Chapter 16 Contextual Influences on Development II – Television, Computers, School, and Peers

Chapter 16 Contextual Influences on Development II – Television, Computers, School, and Peers

THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT

• 98% of American homes have at least 1 TV• Children 3-11 watch 3-4 hours of TV per day• Boys watch more than girls• Ethnic minority children living in poverty are

heavy viewers• In moderation, not likely to impair

– Cognitive growth– Academic achievement– Peer relations

• Figure 16.1. Average number of hours per day that American children and adolescents spend watching television. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.


• Development of Television Literacy– One’s ability to understand how information

is conveyed on TV– Prior to 8 or 9, process content in a

piecemeal fashion• Difficulty understanding chain of events• Tend to focus on actions• Younger than 7, difficulty with fictional

nature of TV


• Some Potentially Undesirable Effects of TV– Effects of Televised Violence

• Majority of programs contain repeated aggression and violence

• No remorse shown by, or penalty given to perpetrator

• Research suggests violent cartoon causes increase in aggression among peers


– TV violence instigate aggression?• Positive correlation is well demonstrated• Experimental results show “yes”• Longitudinal studies show the

relationship is reciprocal

• Figure 16.2 Relationship between boys’ preference for violent TV programming at age 8 and mean violence of crimes committed by age 30. ADAPTED FROM HUESSMANN, 1986.


– Other effects of televised violence?• Mean-world beliefs

–Tendency to view world as a violent place by people who rely on aggression

• Desensitize children–Less upset about violence, more

willing to tolerate acts in real life


– Television as a Source of Social Stereotypes• Gender stereotypes

–Generally negative, can be a positive influence if roles are reversed

• Stereotyped views of minorities –Usually negative–However, if portrayals are positive,

can reduce stereotyping


– Children’s Reactions to Commercial Messages• Average child sees 20,000 each year• Prior to age 9, do not understand intent

to sell products• May be more serious than televised

violence


– Television Viewing and Children’s Health• One of the strongest predictors of future

obesity is the amount of time spent watching TV

• Also promotes poor eating habits–Snacking during TV, eat what is

advertised


– Reducing the Harmful Effects of Television Violence• Parents need to monitor children’s TV

viewing–Not only what to watch, but how to

interpret what they are watching

• Table 16.1 Strategies for Regulating the Effects of TV on Children’s Development. SOURCE: Adapted from: Murray, J. P., & Lonnborg, B. (2005). Children and television: Using TV sensibly. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service.

• Table 16.1 Strategies for Regulating the Effects of TV on Children’s Development. SOURCE: Adapted from: Murray, J. P., & Lonnborg, B. (2005). Children and television: Using TV sensibly. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service.


• Television as an Educational Tool– Educational Television and Children’s

Prosocial Behavior• Watching prosocial programming lead to

more prosocial behavior–Only lasting effects if adult monitors

programs and encourages actions


– Television as a Contributor to Cognitive Development• Limited research on very young children• Preschool children – Sesame Street

–Improved cognitive skills»Numbers, letters, vocabulary,

classification, ordering»Beneficial for all children,

regardless of SES

• Figure 16.3 Relationship between amount of viewing of Sesame Street and children’s abilities: (a) improvement in total test scores for children grouped into different quartiles according to amount of viewing; (b) percentage of children who recited the alphabet correctly, grouped according to quartiles of amount of viewing; (c) percentage of children who wrote their first names correctly, grouped according to quartiles of amount of viewing. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.

CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMPUTER AGE

• Computer-assisted instruction – – Learn more, enjoy school more– Discovery programs presented as games

are best– Word processing programs

• Increases writing skills– Computer programming

• Facilitates cognitive and metacognitive development


• Concerns about Video Games– Moderate correlation between playing

violent video games and real-world aggression

– Actively involved in performing violence – Reinforced for successful symbolic

violence– May be more serious than TV violence


• Concerns about Social Inequalities– Economically disadvantaged families may

not have a computer at home– Boys were more interested in computers

• Gender gap has disappeared


• Concerns about Internet Exposure– Web exposure helps with research for

school topics– Chat rooms can lead to cybersexual

relationships and potential exploitation– Web is a recruiting tool for cults and hate

organizations

SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT

• Schools influence many aspects of development– Curricula teach academic knowledge– Promotes cognitive and metacognitive

growth through rules and problem solving • Appears that more is better, but not at

too young an age– Informal curricula teach children skills to

help them become good citizens


• Determinants of Effective Schooling– Effective schools promote

• Academic achievement• Social skills• Positive attitudes toward learning• Low absenteeism• Continuation of education beyond

required age• Acquisition of skills to find and hold jobs


– Factors that Contribute to Effective Schooling• Composition of the student body: highly

motivated and intellectually competent are best

• School climate: safety, support from school personnel


• Scholastic atmosphere should have –An academic emphasis–A challenging, developmentally

appropriate curricula; should be something students can relate to

–Effective classroom management–Authoritative discipline practices–Teamwork (faculty and principal)


– The “Goodness of Fit” between Students and Schools• One teaching method will not be

effective for all students–Need to take into account–Cultural backgrounds–Personal characteristics –Developmental needs

• Figure 16.5 Reading achievement of ethnic Hawaiian first- through third-grade students who received traditional or culturally compatible classroom instruction. The students who received culturally compatible instruction read at grade level, whereas those receiving traditional instruction read far below grade level. ADAPTED FROM THARP & GALLIMORE, 1988.


• Do Our Schools Meet the Needs of All Our Children?– Public education arose from a need to

Americanize a nation of immigrants, not to educate a workforce• Public schools were majority-culture,

middle-class institutions


• Educational Experiences of Ethnic Minorities– African American, Latino, and Native

American students • Lower grades, achievement test scores• More likely to be disciplined, held back,

and drop out– Asian Americans – better than European

Americans academically


• Parental attitudes and involvement–Difference not due to parents

undervaluing education–Less knowledgeable about and

involved in school activities–If involvement is high, children tend to

do well in school


• Interfacing parent and peer influences–Authoritative parenting is best for

academic success in African American and European American students

–Peer influences can negate this positive influence

»Low-SES African American and Latino peers devalue academics


–Asian American parents more likely to be authoritarian, but

»Have a very strong emphasis on education and achievement standards

»Have supportive friends»Result is academic success


• Teacher expectancies–Largest effects in early grades–Most serious if differential treatment

is ongoing


– Education and Developmental Transitions• Elementary to junior high –

–Loss of self-esteem, interest in school, declining grades

»Major physical and psychological changes at time of move

»Led to development of middle schools (6-8th grades)

»Still lack of fit – need support


• How Well-Educated Are Our Children? A Cross-Cultural Comparison– Only 25% of American students are truly

proficient in reading and math, and they do not write well

– Skills are consistently lower than those in most other industrialized nations

– Differences not due to general intelligence


– Classroom Instruction• Asian students spend more time being

educated on core subjects• More time is also spent “on-task”


– Parental Involvement• Asian parents are strongly committed to

educational process• Hold higher achievement expectancies• Value homework more• Communicate with teacher more

frequently


– Student Involvement• More time in class• More homework• More socialization is centered around

academics• Academic achievement contributes to

social adjustment and popularity


– A Strong Emphasis on Effort• Asian students, parents, and teachers

believe all students can master material if they work hard enough

–Not a function of the quality of the teacher or intelligence


• School reform– Necessary, and can be based on

• Strengthening curricula• Tightening standards for teacher

certification• Raising standards for graduation• Spending more days in school• Involving parents as partners with

teachers

PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

• Who or What is a Peer and What Functions Do Peers Serve?– Peers – social equals, operating at similar

levels of behavioral complexity– Peers as Equal-Status Contacts

• Contribute to social competencies


• Frequency of Peer Contacts– Between 2 and 12, children spend more

time with peers, less with adults– Gender segregation increases with age

• Girls form pairs• Boys prefer groups

• Figure 16.7 Developmental changes in children’s companionship with adults and other children. ADAPTED FROM ELLIS, ROGOFF, & CROMER, 1981.


• How Important Are Peer Influences?– May be more important than parental

influences• Being rejected by peers leads to

–Increased risk of dropping out–Delinquent activities–Serious psychological difficulties


• The Development of Peer Sociability– Sociability – willingness to engage others

in social interaction and to seek their attention or approval


– Peer Sociability in Infancy and Toddlerhood• Begin interacting in middle of 1st year• 12-18 months – engaging in complex

interactions • 18 months – coordinated interactions

and imitation• 20-24 months – verbal component

–Complementary roles

• Figure 16.8 The percentage of toddlers showing evidence of immediate imitation, delayed imitation, and playful imitation across the second year of life. FROM NEILSON & SLAUGHTER, in press.


– Sociability during the Preschool Period• Nonsocial activities • Onlooker play – watch but do not join• Parallel play – play side-by-side, little

interaction–All three decrease with age


• Associative play – share, but do not cooperate to achieve shared goals

• Cooperative play – collaborate–Both become more common with age

• Play also becomes more cognitively complex with age

–Predicts future social competencies

• Table 16.2 Changes in the Cognitive Complexity of Play Activities from Infancy through the Preschool Period. SOURCE: Adapted from Howes & Matheson, 1992.


• Functions of play in early childhood–Play in individualistic societies

teaches children to be individuals–Play in collectivistic societies teaches

children to keep egos under control, promotes group harmony

–Teaches effective communication–Provides chances for compromise–Allows for emotional understanding


– Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood and Adolescence• 6-10 years – like formal games• Contacts occur in peer groups

–Interact on a regular basis–Provide a sense of belonging–Formulate norms–Develop a hierarchical organization


• Early adolescents–Form cliques – 4-8 same-sex

members sharing values • Midadolescence – same-sex cliques

interact forming heterosexual cliques• Cliques may also merge into crowds –

similar attitudes and activities–Help form an identity, pave way for

dating relationships


• Peer Acceptance and Popularity– Peer acceptance – extent to which a child

is viewed by peers as a worthy or likeable companion• Popular – liked by many, disliked by few• Rejected – disliked by many, liked by

few; greatest risk of adjustment problems later in life


• Neglected – not really liked or disliked, basically invisible

• Controversial – liked by many, disliked by many others

• Average-status – liked or disliked by a moderate number of peers


– Why Are Children Accepted, Neglected, or Rejected by Peers?• Parenting styles - warm, sensitive and

authoritative parenting results in likeable children

• Temperamental characteristics - –Irritable, impulsive children may have

negative reactions with peers, causing rejection


• Cognitive Skills–Popular children have well-developed

role-taking skills–Rejected children tend to score

lowest on IQ tests• Social Behaviors

–Popular children are warm, cooperative, and compassionate


–Neglected children are often shy or withdrawn, but have good social skills

»Worry about their social anxiety–Rejected-aggressive children

»Alienate peers by forcefully dominating them

»Overestimate popularity


–Rejected-withdrawn children»Socially awkward, immature, react

to criticism with aggression»Withdraw when they begin to be

actively excluded

Documents

Chapter 16 Contextual Influences on Development II – Television, Computers, School, and Peers