Chapter 1 Emergence of Kanpur Leather

Industry: Historical Background

The transition from craft industry to factory production ts well

illustrated by the leather industry in Kanpur. In a general way Marx analysed

the transition and focused upon the intermediate form of manufactories in

Europe. With the expansion of the market the trader or the merchant made an

appearance. The relationship between the merchants and artisans was

characterized in terms of the putting out system where the merchants

advanced the raw materials to the artisans who in tum carried on the

production with the help of their family members. This was followed by the

intermediate stage, that of manufactory, or the Karkhanas in case of India,

which was characterized by simple cooperation where "a greater number of

workers, who worked together at the same time in one place, to produce the

same commodity under the mastership of one capitalist" 1• Here, both the raw

materials and means of production were provided by the merchant capitalist.

This transformed the labour process into a social process, 2 which was a more

complex form of cooperation. Here the social division of labour took place.

The artisans were employed as part of a detail labour, instead of complete

producers.

We shall discuss the progress of the leather craft in the above context.

As a simple commodity producer, the leather worker performed all the tasks

related to the leather manufacture, from the collection of the hide to tanning

and the manufacture of articles required by the villagers. With the arrival of

capital, the merchant advanced the raw material, and the leather worker took

up the making of shoes as a job worker, by either producing in his own house

with the help of his family members or working along with other workers in

the house of the Karkhanedar, getting paid by piece rate. The leather craft

witnessed specialization in the form of a separate class of flayers, tanners and

leather manufacturers emerging in place of a single artisan who performed all

the functions. With the arrival of the British a class of factory workers was

Karl Marx, Capital, Vol./, p.322.

2 Ibid., p.335.

9

added. We shall discuss the leather craft in these stages till the emergence of

large scale factory production.

The Historical Background

India, with one- third of the total cattle population of the world, has

long been the largest supplier of hides and skins. This huge livestock

population of India was perhaps the basis of the existence of the leather craft

from the remote antiquity. The tanning of skins was done by certain classes of

people in every town and village of India . It continued to be a craft based on

empirical knowledge which was passed on from one generation to another.

The Hindus and Buddhists, both of who had strong objection in taking life,

did not object to this craft in the early stages as initially this craft depended

essentially on the skins of cattle which had died a natural death.3 We need not

enter the debated question of beef eating in ancient India, but there is no

doubt that religion never came in the way of progress of this industry which

depended on animal skins for raw material of which there was no dearth; the

leather yielding cattle heads which consisted of the cattle, camel, goat, cow,

sheep and buffaloes was a measure of the wealth of the owner.4 Even Kautilya

acknowledges the value of this craft considering the hides important enough

to be constantly stored in the city and to be replaced with fresh supplies. The

workers in hides were asked to settle along with workers in wool, yam,

bamboo, armours, weapon, shields and Sudras in western quarters.5

The leather workers find mention in the Vedic literature under various

names, while in the Rigveda they are called the Charmamana, 6 the Jain

Jambudvipa Prajnapta refers to them as Cammayaru.7 In various other works

3 George Watt, The Commercial Products of India, ( London, John Murray, 1908) p.636.

4 H.K. Naqvi, Agricultural, Industrial and Urban Dynamism under the Sultans of Delhi 1206-1555, (Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal Pub, 1986) p.71.

5 Yivekanand Jha, "Leather Workers in Ancient and Early Medieval India", P.f.H.C. 401h Session,

(A.P. University, Waltair, 1979) p.IOO.

6 Geo. W. Briggs, The Chamars, (Calcutta, Low Price Pub, 1920) p.l3.

7 Yivekanand Jha, "Leather Workers in Ancient and Early Medieval India", op.;it., p.l 04.

10

they are mentioned as Karavera, Dhigvana, Carmavakrtin. 8 The Vinaya Pit aka

includes the craft of leather workers in its list of five low occupations. He is

also included in the seven antyajas (untouchables) in the list of Arti and

Yama, while Prasara places the Carmakara midway between Sudras and the

Candala.

An idea of the state of the leather craft in the ancient period can be had

from the wide range of articles which were made of leather, besides clothing

and shoes. This included the bowstrings made of ox hide, thongs for holding

liquids, leather bottles, thongs (Vardhra) for coaches and door fastenings.

Reference is made in the Mahabharata of leather hand guards for the bow,

shields made of ox hide or bear skin, leather breast plates, leather sheaths for

sword, leather robes for horses serving as armours for them, for drums, etc.9

Besides these T.N. Mukherji mentions shields made of the hides of

rhinoceros and blue bull; skins of deer with hair intact beautifully tanned in

Kangra and Hushiarpur, of ornamental belts embroidered with coloured silk,

playing cards covered with figures made of fish scales, Nossam dish mats

made of thin leather, hand painted figures of men and women grouped in the

form of a horse or elephant, table and teapoy covers prepared from antelope

leather. 10

The rise of new social forces in the 14th & 15th centuries introduced a

change in the mode of production. Production which till now was for use, was

replaced by commodities in which the monarchs started taking interest. These

products started attracting world markets. New towns providing stimulus to

production emerged during the period. By the eleventh century Mansura in

Sind and Cambay in Gujarat gained a reputation for the manufacture of

Sandals embroidered with gold and silver wire, becoming important centres

for export of leather shoes and Sandals. 11 A considerable proportion of this

8 I bid., p.l 02.

9 Geo. W. Briggs, Chamars, op.cit., pp.12-13. And P.C. Jain, Socio-Economic Exploration of Medieval India from 800-1300 A.D. (Delhi, B.R. Pub. Corp., 1976) p.193.

I 0 Rajeshwar Prasad Singh, "Artisans in Manu", P.I.H.C. 32"J Session, ( Jabalpur, 1970) p.l 04.

I I P.C. Jain, Socio-Economic Exploration of Medieval India (from 800-1300 A.D.), op.cit., p.l93.

11

export was directed towards the Middle East and China during the period'. 12

According to Marco Polo by A.D. 1290, the curing of hides and the

manufactures of leather were two of the most important industries of Gujarat.

He also mentions of a considerable export of skins of goats, oxen, and

unicorns to Arabia from the state. 13

The organisation of the industry too has its roots in the early history,

the Trisasthisalaka Purusacaritam includes the cammayaras, the guild of

leather workers, in its list of 18 guilds ; Alberuni includes them in his list of 8

guilds. A reference to guild of shoe makers is made in the Mitaksara also. 14

The arrival Mohammedans in India gave a further boost to the already

flourishing leather industry. This period witnessed a great increase in both the

demand and supply of raw material. Shoes were considered an integral part of

the daily dress of the Muslims and this led to an increase in its demand. 15

Corresponding to the demand there was also an increase in the supply of hides

and skins. While earlier the leather workers depended on the fallen cattle or

hides of animals who had died a natural death, now this supply was

complemented with skins of animals which were slaughtered for meat which

formed an important part of the diet of Muslims. 16 Besides there was also an

increase in demand for cattle for ploughing the extended land under

cultivation, for transportation and for drawing water from wells. The growing

pressure of the market led to an increase in breeding and rearing of cattle and

live stock, which in turn yielded correspondingly higher volume of leather.

The increase in the volume of hides and skins provided an impetus for

12 Ibid., p.193.

13 A.C. Banerjee, The State and Society in Northern India 1206-1526, (Calcutta. K.P. Bagchi Co .. 1982) p.l78; and L.F. Benedetto, The Travels of Marco Polo, Eng. Trans. Prof. Aldo Ricie, (London, Routlege and Kegan Paul Ltd, 1950) p.332.

14 Ibid., p.309.

15 H.K. Naqvi, Urbanisation and Urban Centers Under the Great Mughuls 1556-1707, Vol./, (Simla. Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1972) p.50.

16 Ibid., p.50.

12

advance in the craft, m regard to its diversification, quality and volume

turnout. 17

A very important class of professionals, the butchers or qassabs made

an appearance in this period. 18 Earlier the skins from fallen cattle were usually

worn out and damaged but the skins obtained from the slaughtered animals

were of good quality. This improved the quality of the products turned out.

The leather workers continued to occupy a low position. They were forced to

take quarters outside the proper settlements, which in some cases were outside

the city wall, because besides the stinking smell exuding from the tanning

process the Hindus and the Muslims were averse to the Chamars for keeping

pigs, detested by both. Mention is made of their seclusion in the 13th century

Delhi, where they occupied a ward outside the city wall and in the 16th

century Kabul where their quarters adjoined the Delhi gate. 19 The leather craft

during this period made its appearance in the urban locales flourishing in the

karkhanas under royal patronage, looked after by a separate department,

known as the Rikabkhana. 20 In these karkhanas of the Mughal period

specialization process advanced to a great extent. During this period there was

in India a considerable variety of arts & handicrafts which indeed exhibited a

more advanced economic and financial organization than the contemporary

Europe. 'In the first place in several handicrafts, the specialization of task

advanced to the extent that particular groups of artisans came to undertake

distinct processes in the chain of production. Such integration and

coordination of production were hardly reached in European handicrafts.

Secondly there were whole villages and mohallas of cities and towns which

devoted themselves to the production of specialized projects, whether cotton

or silk fabric, gold, silver or brass manufacture, bidri work or ivory to

17 Abui-Fazl, Ain-i-Akhari, Eng. Trans. H. Blochmann, (Delhi, Aadiesh Book Depot, 1965) p.60.

18 II.K. Naqvi, Agricultural, Industrial and Urbun Dynumism under the Sultan of Delhi 1206-1555, op.cit., p.72.

19 Ibid., p.73.

20 Tripta Verma, Karkhanas Under the Mughals, From Akbar to Aurganzeb, A Study in Economic Development, (Delhi, Pragati Pub., 1994) p.l.

13

mention a few that commanded both Indian as well as foreign markets.

Thirdly, the foreign trades in products of Indian arts and handicrafts

developed a corresponding organization of production, under which master

artisans or entrepreneurs brought together groups of artisans who worked for

them on wage basis ... artisans worked on their own account as well as in

Karkhanas, big and small, under master artisans, dealers and financers.' 21 .In

certain industries including the leather production in these Karkhanas

continued even in the British period. In the Karkhanas 'the shoemakers

engaged workers and apprentices paying them a certain amount of advance

which was deducted from their salary every month. The worker could not

leave so long as the advance was not paid. His services were transferred to

another shoemaker on the new master paying the old'22•

Genesis of the Modern Industry

It was during the British period that the leather industry was

completely transformed. Commenting on this influence Tirthankar Roy states

that "leather was probably the most important of the quasi services that

became commercialized during the colonial period". He goes on to discuss the

shifting of the industry to urban locales and becoming an export industry. He

cites the locational advantages of these cities having abundant raw materials,

proximity to a water source and easy availability of markets .23 Besides the

locational advantages, the leather industry now had access to imported

chemicals which helped in turning out superior leather.24

The credit of transforming the leather industry in the 19th century goes

to Charles de Susa, a French Eurasian of Pondicherry. He introduced

improvements in the native methods of preparing skins which he had learned

111 Mauritius. He started a tannery in Madras in which the French processes

21 R.K Mukherjee, The Economic History of India: 1600-1800, (London, Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd) p.81.

22 Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee: UP., /929-30, Vol.! I, Evidence, p.37.

23 Tirthankar Roy, "Foreign Trade and the Artisans in Colonial India: A Study of Leather". I.E.S.H.R., Voi..XXXI, No.4, October-December 1994, pp.462-80.

24 Dhires Bhattacharya, A Concise Indian Economy 1750-1950, (New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India, 1979) p.416.

14

were introduced. He was able to check the tendency of discolouration found

in the Indian tanned hides on exposure to air.25 Encouraged by these results, a

number of people took up tanning on a large scale. This laid the foundation of

the tanning industry in Madras but did not extend beyond this presidency.

Untill the end of the 19th century it enjoyed the monopoly of this segment, 30

of the 48 tanneries in India were located in Madras, while 11 were in Sind, 3

in Calcutta and 2 each in Kanpur and Bangalore.26 D.R. Gadgil describes the

changes that were taking place in the Madras tanning industry, "it showed an

intermediate stage in the development of Indian industry, as it displayed the

effect of a slight adaptation of improved methods in industry combined with

cheap labour. The export trader replaced the independent artisans. The unit of

the industry too increased, while earlier the tanner or leather worker

functioned independently, now it became a small workshop, with an average

five to seven workers." 27 This led to the establishment of this industry in a

number of cities, most prominent being Calcutta, Bombay, Ahemedabad and

Kanpur. While Calcutta and Madras were centres for the tanning of hides,

Kanpur was a major centre for the tanning of lighter leather from the skins of

goats and sheep. Though the industry in Kanpur was established after Madras,

the quality of the product turned out here was comparable to that imported

from England. Acknowledging this Chatterton commented that the

"Cawnpore leather is of excellent quality and it would require knowledge to

detect the difference" 28

The industry in Kanpur came up around the time providing for the

demand of harness and accoutrements for the East India Company's native

army and the Bengal artillery. As the demand was not much this was easily

25 Alfred Chatterton, Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather in Madras Presidency, (Madras, 1904)p.3.

26 D.R. Gadgil, Industrial Evolution of India in Recent Times 1860-1939, (Oxford University Press, 1971) p.60; George Watt, A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, (Delhi, Cosmo Publications, 1972) p.613.

27 Ibid., pp.60-61.

28 Alfred Chatterton, Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather in Madras Presidency, op.cit., p.39.

15

met by the native contractors from the leather tanned locally. 29 The year 1857

was crucial in deciding the future course this industry was going to take in

Kanpur. The revolt that year shook the company, giving a severe setback to

the British army, with a loss of their reserve stock in arsenals which fell into

the hands of the rebels. This resulted in an acute shortage of harness saddlery

and other accouterments. The shortage forced the Government to depend on

England for its supply. Since the ships had to come around the Cape, as the

Suez Canal was not yet open, these supplies took a long time in reaching

India; moreover being of an organic nature, these hides were damaged during

the journey. The repeated condemnation of the English equipment and the

inability of the Ordnance to meet the British army's demand led the Inspector

General of Ordnance to make an attempt to obtain the suitable equipment

locally in India. Lt. John Stewart, an officer of the Bengal artillery and the

commissary of ordnance, in charge of the arsenal at Kanpur was appointed to

take the required initiative. He was to stimulate the decayed native industry

and encourage the tanners to introduce more efficient methods of tanning by

giving out contracts and advances of money.

As the native tanners had neither the capital nor the enterprise to

undertake these processes he induced the Government to erect a small tannery

on the European lines. This experimental tannery at Kanpur was operated by

soldiers who had worked in the tan yards in England. They had an easy

supply of the commissariat cattle and babul bark as raw materials. English

methods and machines were introduced in all the departments of the factory.

The success of this tannery led the Government to sanction its expansion.

Thus was laid the foundation of the Government Harness and saddlery

Factory in 1861, the first government leather concern in India. It also marked

the beginning of the modern tanning industry in India. From a small nucleus

the factory soon grew to gigantic proportions supplying the entire equipment

29 H.G. Walton, A Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather in the Uni:ed Provinces of Agra and Oudh, ( Allahabad, 1902) p.2.

16

for the British army in India and also for the troops engaged m operations

overseas. 30

Emergence of Kanpur As An Industrial Town

The initiation of the process of Kanpur's growth leading to its

emergence as a major industrial city of India may be traced to the choice of

this place as an important army station in the late 18th century. This choice

was influenced by Kanpur's central position in the Indo-Gangetic plains

where its political domination progressively extended during the subsequent

period of the British rule in India. On account of its geographical location,

Kanpur came to be an important transport node. Its importance increased

progressively first as a military supply base and then as a trading and transit

centre, as also a centre of a few major consumer goods industries.31 With a

population of 200, 000 it was placed after Lucknow as regards the size in

1932.The size of Kanpur continued to increase as it was the centre of

Provincial industry.32 The industrialisation in Kanpur started around 1861,

when the Government Harness and Saddlery Factory and the Elgin mills were

launched, this was followed by the Lal Imli, 1876, Cooper Allen, 1881 and

Cawnpore mills 1882. Within a span of 20 years of appearance of railways in

Kanpur the city developed as the most important industrial metropolis in

Northern India.

Kanpur was an obscure hamlet until the British set up an army camp

here. Its origin is attributed to Hindu Singh Chandel, the Raja of Sachendi,

who came here to bathe on the festival of Kanhiya Ashtami. Taking a fancy to

30 Ibid., p.2; Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency, the United Provinces, The Punjab etc. their History, People, Commerce and Natural Resources, (London, the Foreign and Colonial Compiling and Pub. Co., 1920), P.11, 12; Tirthankar Roy, Foreign Trade and Artisans in Coioniallndia: A Study of Leather, op.cit., p.478.

31 P.B. Desai, M.N.Pal, "Economic Activity in the Kanpur Region: Present Pattern and Perspective Dimension". Regional Perspective of Industrial and Urban Growth- the Case of Kanpur, Papers and Proceedings of the International Seminar on urban and Industrial Growth of Kanpur Region, January 29 to February 4, 1967, p.6.

32 Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee: U.P., Vol.!, pp.32-33

17

the place, he built a town named after the auspicious day of its foundation,

Kanpur.33

In 1778 the base for the military forces which in accordance to the

Fyzabad treaty of 1701 was stationed at Bilgram, was shifted to Kanpur. This

was a turning point in the history of Kanpur, the security which this garrison

provided against plunder and oppression combined with the facilities of river

transport and the company's factory went on to attract traders in large

numbers. 34 The East India Company and the Europeans exploited the

emerging opportunities.

The year 1801 was of historic significance for Kanpur as the East India

Company acquired it from the Nawab Sadat Ali Khan as a ceded part of the

Province, and gave it the status of a district. 35 This was followed by a great

commercial activity. Indigo was one of the first industries to have emerged.

Between 1812 and 1819, there was a steady cultivation of indigo, and a

factory was set up at Jujufgurh. Though it was a profitable concern money

was not invested in its further expansion.36 Therefore, with the failure of

Calcutta Houses of Agency in 1830, the indigo cultivation declined rapidly.

The same year opium cultivation was introduced in the district. 37 Cotton

ginning was also a very important industry of the period. This period of rapid

economic development led to the growth of civic amenities, buildings for

courts, jail and treasury, and construction of important roads.

Three events followed in quick succession giving a boost to the

industrialization of Kanpur the annexation of Oudh by the British in 1856, the

upsurge in 1857 and the extension of railways in 1859. A chain of large- sized

33 Statistical and Descriptive Account of the North Western Provinces, Cawnpore District, Gorkahpur and Basti District, p.2267. And H.R., Nevill, District Gazetteer of Agra and Oudh, Cawnpore, Voi.XIX, (1909).

34 Draft Report of the Cawnpore Expansions Commission, (Allahabad Govt. Press, United Provinces, 1917) p.l.

35 Laxmikant Tripathi and N.P. Arora, Kanpur Ka ltihas, Part II, (Kanpur, 1958).

36 Robert Montgomery, Statistical Report of the District ofCawnpore, (J.C. S!lerrif, Bengal Military Orphan Press, 1849) p.99.

3 7 Ibid., p.l8.

18

industrial units soon appeared on the scene Elgin Mills in 1861; Muir mills

and Lal Imli in 1876; Cooper Allen in 1881; and the Cawnpore Cotton mills

in 1882. Within about 20 years of the appearance of railways in Kanpur, the

city developed as the most important metropolis in Northern India.38

The growth of Kanpur as a manufacturing centre was a great event in

the history of the Province. The initial years of the twentieth century was a

period when there was a mighty spurt of trade and industry in Kanpur. A

number of companies were floated, hectic activity was going on in all the

mills cotton, woolen, leather, etc. but the industry which came to be closely

associated with the very name of Kanpur was the leather industry. After the

uprising of 1857 when the roads were metalled and improved and railways

made their presence, and Kanpur was assured its focal position, it was in the

leather industry that the Government took its first big step by starting the

Government Harness and Saddlery Factory. This was followed by the

establishment of a number of concerns on similar lines. Besides the leather

manufacture, Kanpur also emerged as an important centre for collection of

hides for export. There were a number of skin godowns in the Cooly Bazaar

and Benijhabar. A large number of arthatias or commission agents, beoparies

and dealers carried out their business in Farrash Khana, Penchbagh, Coolly

Bazaar, Baconganj and Chota Butcherkhana.39 The processes of curing,

cleaning and tanning of skins were carried on indiscriminately in a great

number of places both in the civil lines and in the city. Before taking up a

study of the emergence of the large scale factories, we shall first look into the

reasons as to why Kanpur came to be such an important centre of leather

manufacture and trade.

T.N. Chaudhri lists five variables which affect the location of an

industry. These include the climatic and geographical features; availability of

raw materials; access to markets ; transport costs; and the scale of output. To

these internal conditions, the influence of external and random elements such

38 Upper India Chamber for Commerce, Centenary Souvenir, (Kanpur, 1988).

39 Draft Report of the Cawnpore Expansion Commission, op.cit., p.l.

19

as social values and political conditions could be added.40 The president of the

Federation of British Industries too gives similar variables with the inclusion

of social amenities including housing facilities and the personnel. The choice

of location of an industry was therefore the result of weighing and assessing

the relative importance of these factors. 41 Taking into account the above

criteria, the factors which exercised their influence in the location of the

leather industry in Kanpur in order of their relative importance, are discussed

below.

Locational Advantages In Kanpur

The availability of raw materials was one of the most important factor

influencing the lo~ation of this industry. The pelts of the animals and the

tanning materials formed the basic raw materials for this industry. At the time

of the emergence of large factories the tanning materials were of a vegetable

origin and a weight losing nature. This characteristic exercised such a great

influence that it was because of this that the bark tanning industry of India

was established along two belts. The one depending on avaram (cassia

auriculata) extended from Madras in the south to Bombay in the west. The

other depending on babul (acacia arabica) extended form Sind in the west to

Kanpur in the east.42 Kanpur was ideally located close to the forests which

had an abundance of babul. The factories, thus, never faced any problem in

acquiring these.

The animal pelts, hides and skins, was the other raw material of equal

importance. Proximity to the source of these pelts was important for all

branches of this industry, especially those using skins (pelts of sheeps, goats

and other small animals) to make light upper leather.43 Here again Kanpur

was at an advantage, the United Provinces along with Punjab, central India

40 T.N. Chaudhri, "Structure of Indian Textile Industry in the Seventeenth and the Eighteenth Centuries", Tirthankar Roy (ed.), Cloth and Commerce Textiles in Colonial India, ( New Delhi , Sage Pub., 1996) pp.37-38.

4 i N.S.R. Sastry, A Statistical Study of India's Industrial Development, (Bombay, Thacker and Co. Ltd 194 7), p.IS-16.

42 T.R. Sharma, Location of Industries in India, (Bombay, Hind Kitabs Ltd., 1946)p.l79.

43 Ibid., p.l84.

20

and Rajputana formed the main cattle belt of India .44 To add to this the

province was connected by railways with Bihar, Punjab and the Central

Provinces, the triangular tract that yielded the best cattle hides in India. 45 The

means of transportation, especially the railways with its freight policies,

inJ1uenced the distribution of leather industry. Gadgil draws attention to the

crucial role played by this factor in the rapid industrialization of certain

places, "Even an advantage of a few years in the building of the railway to

another town is enough to divert the old channels of trade". 46 It was the

railways which gave Kanpur an edge over Lucknow, which was known as the

hide emporium with a huge number of sheep and goats being slaughtered

every day.47 Railways connected Kanpur with the important cities of the

country. Being on the main line of the East Indian System, the extensive

network of railways placed Kanpur at an advantage in procuring the raw

materials and disposing of its manufactured goods to the port towns and also ~---=-=---:·--.. //:::.----:: .. , --=~ %_ \\\' ·-:- e ~:~-

other parts within the country. Besides railways, Kanpur was also !~> -;.- ·' connected with the rest of the country by means of excel! en t roads.

48 (( ~ \ ,R

Proximity of skilled labour was an additional incentive in the e~tly: \.': .t" , ... ~

years of industrialization when the urban labour force was yet to formulate;·

and the rural worker kept going back to the villages at the smallest pretext.

Kanpur had an advantage with a sizeable number of Chamars the caste

associated with leather making, residing in the district. In the United

Provinces on the whole, they formed numerically the largest caste scattered

fairly evenly.49

"'~~ 'XXLM; q1): '\. 44S~I~I'JI.f7~f161 P3

44 lbid.,p.l62.

45 Tirthankar Roy, "Foreign Trade and Artisans in Colonial India: A Study of Leather", I.E.SHR., op.cit., p.479.

46 D.R. Gadgil, Industrial Evolution of India in Recent Times, 1860-1939, op.cit., p.l48.

47 William Hoey, A Monograph on Trade and Manufactures in Northern India, (Lucknow, 1880) p.27.

48 District Gaze/leers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Cawnpore, Yol.XIX, ( 1909), p.261.

49 Geo W. Briggs, Chamars, op.cit., p.21.

21

THESIS 331.767509542

Sh234 Wo

lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll TH10833

As the tanning process required a considerable amount of water, the ·

proximity to River Ganges was another contributing factor in drawing the

leather industry to Kanpur. All the major concerns and later most of the

smaller concern·s too came to be located on the banks of the river.

The most decisive factor which was at first responsible for the

establishment and later its development was the demand for boots and leather

accoutrements by the British Army. Besides Kanpur, this demand was also

responsible for the establishment of this industry in other cantonment towns,

Agra, Meerut, Aligarh and Delhi. In Kanpur the presence of a Government

arsenal and depot at an early date created a large demand for leather goods

required for the army. This demand played a very important role in the

establishment and progress of this industry in Kanpur. The demand, in the

earlier stages, was met from the local bazaars but soon a large native industry

for boots, harness and equipment sprang up. All the saddlery requirements for

the native army were met by the Kanpur contractors. This could be termed as

the transition period where the industry had moved out of the rural settings,

providing for the contractors who supplied the army and other consumers, that

is a cross over from the natural economy to the finance economy, similar to

what the industries in England had witnessed. This led to the next step, the

factory system. With an increase in demand, following the Uprising, and

realizing the futility of depending on England for supplies and the reluctance

of the contractors to introduce the European methods for improving the

quality, the Government took the initiative and set up the first leather factory

in Kanpur, the first such initiative by the Government in the country. This

encouraged the other entrepreneurs to take up tanning. As a result, a lot of

activity was witnessed in this sphere in the last quarter of the 19th century

when a number of leather concerns came up in Kanpur. Now we take up the

progress of some of these concerns to see how the technological

improvements and private enterprise helped in the graduation of these craft

industry into large concerns producing for a wider market.

22

Major Concerns in Kanpur: New Entrepreneurship

The Government Harness and Saddlery Factory was the first major

concern to come up in Kanpur. The factory was situated at a site called the

'Havelock entrenchment', popularly known as 'Quila'. This entrenchment

played a notable role in the history of India's freedom struggle, witnessing

major battles between the Indian sepoys under Nanaji Rao and the British

soldiers during the 1857 uprising.50 A clothing factory was set up in this

entrenchment which was later retained as a depot for supplies. In the

beginning it was meant for the supervision and passing of supplies made in

the city bazaars. The initial requirements of footwear and leather equipment

for the troops came through this factory. Later in 1860 on the insistence of Lt.

John Stewart, who was appointed to stimulate the native industry, the

Government started an experimental Harness Depot. The success of this

enterprise led to the establishment of the factory in 1863. Additions were

constantly made; by 1880, it grew to be quite a big concern.51 The factory

belonging to the ordnance department was entirely devoted to the

manufacture of military equipment. The working in this concern was

controlled by the officers of the ordnance department who were selected for

the service after having undergone a very thorough course of special training

in the manufacture of leather.52 A number of extensions were made to the tan

yard in the factory. In 1882, a blacksmith's shop was built; additional tan

yards were built in 1890-91, followed by a bark grinding plant. By the tum of

the century the factory had a brass and iron foundry. The machine shop was

added in 1908-09, and also electric power was extended in the entire factory.

Additions and improvement in the methods reduced the time taken· in tanning

from eight months to five and a half. The factory, which had started large­

scale production in 1893-94, continued to increase its production. The cost of

50 Annual Report: Ordnance Equipment Factory, (Kanpur, 1993), pp.92-93.

51 Upper India Chamber for Commerce, Golden Jubilee Souvenir, 1888-1938, (Kanpur 1938) pp.13, 14.

52 Indian Industrial Commission, 1916-18, Inspection notes, pp.9, 10.

23

production was brought down. It overtook the Madras tannery in production

by 60%. The cost too was half of that in Madras. With the increase in

production, the number of people employed also increased.

The factory received its first setback in 1910, when due to financial

stringency the output was considerably reduced. A number of skilled workers

were discharged. The condition had deteriorated to an extent that in the year

before the commencement of the First World War, the value of output

dropped to half of 1900-0llevel i.e. from Rs.24, 00,000 to Rs.12, 60,000.53

It came !O be regarded by some as an unnecessary and an inexpensive way of

providing for the army requirements. At this point even the Government

thought of discontinuing the factory as a Government enterprise.

The World War changed the circumstances dramatically, there was a

sudden increase in demand for standardized equipment for units which were

going overseas for service. By March 1915, to meet the huge demand, the

factory worked overtime, improved its methods of supervision and time

saving devices were introduced. As a result, the production doubled. As the

factory expanded its production, the number of people employed also

increased, the daily average attendance rose from 2748 in 1915-16 to 3212 in

1916-17 and subsequently to around 4000 persons. During this period, to

increase the supply of approved quality the Cawnpore Tannery and the United

Provinces Tannery were brought under the control of the superintendent of

this factory. Instead of manufacturing all the articles in its own premises the

leather was cut and issued to private firms for assembling into finished

products. The method of tanning in these concerns was brought in line with

that of the Harness Factory. 54 Another reason for placing orders with private

firms even though their rates averaged 25 to 50 percent more than the

53 Shiva Prasad, "Fist War of Independence and Birth and Growth of Harness and Saddlery Factory, Cawnpore, July 1857 to October 1918", The Souvenir, Anniversary 1859-1984, O.E.F., Kanpur, 1984.

54 Ibid.

24

Government Factory was that, .'in case of mobilization the Government could

rely on these concerns besides the Government factory.' 55

The success of the Government Harness Factory encouraged Sir

George Allen and others to the establish an equally important concern, "The

Army Boot and Equipment Factory" in1881.56 The factory was locally known

as Hazari Bangia cornering an area of 3 7 acres .It was situated on the banks of

the Ganges above the permit ghat and bazaar.57 In the initial yeas, the factory

received a considerable amount of help from the Government, e.g., it

procured its first boot contract from it but on an understanding that it would

employ the same methods as used in the Harness factory. Soon the factory

was producing shoes in larger numbers. Of the six lakh pairs produced

annually, one lakh pairs were taken by the army while the rest went on to

meet the civilian demand. 58 During the War the firm supplied the Government

with '6, 205, 152 pairs of ammunition boots, 6, 86, 126 complete sets of

accoutrements, 24, 125 sets of saddlery and 25, 317 pairs of Gaiters. Huge

quantities of tanned leather for the manufacture and repair of army boots,

accoutrements And saddlery were also provided by the firm. It became the

largest individual concern in the world dealing in leather from the raw state to

the manufactured articles.' 59 In 1916-18, the firm supplied 5, 000 pairs of

ammunition boots per day to the military department.60 All the goods were

submitted for inspection by the examiners before delivery. The tanning and

manufacturing operations were carried out by a staff consisting of 75

Europeans and around 5, 000 Indians, turning out approximately 3, 000 hides

55 R.C.L, Vol.III, p.128.

56 Indian Industrial Commission, Inspection Notes, 1916-18, p.9. And Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency: The UP and the Punjab: Their History , People, Commerce and Natural Resources, op.cit., p.l2.

57 District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Cawnpore, Vol.XIX, 1909, p.78; H.G. Walton, Monograph on Tanning and Working in Leather in the United Provinces, op.cit., p.3.

58 P.J. Thomas, India's Basic Industries, (Delhi, Orient Longman's Ltd., 1948) p.313.

59 Hides Cess Enquiry Committee Report, Vol.II, Evidence, Written Statement by Messer's Cooper Allen & Co. Calcutta, p.6

60 Indian Industrial Commission, 1916-18, Inspection notes, p.9.

25

a day. Beside the tannery, the other departments of the factory were the

curriers shop, the hand- sewn boot department, the machine- sewn boot

department, the equipment department for the manufacture of saddlery,

accoutrements and military harness, polish department for making dubbing

and blackening for boots and monogram, brass foundry for making equipment

fitting, etc., and the mill siding with broad gauge railways for the receipt and

dispatch of goods.61 The latest machinery was installed in all the departments.

Here we notice that while in the case of other industries, like cotton and

woollen, the Government was hesitant in introducing machinery but for

leather concerns the entrepreneurs were encouraged and in some cases forced

to install the latest machinery and introduce the latest methods. They set very

high standards for the products which were inspected before being bought for

the army, which at the time was the biggest consumer for such products. This

was most blatant during the First World War when most of the concerns were

taken up by the Government. The private trade of this concern was closed and

the sources of the factory were taken over by the government. All boots were

removed from the factory to a Government office on the premises for

examination by qualified officials. During the period, to meet the army

demand, the production in the factory was increased to 19, 000 pairs per

day.62 This led to an increase in shifts. For the welfare of its worker and to

ensure a stable workforce, a model village of 900 quarters, known as

Allengunj, was set up for around 3, 000 workers. The company also had its

own school and dispensary.63

In 1872, another firm working on 'European lines, the Foy Bros' made

successful attempts at private manufacture. Not much was invested on

elaborate layout, the firm manufactured footwear made by hand and some

light machinery. The success of his small concern encouraged Mr. Edward I

61 Ibid.

62 P.J. Thomas, India's Basic Industries, op.cit., p.312; Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency: The UP and the Punjab: Their History, People, Commerce and Natural Resources, op.cit. p.415.

63 Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency: The UP and the Punjab: Their Hist01y , People, Commerce and Natural Resources., op.cit., p.415.

26

Foy, who in 1892, in association with Mr. T.T. Bond, established the North

West Tannery Co.6\ with a capital of 10 lakh rupees .The venture proved

successful by 1905 with a workforce of around 1000-1500 men65, the firm

was producing a much greater variety of work compared to other concerns,

including bags, trunks and suit cases, articles from crocodile skins were a

specialty of this firm66. In 1904, Messrs Cooper Allen & Co. became the

managing agents for this company,67 and in 1920, it came under the British

India Corporation Ltd., and a new brand of footwear, 'Flex' was introduced

for the shoes produced in the Cooper Allen and this tannery' .68 The

manufactures of this company gained a unique reputation for strength,

durability and finish as the tanning and currying were carried on lines similar

to that in England using methods and appliances of the most modem

description known to the trade. The concern besides other leather products

turned out around ' 2, 000 pairs of boots and shoes per day with both steam

and hand labour' .69

The boot and the shoe department with a sale of 30, 000 pairs monthly

accounted for the largest outtum for this class of goods in the East. The

saddlery and Equipment department turned out a wide range of articles from

Rs.40 for a single brass mounted harness to Rs.10, 000 for the gold mounted

position harness for Viceroy or Indian chiefs. The Bag and Trunk department

turned out Gladstone brief cases and kit bags, gold bags, etc. Each department

was under a skilled British foreman who was assisted by specially trained

Indian mistries and workmen. All the goods were examined for quality before

64 Upper India Chamber for Commerce, Golden Jubilee Souvenir, pp.l4-15

65 First Industrial Conference held at Ben eras Dec 1905, Rai Bhadur La! a Baijnath, "Some Leading Industries of Upper India", p.l36.

66 Indian Industrial Commission Report 19I6-I8, Inspection notes, p.9.

67 Upper India Chamber for Commerce, Golden Jubilee Souvenir, pp.l4-15. 68 Ibid., pp.l5-16.

69 Rai Bhadur Lala Baijnath, "Some Leading Industries of Upper India", in first Industrial Conference held at Ben eras Dec 1905, p.136.

27

distribution, for which depots were opened in Calcutta, Benares, Lucknow,

Simla and Karachi.70

In 1901, Mr. G. Yonder Wense a merchant of Agra, as a result of the

failure of the Stewart Tannery, decided to set up a tannery in Kanpur. In

partnership with two other German gentlemen he set up the Yonder W ense

Tannery. And with the help of Mr. W.B. Shewan of the North West Tannery,

using the machinery of the defunct Stewart tannery he set up a large modem

plant at Juhi. A vacuum plant for preparing tan liquors and extracts was set

up, experiments were also done in chrome tannage. After running successfully

for a short period the firm faced problems after it entered into competition

with other firms for army contracts. The concern was brought by Messrs

Cooper Allen & Co.71

Mr. Shewan on leaving the Wense Tannery, set up his own concern at

Jajmau, 'The Shewan Tannery'. Having experience in the North West and

Wense Tannery, he turned out very good quality leather. His reputation

spread fast, soon 'Sahib Ka Chamra' came to be recognized as the hallmark of

the best Kanpur leather.72

The Cawnpore Steam Tannery and Factory came up m 1896. The

founder Mr. A.K. Creet, was an Armenian who migrated to India from Persia.

He started his jewellery business in Lucknow, disposing off which he came to

Kanpur and started dealing in leather goods under the name A.H. Creet & Co.

A tannery was set up at Banana purwa, 73 a suburb of Kanpur situated near the

hide and skin market. Work was carried out under competent European

supervision. Once the tanning and currying was complete, the tools of leather

were transferred to the factory at civil lines. The firm established a great

reputation for ammunition boots suitable for the army, police, as well as

70 Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency: The UP and the Punjab: Their History , People, Commerce and Natural Resources, op.cit., p.475.

71 Upper India Chamber for Commerce, Golden Jubilee, op.cit., p.l5.

72 Ibid., p.l5.

73 Somerset Playne, The Bombay Presidency: The UP and the Punjab: Their History , People, Commerce and Natural Resources, op.cit., p.440.

28

saddlery and harness and leather goods of all kinds. They opened up a branch

office in Calcutta. They started a shipping agency for the export and import of

goods of a general character. Business connections were established in

England, Europe, America and Far East.74

In 1904, the Cawnpore Tannery was disposed of to Mr. William Stork,

who along with Hanif Abdul Karim and Hafiz Mohamad Halim formed the

'Stork Halim & Co.'. They were recognized as the leading hide merchants in

Delhi and Kanpur, supplying meat to the British troops and hides to the

ordnance department. 75 They were agents in Upper India and Punjab for

Messrs Wultton, Guttmon & Co., In 1915 they were selected as sole agents

for Messrs. Cohen Brothers and Fuchs. They brought around 150, 000 buffalo

and 3000, 000 cow hides a year. In 1916 they along with Messrs. Muhammad

Ismail Brothers formed the United Provinces Tannery Company. Tanning of

all kinds of hides and spins was taken up using the latest machinery imported

from England and America.

Among the few native entrepreneurs who ventured into this kind of

production, the name of Haji Abdul Gafoor Kadir Bux stands out. A migrant

from Allahabad, he established a firm in Kanpur which through its depots

spread out in the different parts of the country, collected 'hides and skins

which were prepared in Kanpur and exported to Europe and America. He was

at first appointed the representative of Messrs Schroeder Smidth & Co. (the

largest purchasers in India of hides and skins for the German and Austrian

markets). Later he represented Messrs Assmann & Co.· and then Messrs Ralli

brothers of Calcutta. In 1907 his son Mr. Mahomed Hanif began buying and

selling hides and skins at Kanpur. He represented Messrs Smidth Sanders &

Co. The World War brought a setback to this firm due to the closing of trade

with Austria and Germany. Now under the style of Haji Abdul Gafoor Kadir

Bux, they began to specialize in methods of dry salting hides and skins.

74 Ibid., p.441.

75 libd., p.435.

29

Mr. Halim, from Patiala, was another enterprising native, who in 1896

established in Kanpur a business of trading in hides and skins. In 1911 his

firm was providing for all the requirements of the Government Harness and

Saddlery Factory at Kanpur. He was a partner in the Cawnpore Tannery and

Lahore Tannery. He had agency outlets at Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Delhi,

Agra, Lucknow, Jullundur, Lahore, Amritsar, Meerut, Allahabad, etc.76

Messrs Skippers & Co started the manufacture of roller skins m

Kanpur, these were till then imported into the country. Priority assistance was

given to the import of machines for this company. The weekly outturn of this

concern was around 2, 000 in 1919 and was expected to reach 5, 000 with the

introduction of the latest machines 77• These concerns which had sprung up in

a time span of just around 25 years had far reaching implications of the

leather industry in general. Not only did the large concerns give a fillip to

production, they also undertook to provide better facilities to the workers ·

engaged in them. Mills provided houses in settlements which were much

cleaner and hygienic compared to the slums in which the vast majority of

them generally resided. A detailed survey of the housing conditions has been

taken up in the fourth chapter of this thesis. Among the other welfare

measures undertaken, the establishment of schools for the children by some

factories was significant. It was observed by the factories inspectors that

inspite of legislations the employment of boys into the factories could not be

checked, they continued to work for longer hours than were permitted. It was

believed that the fault rested chiefly with the boys who did all in their power

to evade the order as it enabled them to receive double pay. If the boys were

turned out in the middle of the day they were known to take opportunity to

work the second half in other mills in the vicinity. To prevent this practice

some mill owners introduced schools on their premises. The boys were

required to attend the school twice a day for two hours at a time and one hour

76 Ibid., p.453.

77 Industries Department, United Provinces, Proceedings, File No.2411913, p.23.

30

interval, besides providing recreation this enabled them to remain at the mill

throughout the day.78

The Role of Business Institutions In Industrial Growth

The rapid increase in the large concerns within Kanpur was assisted by

a large number of institutions which came up in the city. As guardians over

the interests of the commerce and industry of Kanpur, three chambers of

commerce were established. The oldest, the Upper India Chamber of

Commerce, was established in September 1888, followed by the United

Provinces Chamber of Commerce and the Merchants Chamber of United

Provinces.

The Upper India Chamber of Commerce, incorporated on lih

September 1888, was the first chamber in Northern India. Besides protecting

the interests of the Kanpur industry, the chamber played a leading role in the

civic life of Kanpur. Sir Edward Souter, one of the pioneering entrepreneurs

in the city and a member of the chamber, served as the chairman of the

'Cawnpore Improvement Trust'. The chamber nominated three members to

the Municipal Board of Kanpur. The widening of roads, introduction of

filtered water supply and the construction of sewer system can directly

attributed to the efforts of this chamber. It left its impact in almost every

sphere of activities in the city of Kanpur. The chamber was instrumental in

opening the first telephone Exchange in the city in 1897. The efforts of

Messrs Begg Sutherland & Co., a leading constituent of this chamber brought

electricity in the city in December 1906.

The chamber played a vital role in determining the fiscal policies of

this region. In 1891, its representatives were nominated to the legislative

council of North Western Provinces and Oudh. In 1909, the Morley Minto

reforms paved the way for the chamber to send its representatives to the

Provincial Legislative Council. The Government of India Act, 193 5 granted

two seats to the chamber in the legislative assembly.

78 G.A.D, United Provinces, Proceedings, File No.660B!J893, Working of the Indian Factories Act For the Year, 1892, pp. 139-40.

31

The chamber had a maJor role in attaining the growth of the city

whether they were civic amenities, education, industry or trade. For many

years it contributed in shaping the fiscal and industrial policies of the state

and in developing the industry. Its promoter members were responsible for

establishing . the labour colonies in the city. This chamber being the

representative body of the industries advocated for the induction of advanced

technology. 79

In November, 1932, the Merchant's Chamber was incorporated, as a

body devoted to public service limited by guarantee and motivated by no

financial gains. As the chamber of commerce in those days were either the

hands of maids of foreign business interests in India or the stepping stones for

the political success of the Indian Lackeys of the British Raj. The Merchant's

Chamber was established as a necessary adjunct of economic growth in the

swadeshi spirit. This chamber's efforts in developing indigenous industries

designed to prop up munitions production and war requirements were

appreciated both by the Government and the opposition in Legislatures. 80

The leather industry witnessed a gradual transformation over the

centuries. With 113 rd of the cattle population, the craft was in flourishing

condition even in the remote antiquity. This availability of raw material close

at hand was an asset to the industry, the only constraint was the dependence

on the hides of fallen cattle (those who died a natural death generally of

overwork). The first boost was received by the Mohammedan rule in India,

both in the terms of availability of raw materials and demand. This resulted in

first, the location of the industry in the urban Karkhanas and second, the

emergence of certain towns, Cambay and Mansura as important centers for

leather production and exports.

The British rule was responsible for the complete transformation of the

industry. While the Muslim period saw the change in the location of the

industry, the manufacturing processes were carried out on traditional lines.

79 Upper India Chamber of Commerce, Kanpur, Centenmy Souvenir, pp.21-23.

80 Merchants Chamber of UP, Kanpur, Golden Jubilee Year, 1932-82.

32

But now tremendous changes were witnessed in all aspects of leather

manufacture, with introduction of the latest technology.

The transformations in the industry were in the initial years restricted

to the Madras Presidency. Till the end of 19th century this monopoly

continued with 30 of the 48 tanneries located in this Presidency. But gradually

Kanpur emerged as an important centre for leath~r manufacture, gaining

reputation foe its light leather. The quality of leather turned out here was

comparable to that imported from England. The annexation of Oudh, the

upsurge of 1857 and the extension of the railways in 1859, gave a tremendous

boost to the Kanpur leather industry. This also aided in transforming Kanpur

into one of the most important metropolis in Northern India. The Kanpur

leather industry continued to prosper even when most of the other industries

were facing problems. Among the other factors which helped the industry

during the period was the easy availability of the raw materials, cheap labour,

proximity to Ganges and a regular demand in the form of Government

contracts. Thus equipped the industry, moved from rural sector to the city,

(where factories were located). In case of Kanpur leather industries the

initiative was taken by the Government, with the establishment of

Government Harness Saddlery Factory, the first of its kind in the country. A

number of other concerns followed in quick succession. Besides the

Government a number of other institutions came up in the city which took

care of the interests of this industry. Primarily related to trade and commerce,

and represented by the entrepreneurs of the city, those institutions also helped

in the over all development of the city, providing for the basic civic amenities

and education.

33