to answer the second problem
qualitatively.3. Performing posttest after the treatment to experimental class by writing ecotext
`njara palapangu` in English and to control class in the form of writing
English descriptive essay with the same theme and then analyzing it using the
theory of writing mainly the ESL `Composition Profile by Jacobs et al` and the
ecolinguistic perspective according to Lier. The third stage was used to answer
the formulation of the third problem quantitatively and qualitatively.