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Moving Out of Poverty National Economic and Social Development Board

(Draft) National Synthesis Report Introduction

Local Development Foundation (LDF) Local Knowledge Management Institute (LMI)

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1. Background and Importance of the Study Pro-poor economic growth is an important condition for the resolution of the

problem of poverty in the country. However, the pattern of the implementation of work and activities for the resolution of poverty in each country which has diverse political, economic and social contexts are unclear and varied.

The World Bank team under the leadership of Ms. Deepa Narayan, Senior Advisor, proposed the implementation of a project to simultaneously study examples of movement out of poverty in 15 countries from every continent in the world in order to synthesize the lessons from the experiences of those who were previously poor and were able to move out of poverty and not fall back into poverty within the diverse political, economic and social contexts. In addition, the project attempts to study the causes, mechanisms and steps that facilitate sustainable movement out of poverty. In the case of Thailand, the focus of the study will be on poverty and inequality.

Past studies have determined that the factors that impact on economic growth that provide benefits to the poor consist of geographical characteristics, family assets, trade policies, macroeconomic stability, land ownership and education level. However, even though there have bee numerous studies that attempt to understand economic growth and social inequality, those studies are not complete because they do not look into the linkages between the various factors and did not take into consideration social and political conditions and institutional structural limitations.

In addition, under the present political environment, numerous countries have changed their system of government to that of democracy. In general, the relationship between democratic government and economic freedom and the resolution of the problem of poverty are still unclear. Thus it is necessary to determine whether democratic government affects economic freedom at the grassroots level and the availability of alternatives for the poor.

1.2. Objectives of the Study 1.2.1. To study the dynamics of change concerning chronic poverty including the

local definitions of “poverty”, the importance of the various factors and the linkages between those factors (how/why/when) that may either limit or facilitate the various communities to move out of poverty. The focus of this study is on the following issues:

• The impact of the growth rate on the resolution of the problem of poverty and the linkages between the various factors in its different dimensions that assist groups of people in moving out of poverty or enables them to move out of chronic poverty.

• The processes and events that are the major turning points that result in the movement out of poverty.

• Important factors that facilitate permanent movement out of poverty




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1.2.2. To study the major turning points that the sample groups in the study identified as resulting in moving out of poverty.

1.2.3. To synthesize the community contexts and important events in the past 13 years

1.2.4. To develop the capacity of the research teams of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) and Local Knowledge Management Institute of the of the Local Development Foundation in analyzing and synthesizing qualitative and quantitative data.

1.3. Scope of the Study in Thailand This study is a comparative study. Initially, the study will focus on the changes in

movement out of poverty in the past 13 years from the perspective of those who were previously poor and have experience in moving out of poverty

1.3.1. This study is based on existing secondary data concerning poverty, good governance and public sector provision of services. In addition, existing accepted statistical information will be used as the basis for the selection of the target groups of the study. Moreover, the research team will collaborate with government organizations in order to ensure that the results of the study that is collected from the communities become inputs into the policy process for the resolution of the problem of poverty.

1.3.2. For this comparative study, sample groups have been identified in 4 provinces based on the criteria of the growth rate and inequality. In each province, 10 communities have been identified to participate in the study. Thus the total number of communities participating in this study id 40 communities. The 10 communities identified in each province consist of 4 communities that used to be poor but have moved out of poverty, 3 communities that are still poor and 3 communities that are still poor and have become poorer. In addition, in each community, a total of 15 households will be selected to participate in completing household questionnaires. Thus the number of households participating in the study is 600 households. In collecting the household and community level data, the research team uses numerous activities i.e. interviews and focus group discussions as determined by the study methodology in order to gather data that is most correct and accurate.

1.4. Methodology The main objective of this study is to understand transitions and the diverse aspects

of movement out of poverty and to understand the reasons and the causes for sustainable movement out of poverty. This study relies on both qualitative and quantitative data collection tools at the community and household levels. The data collection tools used by the research team at the community level can be summarized in the following table:




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Data Collection Method Purpose Informants Community Level Qualitative Data Collection Methods

1. Key Informant Interview:

Community Timeline

• To understand community

• To gain an understanding of the local context.

level events or factors that have helped or hindered movement out of poverty and the overall prosperity of the community; and

2-4 local key informants in a group or separately

2. Focus Group Discussion:

Ladder of Life

• To identify the range of factors that helps or hinders movement out of poverty or prosperity over time at the community

• To identify the range of factors that helps or hinders movement out of poverty or prosperity over time at the

level;

household

• To identify the sequencing and interaction among the factors at the household level that enable movement at different steps of the Ladder of Life; and

level; and the reasons for movement at the different levels;

• To identify the movement status of specific households in the community.

• 1 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) of adult men

• 1 FGD of adult women


Livelihoods, Freedom, Power, Democracy and Local Governance

• To understand trends in economic opportunities for the community;

• To understand the impact of government rules and regulations and other factors on access to economic opportunities;

• To explore people’s understanding of the concepts of freedom, power, and inequality; and how these concepts relate to economic mobility and wellbeing; and

• To explore people’s understanding of democracy and how democracy is working at the local level.

• 1 FGD of adult men

• 1FGD of adult women


Aspirations of Youth

• To explore youth aspirations for earning a living; and steps they are taking to prepare for their future.

• To explore youth understandings of the concepts of freedom, power,

• 1 FGD of male youth

• 1 FGD of female youth




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Data Collection Method Purpose Informants inequality and democracy; and how these concepts relate to economic mobility and wellbeing.

5. Two Mini Case Studies:

Community-Wide Events and Factors Affecting Mobility

• To explore in depth two important events or factors affecting the overall economic prosperity of the community over the past 13 years

• Key informants and FGDs

Household Level Qualitative Data Collection Methods 1 6. Open-Ended

Interview:

Individual Life Stories

• To understand the life stories of how and why some individuals escape from poverty, and the factors and processes that led to their escape;

• To understand the life stories of how and why some individuals manage to maintain their wealth, and the factors and processes that helped in maintenance of their status;

• To understand the life stories of how and why some individuals remain trapped in chronic poverty, and the factors and processes that kept them in poverty;

• To understand the life stories of how and why some individuals fall into poverty, and the factors and processes that led to their decline into poverty; and

• To understand the factors and processes that come together for accumulation or depletion of assets and savings.

ทาการศกษาใน 3

ครวเรอนทถกคดเลอกจาก

แตละชมชน

ดงนนครวเรอนทงหมดทไ

ดทาการสมภาษณคอ120

ครวเรอน Adults (men or women) who are 30 to 60 years of age. It is important that a Household Questionnaire be completed with each informant with whom the Individual Life Stories tool is conducted

1 From the agreement reached at the Training Workshop organized in November 2004, the National Poverty Line to be used for this study is the one determined by the Ministry of Interior which is defined as households with 4-5 family members that generate income of less than 8,330 baht per year.




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Data Collection Method Purpose Informants Quantitative Data Collection Methods

• To identify community level factors that have helped or hindered movement out of poverty and the overall prosperity of the community over the past 10 years; and

Community Profile

• To quantify and code data emerging from focus discussions based on their ratings of issues ranging from community prosperity to freedom and inequality

2-4 Key informants

• To identify the range of factors that help or hinder mobility of individuals within the larger context of their households

Household Questionnaire ครวเรอนจานวน 15

ครวเรอนจะถกคดเลอกจา

กแตละชมชน

ดงนนครวเรอนทงหมดทไ

ดจดเกบขอมลเชงปรมาณ

คอ 600 ครวเรอน

1.5. Selection of Study Target Area 1.5.1. Selection of Provincial Level Target Area

In order that the study most accurately reflect the realities of the country, the decision was made to select 1 province per region as the target area. Within each province, 10 communities were identified and within each community, 15 households were selected for the study. Thus the in-depth study was comprised of a total of 600 households and 40 communities within 4 provinces. In selecting the provinces, the indicators that were taken into considered were provincial economic growth (Growth) and provincial income inequality (Gini Coefficient: Gini). Theses two indicators were compared as follows: (1) high Growth and high Gini; (2) low Growth and high Gini; (3) high Growth and low Gini; (4) low Growth low Gini.

However, on considering the provincial growth data at constant prices in 1998 and the provincial Gini Coefficient in 1996, 1998, 2000 and 2002 it became evident that both indicators, Growth and Gini, were not consistent. For example, Growth in 1996-2002 in certain provinces were both high and low, the situation was the same for the Gini Coefficient. Thus the data used in selecting the provincial target area for the study (N1 and N4) was the most recent data collected in 2002 as summarized in the following table.




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Growth Gini

Selection of Target Provinces (N1-N4)

High Low

National Growth 5.4 %

High

N1 = Prachinburi (Central) High Growth, High Gini

Growth = 74.6% Gini = 0.571

N2 = Nakon Si Thammarat (South) Low Growth, High Gini

Growth = 4.2% Gini = 0.6520

National Gini = 0.511

Low

N3 = Kampaengpetch (North) High Growth, Low Gini

Growth = 47.1% Gini = 0.415

N1 = Chaiyaphumi (Northeast) Low Growth, Low Gini

Growth = -1.9 Gini = 0.405

Source: 1) Provincial Growth at constant prices in 1998. National Accounts Office, National Economic and Social Development Board

2) Provincial Gini Coefficient Community Economic Development and Income Distribution Office, National Economic and Social Development Board.

1.5.2. Selection of Target Area at the Community Level Ms. Deepa Narayan, Senior Advisor from the World Bank suggested that

selection of the community level target area should be based on the same principles used for selection of the provincial level target area in order to reflect the emphasis of the study on economic growth and inequality and its impact on moving out of poverty.

Thus consideration for the selection of community level target areas was based on economic growth and income distribution. The indicator used for community level economic growth is the average household income for 1996 and the Basic Minimum Needs data for 2004. Due to insufficient data to calculate the village level Gini Coefficient, the Theil Index is the indicator used to illustrate income inequality at the community level.

The Theil Index is the index that measures the development distribution by comparing the productivity ratio with the population ratio or the ratio of the employed within each area. If the productivity ratio of each area or the production sector has similar distribution characteristics with the population distribution or in the case that the distribution of the employed in each sector of production illustrates the distribution of compensation from production that is equitable. On the other hand, if the productivity ratio of the area of the production sector is more or less when compared to the population ration or the ration of the employed, it illustrates inequality of compensation in the area and production sector that should be resolved in order to create social justice.




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Total Inequality Index = ∑[(yi/Y)*log(yi/Y)/(xi/X)]

The formula used for the calculation of the Theil Index is:

when yi = Gross Domestic Product by sector/area

Y = Total Gross Domestic Product xi = Total Population by sector/area

and X = Total National Population

In this case, the formula for calculating the Theil Index was adapted to correspond to the existing data and the case study as follows:

when i represents village/community in the total target sample = I

yi = income of sample community i

Y = total income of sample community

xi = population of community i and X = total population of sample community

In the case that there is equity of income distribution, this means that the income ration corresponds to the population ratio or the ratio of the employed, the value of the Theil Index of that sector will be zero.

In the case that there is inequality of income distribution, this means that the ration of income does not correspond to the population ratio or the ratio of the employed, the value of the Theil Index will be a positive or negative value that is far from zero. The greater the value, the greater the inequality.

In order that the selection of the target area at the community level comply with statistical standards, the stratified random sampling method was used. The population/target was separated into small groups or stratum and random samples were taken from those groups in the 4 designated provinces. Sampling was implemented based on the growth of each community – 12 locations where the growth rate was higher than the average value and 8 communities where the growth rate was lower than the average growth value. From then, sampling was implemented for 3 communities in the high growth group where the value of the Theil Index is equal to or near zero and for 3 communities in the high growth group where the value of the Theil Index is far from zero. The same methodology was used to identify 2 communities in the low growth group where the Theil Index is equal to or near zero and 2 communities in the low growth group where the Theil Index is far from zero. Thus a total of 40 communities was identified per province in the four cases as follows:

High Growth – Near - Zero Theil Index

3 communities

Low Growth - Near-Zero Theil Index

2 communities

High Growth - Far-Zero Theil Index

3 communities

Low Growth - Far-Zero Theil Index

2 communities




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1.6. Steps and Methodology of the Study 1.6.1. Community Profile Questionnaire and Key Informant Interview )Community

Timeline) 1.6.2. Focus Group Discussion: Ladder of Life 1.6.3. Individual Life Stories 1.6.4. Focus Group Discussion: Freedom, Power, Democracy and Local Governance 1.6.5. Mini Case Studies: Community-Wide Triggers 1.6.6. Focus Group Discussion: Aspirations of Youth 1.6.7. Household Questionnaires

1.7. Community Level Analysis 1.7.1. Factors that Helps and Hinders Community Prosperity

(1) Community Overview • Focus Group Discussion Participants • General information i.e population, occupation and information from

questionnaires and interviews • Activity Reports

(2) Community Timeline (3) Understanding Community Mobility

• Presentation of overview of ladder of life activity that identifies the factors that helps or hinders movement out of poverty

1.7.2. Freedom : Power : Democracy and Local Government • Economic Opportunities and Good Governance • Freedom and Power • Inequality • Democracy and Local Governance

1.7.3. What Helps and Hinders Movement Out of Poverty • Presentation of findings from the Ladder of Life Focus group

Discussions with definitions for the steps on the ladders, clarifications of the factors that facilitate movement out of poverty and the increase or reduction of poverty and explanations based on the existing situation inconsistencies.

• Explanations of the details provided in the Individual Life Stories i.e. access to credit

1.7.4. Aspirations of Youth • To explore youth aspirations for earning a living; and steps they are

taking to prepare for their future. • To explore youth understandings of the concepts of freedom, power,




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The presentation should provide an overview of the perceptions of the participants and reflect as much as possible the things that were said. These perceptions should be separated from the attitudes of the data collection team. The perspectives of the research and data collection teams should be kept separated and clearly indicated. The analysis should provide:

• Qualitative and quantitative integration of data collected in order to clarify findings.

• Factors, trends or policies that are linked to policy formation

• Identification of policies that clearly impact upon the ability to move out of poverty

1.8. Analytical Framework

Community Overview

from the past 13 years to the present

Definitions, meaning, understanding of: • Poverty • Community wealth / well-being

Physical Economics Social Political

Community level factors

Migration

Household level economics

Occupation

Education / learning process

Social and cultural environment

Household level factors

Factors that facilitate movement out of poverty

Definitions, meaning, understanding of: • Freedom • Power • Inequality and Democracy • Linkages to movement out

of poverty




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Table 1 – 1 Data Collection Target Area Kampaengpetch Province Prachinburi Province Chaiyaphumi Province Nakon Si Thammarat Province

Village Sub-district District Village Sub-district District Village Sub-district District Village Sub-district District

Pang Maka Pang Maka Khanuworalakburi Nong Ree Muang Kao Gabinburi None Sung Hua Talay Bamnejnarong Kiak Kai Ta Rua Muang

Nakon Choom Nakon Choom Muang Hua Boong Nern Hom Muang Huay Bong Nua Huay Bong Muang Koke Lek Taiburi Ta Sala

Nong Choom Saeng Wang Chaploo Khanuworalakburi Nong Talayล Dong Ki Lek Muang Koke Matoom None Koon Don San Pang Gum Chalong Sichon

Klong Pattana Ta Makhua Klong Kloong Mon Wat Boat Muang Wang Po Tong Loom Nam Chee Ban Kwaow Talat Don Khao Pung Grai Hua Sai

Wang Sai Kosampee Kosampee Koke Mai Lai Koke Mai Lai Muang Huay Wa Nong Waeng Nong Bua Deamg Sa Nang Manora Prik Toong Yai

Nong Bua Samakee Kosampee Kosampee Laem Yaow Koke Mai Lai Muang Salieng Tong Na Yang Glug Thep Satit Gor Node Ta Samed Cha-ouad

Koke Mo Ta Khun Ruam Muang Nern Din Daeng Ban Phra Muang Ba Sieow Nong Chim Nern Sa-nga Rai Ta Kuen Ta Sala

Ta Mai Daeng Lan Dok Mai Muang Prasat Had Nang Gaew Gabinburi Naree Nong Waeng Nong Bua Deamg Nai Pud Lan Saka Lan Saka

Nong Ma Koh Nong Luang Lan Krabue Ta Udom Na Khaen Gabinburi Gud Gao Noi Ban Gaeng Gaeng Kro Khao Goi Khao Pra Tong Cha -ouad

Bueng Lom Kosampee Kosampee Yannaka Bang Taen Ban Sang None Fai Nong Doan Jaturat Sala Takien Karaket Chiang Yai




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Table of Communities distributed according to Growth and Theil Index Indicators Naree, Chaiyaphumi Province Gud Gao Noi, Chaiyaphumi Province None Fai, Chaiyaphumi Province Koke Lek , Nakon Si Thammarat Province Nai Pud, Nakon Si Thammarat Province Sal Takien, Nakon Si Thammarat Province

High Growth Near Zero Theil

Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphumi Province Wang Po Tong, Chaiyaphumi Province

Kiak Kai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province Rai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province

Low Growth Near Zero Theil

High Growth Far Zero Theil

Huay Wa, Chaiyaphumi Province Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphumi Province Ba Sieow, Chaiyaphumi Province Gor Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province Pang Gum, Nakon Si Thammarat Province Khao Goi, Nakon Si Thammarat Province

Low Growth Far Zero Theil

None Sung, Chaiyaphumi Province Huay Bong Nua, Chaiyaphumi Province

Talat Don, Nakon Si Thammarat Province Sa Nang Manora, Nakon Si Thammarat Province

Note: 20 communities used for the draft National Synthesis Report


(Draft) National Synthesis Report Context of the Study


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Chapter 2 Context of the Study: National Situation and Trends

2.1 Introduction

In the past, national development and the problem of poverty was addressed by relying on economic development in order to bring about prosperity through increased employment and productivity and services. Through economic development, the expectation was that the benefits of economic growth would be distributed to the poor. The expansion of the gross national product (GNP) and per capita income were mechanisms used to measure economic development and were also indicators of successes in resolving the problem of poverty. However, in the present, it is generally accepted that it is not enough to use the expansion of the economy as the only factor in resolving the problem of poverty. In addition, poverty studies in the past have indicated that implementation of policies that emphasize pro-poor economic growth is a factor that contributes to resolving the problem of poverty in the country. However, poverty studies, particularly studies that use the people participatory approach (PPA) and studies using the Ground Theory indicate that there are various other factors that contribute to successes in resolution of the problem of poverty such as social factors, political participation, access to information and news and resources for lifestyle maintenance.

2.2 Understanding Poverty: Definitions of Poverty In defining “poverty”, concerned parties namely academics, policy makers and poor

communities may provide meanings that may or may not be quantifiable as in some cases, the meanings may be expressed as feelings. In the past, poverty was defined in its monetary dimension based on consideration of the socially accepted minimum income level or economic status of the individual. However, from the studies in the past, there are indications that the problem of poverty is a highly complex problem with multidimensional aspects that are interrelated. Thus, the definition of poverty has been extended to encompass those aspects rather than focusing only on the economic aspect. Currently, the definition of poverty extends to the non-monetary aspects such as quality of life, access to basic social services and factors of production and participation. It is perceived that the poor are individuals who are not only faced with economic or income problems but also have to deal with the need for and deprivation of knowledge and opportunities in accessing various resources. As a result, they lack the capacity to make a living. Academics, experts, academic institutes and agencies concerned with national development have commented on and defined poverty to encompass the current social economic and political contexts. This definition is diverse and takes into consideration aspects other than that of economics by including dimensions that are concerned with lifestyles and factors and causes that lead to poverty. The definitions can be summarized as follows:

2.2.1 Economic Aspect or Income Poverty. This definition of poverty refers to lack of sufficient income to purchase food necessary for consumption and existence, based on the basic minimum food requirements of the body. This definition of poverty corresponds with the definition of poverty of the World Bank and mainstream economists that is based on




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the concept of income or expenses necessary for consumption that corresponds to the consumption needs of the body including the need for goods that are necessary for existence which is used to calculate and determine the poverty line. Individuals with monthly incomes lower than that of the poverty line are classified as poor. For example, individuals with an income of less than 1,243 baht/person/month in 2004 are considered to be poor according to this definition of poverty. This also includes measuring poverty by comparing the household standard of living and the general standard of living of the society which measures income inequality.

2.2.2 Social Aspect. This definition of poverty refers to individuals with insufficient income to maintain their existence and includes individuals that lack the opportunities to access various resources that support their existence such as education and news and information. In addition, it also refers to individuals with limited education who are trapped in the patronage system and lack the ability to negotiate. This type of poverty is observed from the perspective of being at a disadvantage in maintaining a lifestyle collectively with others in the society.

2.2.3 Politics and Governance Aspect. This definition of poverty refers to lack of participation in politics and governance at the local and national levels. The majority of individuals are those who are at the fringes with less status or political and social power to negotiate than other groups. These individuals lack the opportunities to participate in the development policy decision-making processes and mechanisms. Included in this group of individuals are those who are discriminated by society from equal rights such as ethnic minorities, poor slum residents, migrants, individuals without household registration records, the rural poor in distant locations and those with occupations that are looked down upon by society. These individuals do not have the opportunity to access basic services as provided by the development framework of the State.

The diverse aspects of the definition of poverty reflect the situation of the lifestyle of the poor economically, socially and politically which are linked to diverse methods for measuring and identifying the poor. In addition, they also result in diverse alternative strategies for resolving the problem of poverty as they are related to the different conceptual frameworks and definitions. However, the in-depth study under the “Moving Out of Poverty: Understanding Growth and Poverty from the Bottom-up” project attempts to study the factors concerning poverty from every aspect in order to undertake in-depth analyses of the mechanisms and factors at the local level that stimulate the process for the movement out of poverty. This also includes the study and analysis of mechanisms and factors that obstruct access to economic, social and political opportunities that trap some of the poor in chronic poverty.

2.3 The Poverty Situation in Thailand

In the past 13 years (1992 – 2004), on considering the situation of poverty in the country based on the criteria of the poverty line, it is possible to separate the time frame into three periods. The first period is the period prior to the economic crisis (1992 – 1996). During this period, the trend of the poor in the country was continually on the decline where in 1992 the percentage of the poor in Thailand was 32.5 percent (18.05 million persons). The




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ration of the poor gradually declined such that in 1996 the percentage of the poor decreased to 17.00 percent (9.8 million persons). However, with the economic crisis in 1997, the economy in 1998 was reduced by 10.4 percent resulting in a reduction in the GNP and impacts on the ability to purchase goods and services and the consumption pattern of the people. Thus the ration of the poor increased to 18.8 percent (11.02 million persons) in 1998 and 21.3 percent (12.76 million persons) in 2000. However, when the rate of economic growth improved in 2001 accompanied by the implementation of the dual track plus model policy by the Taksin Government, the ration of the poor was reduced to 15.5 percent (9.51 million persons) in 2002 and 11.99 percent (7.54 million persons) in 2004.

Table 2-1 Poverty Line: Ration of the Poor in Thailand in 1991 - 2004 Year Poverty Line

(baht/person/month)

Number of People

(million persons)

Ratio of the Poor

(percentage)

Rate of Economic Growth (percentage)

1992 790 18.05 32.5 8.1

1994 838 14.16 25.0 9.0

1996 953 9.8 17.0 5.9

1998 1,130 11.02 18.8 -10.5

2000 1,135 12.76 21.3 4.8

2002 1,190 9.51 15.5 5.3

2004 1,243 7.54 11.99 6.1

Source: gathered from http://poverty.nesdb.go.th/poverty_new/default.aspx

2.4 Some Important Characteristics of Poverty

2.4.1 The Problem of Poverty is concentrated in Rural Areas and the Northeastern Region. It should be noted that the ration of the poor in rural areas increased from 85.99 percent of the poor in the country in 1996 to 87.36 percent in 2004. The majority of the poor or approximately half of the poor in the country are concentrated in the northeastern region. In other words, in 2004 there were 3.83 million poor people living in the northeastern region (50.86 percent of the poor throughout the country). However, the ratio of the poor in the northeastern region has a reduction rate that is faster than other regions as it reduced from 47.4 percent of the total national population (9.16 million persons) in 1992 to 18.02 percent of the total national population (3.83 million persons) in 2004.




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Table 2-2 Ratio of the Poor over a period of 13 years Distributed according to Region

Year Central North Northeast South Bangkok

1992 21.2 35.6 47.4 29.4 6.0 1994 16.4 25.4 37.0 25.6 2.9 1996 11.2 16.8 25.7 17.2 1.6 1998 11.9 17.0 29.0 20.1 1.7 2000 10.5 23.5 35.0 17.1 1.6 2002 8.0 18.7 23.7 13.8 2.2 2004 5.29 17.49 18.02 9.2 1.39

Source: Gathered from http://poverty.nesdb.go.th/poverty_new/default.aspx

2.4.2 The Majority of the Poor are Concentrated in the Agriculture Sector particularly in agricultural households, agricultural laborers and general laborers. In 2002 the ratio of the poor in the three categories was 19.9 percent, 26.7 percent and 9.5 percent of total households. From the ranking, it should be noted that the poor in agricultural households and general laborers had a reducing ratio when compared to the figures in 2001 of 28.1 and 20.8 respectively while that of agricultural laborers increased from 24.5 percent. Notably, the group of poor farmers lacked factors for making a living particularly lack of farmland and access to natural resources resulting in low and uncertain income. From the studies, it was discovered that the ratio of the poor in each year would fluctuate according to the income of the agricultural sector and the price level of agricultural goods (Document on the Strategy for the Resolution of the Problem of Poverty and Implementation Progress in the Initial Phase of the 9th Plan, National Economic and Social Development Board Office: 2004)

2.4.3 The Majority of the Poor are burdened with Caring for Family Members. The ratio of reliance of poor households (the ratio of young and elderly household members to the total household members) is 45.4 percent which is higher than that of non-poor households by approximately 20 percent. In addition, on considering the head of households who are females, the ratio is 8.0 percent of approximately 1 out of 5 of the households that are poor. Moreover, the majority of the heads of poor households have only primary level education or no education which may reflect the alternatives for making decisions and opportunities for accessing work and assistance which is less than that of other groups even though the State has policies to resolve the diverse aspects of the problem of poverty (Document on the Strategy for the Resolution of the Problem of Poverty and Implementation Progress in the Initial Phase of the 9th Plan, National Economic and Social Development Board Office: 2004).




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2.5 The Situation of the Problem of Poverty in the Four Regions of Thailand

The Study on the Poor at the Local Level in every Region of Thailand by Assistant Professor Medhi Krongkaew and team has provided observations on the situation of the poor in the regions as follows:

2.5.1 The South Region. The poor are comprised of people that do not have occupations, the group of the head of households have health problems, the small-scale fisheries group, the group of small-scale rubber plantation farmers with less than 1.5 rai of land, rubber plantation laborers group, group of laborers outside of the agricultural sector, elderly group, group of single households with women as heads of households. The causes of poverty from the perspective of poor households are lack of opportunities and capacities to work, limited household leaders and members due to reasons of health, age and education. External reasons that result in poverty are deteriorating natural resources, low price of produce, high price of production, insufficient assets to engage in an occupation and debts. In addition, families are burdened with caring for children who are not yet able to generate income.

2.5.2 The Central Region. The poor are comprised of groups of households with the majority of members being female, group of households where the head of the household has only primary schooling or no education, group of households who are employed as laborers within the locality or agricultural laborers, group of households with large amounts of outstanding debts and groups of households with no farmland or other factors of production. The major factors that impact on poverty are lack of farmland, lack of knowledge and lack of skills to make a living, major burdens in caring for others, low price of produce, lack of group formation to assist in development and management of rural natural resources.

2.5.3 The Northern Region. The poor are comprised of those who do not own farmland, group of laborers, the elderly or handicapped that are unable to help themselves and lack care providers, those without housing that have to live with relatives or have insecure housing, those with large families with school age children and no income and lack basic necessities or with household members who are addicted to drugs. The causes of poverty are lack of farmland, inconsistent income and large debts.

2.5.4 The Northeastern Region. The poor are comprised of the group of small households particularly single households and households with heads that have limited or no education. These households are engaged in agriculture particularly rice farming and limited animal farming. Households that have less than 5-7 rai of farmland, households with working age members that migrate out of the village temporarily and permanently and households that do not receive state assistance.

2.6 The Income Distribution Situation in Thailand Even though the period of economic growth in the country resulted in increase income

generation fro the people, the increased income remained in the group of people who were rich and had high income levels. This was a result of development that initiated inequality of income distribution and the problem of inequality. In the past 10 years, there has been almost no changes or reduction in the direction of these inequalities. The first 20 percent of those




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with the lowest income on the average have approximately 4 percent share of the total income of the country while those with the last 20 percent of the highest income on the average have over 50 percent share of the total income of the country. This data illustrates that the income distribution of the country over the past 10 years is highly unequal and unchanging. In other words, the last 20 percent of the group of the richest people have a collective share of over 50 percent of the total income while the majority of the people or 60 percent of the country have a share of only one fourth of the total income

Table 2-3 Ratio of Income Distribution distributed according to Income Level

Income Level 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 1.Lowest Income Level: first

20% 2. Income Level: second 20% 3. Income Level: third 20% 4. Income Level: fourth 20%

5.Highest Income Level: last

20%

4.5 7.9

12.2 19.8 55.6

4.6 8.3

12.7 20.3 54.1

4.2 7.5

11.8 19.9 56.7

4.2 7.6

11.9 19.8 56.5

3.9 7.2

11.5 19.7 57.8

4.2 7.8

12.3 20.5 55.2

Source : Gathered from http://poverty.nesdb.go.th/poverty_new/default.aspx

The findings from the Report on the Study of the Strategy for the Rehabilitation of Rural Development in Thailand after the Economic Crisis by the World Bank (2002) illustrated that during the crisis when the Thai economy was shrinking, the business and industrial sectors had to lay off a large number of employees resulting in an increase in the number of unemployed and homeward migration of labor. Due to the lack of sources of employment to absorb these people there were impacts on natural resources and stimulation of intense competition in rural areas resulting in reduced income for the Thai people. Families had to bear the burden of providing for their family members resulting in the problem of conflicts within the family unit and among various groups in the society which had increased membership. The problem that emerged within the group of the poor people was increased difficulties in making a living. This problem greatly affected the group of people that were existing far below the official poverty line. In addition, the economic crisis also affected those trapped in chronic poverty and the group at risk of being poor or the conjectural poor by increasing the number of poor in these groups. Moreover, it was discovered that the problem of poverty was concentrated in the rural areas, while the problem of distribution of income in the rural regions was less than that of the urban areas. Lastly, the region that has the highest level of income distribution inequality was the northeastern region followed by the northern region and the southern region.




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2.7 The Context of Thailand in the Past 13 Years (1992 – 2004) that impacted on the Resolution of the Problem of Poverty

Table 2-4 The Context of Thailand

Economic/Social/Political & Governance Overview

Year Economic/Social/Political & Governance Overview

- 1st year of the 7th Plan that emphasized

maintenance of economic growth and emphasized income distribution and decentralization of development to the regions and rural areas - 3

rd year of free trade - Black May (political uprising) - 2nd year of implementation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand :1991

1992 1993 - Provides permission for implementation of วเทศธนกจ

- Chuan Government issues ส.ป.ก. 4-01 - Start implementation of the Poverty Alleviation Program - Start implementation of the policy to extend basic education opportunities from 6 years to 9 years

1994 1995 1996 1997 - 1st year of the 8th Plan that emphasized

people centered development - Economic Crisis and devaluation of the baht - Start use of the 1997 Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand

- Economic Crisis - Start using foreign loan funds to resolve the problem of poverty such as the Project to Reduce the Social Impacts, ADB loan projects, Social Investment Fund Project

1998 1999 - Adjustment of the 8th Plan to correspond to the national situation where the economy has shrunk and to reduce the impacts on the people and society

2000 2001 - First year of the Taksin Government - First year of the Universal Health Project, the Village Fund Project, Farmer’s Debt Moratorium Project, OTOP and the Village Bank Project

- First year of the 9th Plan that emphasizes balanced development of the people, society, economy and the environment

2002 2003 - Start of the project for the transformation of assets into capital




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2.8 Basic Information of the Provincial Target Area

2.8.1 Northern Region: Kamphaeng Phet Province

Map 2-1 Map of Kamphaeng Phet Province




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2.8.1.1 General Information on Kamphaeng Phet Province. Kamphaeng Phet Province is an ancient city with great historical importance that was thriving and prosperous during the Sukhothai Era approximately 700 years ago. This province is where numerous ancient cities of historical importance are situated such as Chakangrao city, Nakon Choom City, Traitrueng City, Thepnakon City and Konthee City. Currently, Kamphaeng Phet Province is one of the important centers for historical tourism with umerous historical attractions located in the Kamphaeng Phet Historical Park which is registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on December 12, 1991.

2.8.1.2 Geographical Information

2.8.1.2.1 Location and Boundaries. Kamphaeng Phet Province is located in the lower northern region 358 kilometers from Bangkok. The total area of the province is 8,607.5 square kilometers with approximately 5,272 square kilometers of agricultural land and 2,146.7 square kilometers of forests. The main mode of transportation in Kamphaeng Phet Province is by car. There are no railroads or airports in the province, such services are available in adjacent provinces. The northern rail route travels through Picitr and Pitsanuloke Province while airports are located in Sukothai and Pitsanuloke Provinces.

2.8.1.2.2 Geographical Characteristics. The Ping River runs through Kamphaeng Phet Province for a distance of approximately 104 kilometers. The area to the west of Kamphaeng Phet Province is mountainous and gradually slopes down to the east where the soil is suitable for rice farming and cultivating cash crops.

2.8.1.3 Natural Resources

2.8.1.3.1 Forest Resources. The forest area of Kamphaeng Phet Province covers and area of 2,146.7 square kilometers or 63.54 percent of the total area. The majority of this forest area is located to the western area of the province which is the area of the National Park and wildlife conservation area. Kamphaeng Phet Province has 9 forest conservation areas and 3 national parks and 1 wild life conservation area.

2.8.1.3.2 Minerals. From the explorations of the Natural Resource Department it was discovered that Kamphaeng Phet Province has diverse mineral resources that have been used to provide benefits and that have not yet been developed such as crude oil, marble, steel, copper, tin, lead, fluoride and pyrofilide the majority of which can be found in the high mountainous area to the west of the province. The minerals that have been used commercially are as follows:

Crude Oil. This mineral is of great importance to the economy of Kamphaeng Phet Province. The PTT. SP-Siam Company Limited (formerly Thai Shell Exploration and Production Company Limited) received a concession to drill for crude oil in Lan Grabue District from 1982 to the present and has drilled over 170 bores. In 1997 the company had drilled a total of 100 million barrels for a total of 60,000 million baht. At present, the production capacity averages 25,000 barrels per day.




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Marble and Limestone. Mining concessions were granted to mine for marble in Pran Gratai District from 1979 to the present. Concessions were granted to 12 cases in an area of 673 rai for a period of 25 years. In 1998 the amount of marble mined was 15,732.142 metric tons totaling 55.06 million baht while the amount of low grade marble mined was 142,555.555 metric tons totaling 55.06 million baht. In addition, in 2000 the amount of limestone produced totaled approximately 6,600 cubic meters for a total value of approximately 40 million baht while approximately 600,000 metric tons of quality marble and limestone for construction was produced for a total value of approximately 60 million baht.

2.8.1.4 Politics and Governance Situation

2.8.1.4.1 Governance. Kamphaeng Phet Province is divided into 9

districts, 2 branch Districts and 77 sub-districts (not including Nai Muang Sub-district) and 911 villages. Concerning local governance, the province has 1 Provincial Management Organization, 1 urban municipality, 11 sun-district municipalities and 77 sub-district management organizations.

2.8.1.4.2 Population. Kamphaeng Phet Province has a total population of 74,225 persons of which 385,546 are male and 388,679 are female. The density of the population is an average of 90 persons per 1 square kilometer.

2.8.1.4.3 Ethnic Minorities (Thai Mountain People). Kamphaeng Phet Province has 6 tribes of Thai Mountain People namely the Muser, Yao, Karen, Hmong, Leeso and Lua tribes who reside in 33 groups of villages in 6 districts/branch districts in 9 sub-districts: Pang sila tong, Klong Lan, Khanuworalakburi, Muang Kamphaeng Phet, Klong Kloong and Kosumpeenakon. The total number of households is 1,545 households for a total of 8,795 residents (2,806 males and 2,795 females; 1,638 boys and 1,556 girls). The majority of these people are engaged in farming, being laborers, silversmiths, cloth embroidery and wickerwork. Their religious orientation is Buddhism and Christianity while some still carry on the tradition of ancestor worshipping.

2.8.1.4.4 Elections. The representatives of Kamphaeng Phet Province can be distributed as follows: 1) 5 Members of Parliament 2) 2 Congress persons 3) 30 Provincial Council Members 4) 18 Kamphaeng Phet City Municipal Council Members 5)

150 Municipal Council Members in 12 Municipal Councils.

2.8.1.4.5 Public Health. Currently, Kamphaeng Phet Province has extended public health services to cover the entire provincial area. There is a hospital in every district (with the exception of Kosumpeenakon branch district). The total number of hospital beds, including those in state owned and private hospitals, is 823 beds. At the sub-district level, there are sub-district level health stations providing medical and public health.

However, in 2004, when comparing the ratio of doctors and public health personnel to the population, the ratio was 1:10,606, the ration for dentists to the population was 1:25,808, the




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ratio of pharmacists to the population was 1:16,473, the ratio of professional nurses to the population was 1:1,394, the ratio of technical nurses to the population was 1:3,460, the ratio of oral hygiene personnelเจาพนกงานทนต Public Health to the population was 1:21,947 and the ration of community public health personnel to the population was 1:3,589.

2.8.1.4.6 Economic Situation. In the first 5 months (January to May) of 2004 the economic situation of Kamphaeng Phet Province showed slower growth when compared to the end of 2003. This resulted from the agricultural sector which was the main economic sector of great importance to the province did not perform as expected. Despite the fact that the price of rice sold by farmers was higher by 6 percent when compared to the price during the same period of time in the previous year, the production of rice was lower overall. On the other hand, the production of tapioca increased, however, the price of tapioca was reduced by 18.09 percent when compared to the same period of time in the previous year. As a result, the combined income from rice and tapioca in the whole province did not increase at all. As for the price of sugarcane, initially in 2004, was lower by 15 percent when compared to the price of sugarcane in early 2003. In addition the situation of the epidemic in winged animals สตวปก resulted in significant negative impacts on the agricultural sector. Moreover, the information concerning the increase in the price of fuel resulted in psychological impacts resulting in the greater care taken by the populace in making purchases.




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2.8.2 Northeastern Region: Chaiyaphom Province

Map 2-2 Map of Chaiyaphom Province




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2.8.2.1 General Information on Chaiyaphom Province. Chaiyaphom Province is situated in the northeastern region in the middle of the country and approximately 332 kilometers from Bangkok. The province has a total area of approximately 2,778.3 square kilometers (approximately 7,986,429 rai) which is 7.6 percent of the total area in the northeastern region and 2.5 percent of the area in the country. The province has the third largest area in the northeastern region and is ranked seventh in the country.

2.8.2.2 Geographical Information. The characteristic of Chaiyaphom Province is that it is a plateau with the central area of the province being a plain. Half of the area of the province is comprised of forests and mountains with the rest of the area being a plateau. The forest and mountains range from the east to the west and are made up of mountain ranges namely Phu Kiew, Phu Laenka and Phu Pangheuy. Because of the stated characteristics, the area of the province is divided into two areas with the northern area being comprised of Nong Bua Daeng, Gaeng Kro, Gan Taen, Kaset Somboon, Phu Kiew, Kon San and Phakdichumpol Districts and the southern area being comprised of Muang Chaiyaphom, Ban Kwao, Jaturat, Bamnejnarong, thep Sathit, Nong Bua Rahaew, Kon Sawan, Nern Sa-nga and Sab Yai Districts.

2.8.2.2.1 Riverside Plains. This area has an area of approximately 1,048,000 rai of 13 percent of the area in the provinces i.e. the plains area at the Chee River basin in Muang Chaiyaphom, Bamnejnarong, Jaturat and Kon Sawan Districts. This area floods during the rainy season.

2.8.2.2.2 Rolling Hills. This is a long strip of area running from north to south along the Dong Phaya Yen Mountain Range including areas in Muang Chaiyaphom, Jaturat, Bamnejnarong, Ban Kwao and Kon Sawan Districts.

2.8.2.2.3 Highlands and Mountains. The majority of the area is comprised of jagged hills and mountains in the Dong Phaya Yen Mountain Range including some areas in Nong Bua Rahaew, Kon San, Kaset Somboon, Phu Kiew, Kaeng Kro Districts and areas to the north of Muang Chaiyaphom District.

2.8.2.3 Population. Chaiyaphom Province is comprised of 15 districts, 124 sub-districts and 124 villages. As of August 2002, the total population was 1,123,789 persons. คน คดเปนรอยละ 49.81 ของประชากรทงจงหวด หญง 563,982 คน คดเปนรอยละ 50.19 ของประชากร. The density of the population is an average of 88.5 persons per 1 square kilometer. On considering the population by district, Muang Chauyaphom District is the most populated with a total of 195,372 people (17.38 percent of the total population) followed by Phu Kiew District with 123,533 people (10.99 percent). On the other hand, Sap Yai District has the least population with 13,077 people (1.16 percent). The district with highest density of population is Muang Chaiyaphom District with 161.74 people/square kilometer followed by Kaeng Kro District with 155.58 people/square kilometer. The district with the lowest density of population is Phakdichumpol District with 31.76 people/square kilometer.

2.8.2.4 Economic Situation. The National Economic and Social Development Board reported that in 2000 Chaiyaphom Province had a Gross Province




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Production (GPP) value at 2000 prices of 29,988 million baht and Per Capita GPP of 27,138 baht and was ranked 5th in the northeastern region and 61st in the country. The majority of the income was from the agricultural sector (23.74 percent or 7,121 million baht) followed by wholesale and retail trade (20.01 percent or 6,003 million baht) and the industrial sector

(18.43 percent or 5,528 million baht). The rate of expansion of the economy was 1.36 percent (when?). Overall, the

Chaiyaphom Provincial GPP illustrates that the economy of Chaiyaphom Province expands every year even though the rate of expansion may not be very large. The business sectors that have grown continuously are that of industry, wholesale and retail trade and services while the agricultural sector has remained stable.

The majority of the income of Chaiyaphom Province is from agriculture, industry and retail trade. However, the occupation of the majority of the people is that of farming i.e. rice farming in the plans along the Chee River and crop farming (factory sugarcane, tapioca, fruits and perennials).

The majority of livestock are raised for household consumption. Thus the per capita income of Chaiyaphom Porinvce is somewhat low. From 1999 onwards, the agricultural sector in Chaiyaphom Province was faced with the problem of low produce prices. Thus, the per capita GPP of Chaiyaphom Province in 1999 was 26,137 baht per year or an average of 2,178.80 baht per month. In 2000, the procie of produce improved resulting in the average per capita income in Chaiyaphom Province being ranked 5th in the northeaster region and 61st in the country.

2.8.2.5 Public Utilities and Public Services. The Chaiyaphom Province Provincial Electrical Authorities reported that Chaiyaphom Province receives electricity from the Electrical Producing Authorities at Chulabhorn Dam in Toong Lai Sub-district, Kon San District which is a reservoir that is a hydroelectricity power plant. The reservoir holds 188 million cubic meters and has 2 generators with a capacity of 40,000 kilowatts per hour or 140 million units.

The Chaiyaphom Province Water Works provides services mainly in the major cities i.e. Munag Chaiyaphom Municipality, sub-district municipalities and village with high population density. On the other hand, the Regional Waterworks operates 9 waterworks: Muang Chaiyaphom Municipality, Ban Kay Muen Paew Sub-district Municipality, Nong Bua Daeng, Kaeng Kro, Ban Petch, Jaturat, Ban Kwao, Kon Sawan, Pak Pung Sub-district Municipality. Five Sub-district Municipalities are responsible for these operations: Ban Taen, Kaset Somboon, Ban Pao, Bamnejnarong and Nong Toom. There are 3 urban communities that are not provided with waterworks services and rely on wells: Kon San Sub-district Municipality, Thep Sathit and Nong Bua Rahaew. Waterworks services in Muang Chaiyaphom District are provided by the Provincial Waterworks Authorities and the Sanitary District Waterworks that are under the oversight of the Regional Waterworks and have the capacity to provide a total of 17,432,400 cubic meters. A total of

50,252 consumers use the 12,443,733 cubic meters of water produced. On the other hand, the people in rural communities still rely on natural water sources for consumption. In addition, numerous state agencies provide assistance in finding water sources i.e. construction of artesian wells, shallow wells, reservoirs, irrigation canals and rural waterworks in accordance with the needs of the people.




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2.8.2.6 Provincial Production Sector. The Chaiyaphom Province Agricultural Office and the Chaiyaphom Province Forestry Office reported that in 2001 land use and land ownership in Chaiyaphom Province totaled 12,778.29 square kilometers. This area was distributed as 3,332,282 rai (41.72 percent) of agricultural land, 2,064,839 rai (25.86 percent) of forestry land and 2,589,308 rai (32.42 percent) as other land. Of the land used for agriculture, the majority of the land is used for rice farming (approximately 1,636,454 rai) followed by farm crops (approximately 1,565,487 rai) while the least amount of land was used for vegetable gardening and cultivating flowers (approximately 10,819 rai). The agriculture sector is the main income generating occupation in the province. In 2000, the total income generated was 7,121 million baht. The total labor force working in this sector was 334,300 persons or 56.24 percent of the provincial labor force. On comparing the income from the agriculture sector from 1993 onwards, the economy of this sector has grown every year, however, from 1999 onwards, the income generated in this sector has decreased slightly. Looking at the structure of the agriculture sector, it is clear that farming is the occupation with the highest value of 5,370 million baht (75.41 percent) followed by basic agricultural processing with 501 million baht (7.03 percent) and livestock valued at 435 million baht (6.10 percent). It should be noted that fisheries has the least value at 241 million baht (3 percent).




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2.8.3 Central Region: Prachin Buri Province

Map 2-3 MapPrachin Buri Province

2.8.3.1 General Information on Prachin Buri Province. Prachin Buri Province was a prosperous land since the Tawarawadee Era. There is evidence of the ancient city known as “Sri Mahosot” at Ko Peep Sub-districtม Sri Mahosot District. In addition, towards the east of Sri Mahosot City in the area of Ban Koke Kwang, Sri Mahapote District is another ancient city that is equally old. Located in the same area as the ruins of these ancient cities are other ruins used for religious activities and antiquities such as Buddha images, idols, pottery, bronze ware and utensils. In the succeeding era, the center of development moved to the banks of the Prachin Buri River as in the present. During the Ayuthaya Period, this province was known as Muang Prachin, during the early Rattanakosin Period the province




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was known as Muang Prachin or Monton Prachin. It was not until the reign of King Rama VI that the regulations for governance of the kingdom were revised along the lines of that of other countries resulting in the demotion of Monton Prachin to an simply another province and was later bestowed the name of Prachin Buri Province.

2.8.3.2 Geographical Information. Prachin Buri Province is located in the Eastern Region of Thailand approximately 155 kilometers from Bangkok. The total area of the province is 4,762.362 square kilometers or 2,976,476 rai which is distributed into 1,327,718.75 rai (44.61%) of forest land and 1,171,267 rai (40.39 %) of agricultural land.

2.8.3.2.1 Governance. Prachin Buri Province has 7 districts, 65 sub-districts, 698 villages, 1 Provincial Administrative Organization, 12 municipalities, 61 Sub-district Administrative Organizations, 3 sub-district councils คอ เมองปราจนบร กบนทรบร ประจนตคาม ศรมหาโพธ

บานสราง นาด ศรมโหสถ

2.8.3.2.2 Population. As of August 2004, the population of Prachin Buri Province was 455,062 persons of which 228,540 were male and 226,522 were female. Because the province has numerous factories in Gabinburi District and Muang District, these areas have more people residing in the area than other areas of the province. The most populated area is Gabinburi District with 122,184 people (26.84 percent of the total population) followed by Muang District, Sri Mahapote District and Prajuntakam District. The population of Prachin Buri Province are mainly Buddhists with some Christians and Moslems.

2.8.3.3 Occupation. The occupations of the people are agriculture, hunting, forestry, fisheries, mining minerals and rocks, industrial production, electricity, gas, waterworks, construction, wholesale trade, retail trade and repairing vehicles, motorcycles, personnel effects and household appliances.

2.8.3.4 Public Health. At present, Prachin Buri Province has numerous hospitals and first aid stations which are either hospitals affiliated with the Ministry of Public Health, the Ministry of Interior or private hospitals. The total number of hospital beds is 1,195

beds. The largest hospital is the Chao Phraya Apai Phubet Hospital which has 650 beds.

2.8.3.5 Public Utilities and Public Services. Prachin Buri Province has electricity in every village for a total of 692 villages and 103,378 (97.03392 percent) households from the total of 106,538 households. Sources of water for agriculture are comprised of 81 shallow wells, 36 weirs, 3 medium sized reservoirs, 2 small reservoirs, Watergates/irrigation canals and 366 artesian wells. Natural water sources are the Prachin Buri River, Hanuman Tributary, Phra Prong Tributary and 35 other rivers, ponds, streams, canals and lakes. Currently, the Energy Promotion and Development Department has established 5 electricity based pump stations in the province coivering an area of 22,090 rai in order to provide benefits to agriculture and to resolve the drought problem for the areas outside of the irrigation zone.




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2.8.3.6 Economic Situation. In 2002 the Gross Provincial Product (GPP) of Prachin Buri Province was 51,298 million baht and the per capital income was 101,379 per person per year. Thus the province was ranked 4th in the eastern region and 11th in the country. The majority of the income was from the industrial sector valued at 26,030 million baht (50.74 percent of the GPP), followed by wholesale and retail trade valued at 11,818 million baht (20.04 pe5rcent of the GPP) and agriculture sector valued at 4,196 million baht (8.18 percent of the GPP).

2.8.3.7 Strategic Issues. The strategy of Prachin Buri Province was determined as follows:

2.8.3.7.1 Livable City: to be a residential area that is clean, beautiful, organized and safe with good urban planning and good environment. In addition, the people should have good quality of life and communities should be empowered through zest for knowledge and good health supported by good governance.

2.8.3.7.2 Eco-tourism: to be a location for tourism that is holistic with all the amenities and conveniences complete with diverse activities and products to respond to the needs of the increasing number of tourists that increase the capacity to generate income.

2.8.3.7.3 Agricultural advances: to be a source of production of agricultural products and agricultural processing that is safe by adding value and marketing the products to commercial and export activities. This is possible through emphasis on quality, production efficiency, processing and research and development.

2.8.3.7.4 Industrial advances: to be a source of production of industrial by products and export products by developing human skills in technology and motivating investment and stimulating competition in developing the quality of products, labor skills and ensuring that environmental and safety measures meet the established standards.

2.8.3.7.5 Local wisdom in alternative Thai medicine: to be a center for alternative Thai medicine that is accepted at the national and international levels and to develop Thai herbal products and alternative Thai medical services as the pride of the nation.




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2.8.4 Southern Region: Nakhon Si Thammarat Province

Map 2-4 Map Nakhon Si Thammarat Province

2.8.4.1 General Information on Nakhon Si Thammarat Province. Nakhon Si Thammarat is an ancient city of great importance economically, socially, politically and religion in Southeast Asia. This city has been well known for over 1,800 years




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and historical and document evidence confirms that Nakhon Si Thammarat was established at least since the 7th Buddhist Era.

2.8.4.2 Location and Land Use. Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is located in the center of the southern region, approximately 780 kilometers from Bangkok. The province has an area of approximately 9,942,502 square kilometers or approximately 6,214,064 rai. In terms of land area, it is ranked 2nd in the southern region. The land area is distributed into 3,062,459 rai of titled agricultural land, 1,126,287.50 rai of forestry land and 2,015,317,.50 rai of uncategorized land. The agricultural land is distributed as 87,542 rai

residential land, 1,039,694 rai of rice farming land, 13,801 rai for crop farming, 1,629,594 rai of land for farming fruits and perennials, 17,912 rai of land for vegetable gardening and flower cultivation, 1,308 rai of livestock grass land and 272,608 rai of unused land.

2.8.4.3 Geographical Information. Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is located along the Nakhon Si Thammarat Mountain Range that runs along the peninsula thus the province can be divided into three areas.. The first area is the central mountain range zone which has Khao Luang, the highest mountain in the province (approximately 1,835 meters above sea level). The second area is the coastal plains to the east of the province which has rivers and canals that originate from the central mountain range and flow to the Gulf of Thailand. The third area is the western plains which is the area between the Nakhon Si Thammarat Mountain Range and the Bantad Mountain Range. This area is hilly and is the location of the water source of the Tapee and Trang Rivers that provides Nakhon Si Thammarat with its numerous water sources i.e. Pak Panang River, Luang River, Pak Poon Canal, Pak Phaya Canal, Pak Nakhon Canal, Sao Tong Canal, Klai Canal, Ta Ton Canal, Nam Tok Yoan Canal, Meen Canal, Ta Lao Canal and Ta Loan Canal. The area of irrigated land is 961,820 rai.

2.8.4.4 Characteristics of the Weather. Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is located near the equator with mountains and the peninsula on both sides. On the eastern side is the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean and on the western side is the is the Andaman Sea and the Indian Ocean, thus Nakhon Si Thammarat is influenced by monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and tropical rain storms from the South China Sea. Nakon Si Thammarat has two seasons: summer – from February to April and the rainy season. The rainy season in the province is very long with approximately 2,831.6 mm. of rain fall per year or an average of 235.97 mm.

2.8.4.5 Politics and Governance. Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is comprised of 21 districts, 2 branch districts and has a total population of 407,372 families or 1,539,256 persons that is distributed into 767,128 males.

2.8.4.6 Economic Situation. The total land area of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is 6,214,064 rai of which 3,062,459 rai (49,28 percent) of the total land is used for agriculture. In the 2002/2003 planting season the main economic crops were rubber, rice, coconut, fruits and palm oil. The total area used for planting the annual rice crop is 700,529 rai

whereas the total area for which the rice is harvested is 575,706 rai and the total harvest is 252,843 tons or 439,19 kilograms/rai. As for rubber, the total planting area is 1,392,577 rai




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whereas the total harvesting area is 1,172,126 rai and the yield is 330,575 tons or an average of 282.03 kilograms/rai. In 2003, a total of 43,165.5 tons of raw rubber sheets valued at 1,618.9 million baht was bought and sold in the Nakhon Si Thammarat Rubber Market while the amount of smoked rubber sheets bought and sold at the Rubber Market was 5,860.5 tons valued at 218.4 million baht. In 2003, a total of 78,180 households farmed livestock, the majority of which farmed poultry, pigs and cows. On the other hand, in 2004 there were a total of 1,584 factories with a total investment capital of 37,600.2 million baht. The total number of workers employed is 20,036 persons. The industries that invested in this province are agriculture, printing, chemicals, metals, plastics, machinery, electricity and transportation.


(Draft) National Synthesis Report Community Mobility


3 - 1

Chapter 3 Community Mobility

Chapter 3 explores community mobility and provides study results concerning covering a period of the past 13 years (1992 – 2004). The analysis provided is based on 40 community synthesis reports from the target area of 4 provinces (Kampaengpetch, Chaiyaphom, Nakon Si Thammarat and Prachinburi). The data used as the foundation for information synthesis was derived from the following data collection methods:

1. Community Timeline 2. Focus Group Discussion :Ladder of life 3. Focus Group Discussion : Freedom Power Democracy and Good

Governance 4. Two mini case studies: The positive and negative factors affecting the

communities 5. Community level questionnaires (40 communities) 6. Household level questionnaires (600 households)

3.1 The Positive Factors that Impact on Community Prosperity

Positive Factors that Impact on Economy/Prosperity

19-Fight against drugs4%

16-State organization6%

17-Integrated Farming Project

1%

12-Price of produce4%

13-Allocation of

farmland

11-Factories in the area/nearby

9%

09-Digging artesian w ells

1%

10-Digging of reservoirs, ponds, w ells

1%

06-Basic public utilities5%

07-Economic crops other than rice and rubber

1%

05-Occupation groups/supplementary

occupation4%

04-Roads8%

03-Various Funds in Village i.e. savings

group11%

02-1 Million Baht Village Fund33%

01-Development of Irrigation System

9%




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Positive Factors that Impact on Economy/Prosperity

01-D

evel

opm

ent o

f Irr

igat

ion

Syst

em

02-1

Milli

on B

aht V

illage

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01-Development of Irrigation System 02-1 Million Baht Village Fund

03-Various Funds in Village i.e. savings group 04-Roads

05-Occupation groups/supplementary occupation 06-Basic public utilities

07-Economic crops other than rice and rubber 09-Digging artesian wells

10-Digging of reservoirs, ponds, wells 11-Factories in the area/nearby

12-Price of produce 13-Allocation of farmland

16-State organization 17-Integrated Farming Project

19-Fight against drugs

The major factors that affect the trend for improved community prosperity in the present

are a result of diverse development activities such as: • Development of infrastructure: roads, electricity. water works • Development of irrigation system: digging canals and constructing weirs and

dams • Construction of factories near villages • Funds in the villages: savings groups, 1 million baht Village Fund and the

Poverty Alleviation Fund • Formation of occupation groups and creation of supplementary occupations • Price of agricultural products • Benefits from Government policies • Allocation of farmland for the people • Cultivation of commercial crops promoted by the civil service




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From this study, it is possible to separate community development into 2 stages:

1. Changes in basic infrastructure 2. Changes in local politics and the community economy system

1. Changes in basic infrastructure between 1992 – 1997

From the collection of community level data in 40 communities in the 4 provinces, the findings show that the majority of communities received infrastructure and public utility development including electricity in all villages, development of transportation and communication routes, development of irrigation systems and small-scale water sources for agricultural use and household consumption.

In the past, it was very difficult to travel between the villages and the outside world because the majority of the roads were dirt or laterite roads. From 1992 onwards, a system of transportation was built to link between the districts and provinces making it easier for development to reach the villages. All villages had roads that provided transportation into the districts, provinces and adjacent villages. Tar paved roads and concrete roads were constructed with budget support from the Office of Accelerated Rural Development and the Public Works Department. The majority of these development activities resulted from coordination provided by Members of Parliament or local politicians requesting budget support for the construction of local roads to facilitate travel. The benefit derived from these roads was the ability to transport agricultural products to market quickly. In addition, merchants interested in buying agricultural products and trucks selling consumer products were able to come into the villages. Within the village, short stretches of concrete roads were constructed with budget support from the sub-district office (Tambon Administration Organization)

“In the past, transportation into the district was somewhat difficult especially during the rainy season because of pot holes and standing water on the laterite roads. During the dry season, the roads were very dusty. In 1996, the Office of Accelerated Rural Development constructed a paved road from the district to the village. Villagers were able to travel more conveniently. With the construction of the paved road, it was easier to visit relatives or take agricultural products such as rice and tapioca to sell to the rice mills or tapioca markets in the district. The transportation time and the cost of transportation were reduced” (Key Informant Interview: Ban None Fai, Chiayaphom Province).

On the aspect of the development of the village communications system, it is possible to state that in the present, communications is more convenient and timely as it is possible to access information and news via the telephone. The most widespread method of communications currently used by villagers is the mobile phone. From the collection of household level data in 600 households, it was discovered that 67 percent of the villagers owned mobile phones. Even though there were public telephones in every village, the telephones were either damaged, out of order or required telephone cards that made its use inconvenient. On the other hand, other channels used by the villagers to access information include television, radio and newspaper. The findings of household survey show that 95 percent of participating households own televisions and use it for watching the news and television dramas. As a result, communities are able to receive news from outside of the community more rapidly.




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From the collection of community level data, it was discovered that 40 percent of communities were able to access irrigation system developed comprised of water sources for agricultural use, the majority of which were small-scale water sources such as dredging and digging canals, digging ponds, construction of weirs, digging canals to link with the river, provision of electricity powered water pumps and digging of artesian wells. Such activities provided villagers with water for agricultural use and household consumption and resulted in major occupational benefits for the villagers. However, the development of irrigations systems in the form of irrigation canals provided direct benefits to villagers with farmland near the water source and did not provide benefits equally to all villagers with the exception of areas in which a good water management system was established with a strong water users’ group where water pumps were used to extend the distribution of water for agricultural use such as that of Ban None Fai, Ban Wang Po Tong and Ban None Sung in Chaiyaphom Province and Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Ban Koke Mor and Ban Nng Makoh in Kampaengpetch Province. In these villages, water users’ groups were established and small canals were dug from the main irrigation canals in order to provide all villagers with water. In addition, the villagers established a water management and allocation system, a water pump maintenance system and collectively ensured that the canals did not become shallow. Another method of providing water for agriculture was the digging of ponds and the digging of artesian wells on private property. These activities were implemented in Ban Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province where the villagers invested in artesian wells and were able to produce 2-3 crops of rice per year.

“In the past, there was water but it was not possible to use the water so I foraged for fish and crabs. With the electricity powered water pump, villagers were able to occasionally open their eyes and mouths (start making a living). Rice farmers could produce 2 crops of rice a year and did not have to find employment in Bangkok during the dry season when they could grow vegetables and farm rice and generate enough income to provide for their family” (Mr. Nurat – Village Head, 55 years, Ban Wang Po Tong, Chaiyaphumi Village).

“Lm Kan Choo Dam is located approximately 10 kilometers from the village. In the past, during the dry season, the water would dry out and water would not reach the village. In 1995-1996, a canal was dug to link the dam with the village. This irrigation canal provided villagers with water for agricultural activities particularly chili and rice farming and protected against flooding. It became easier to make a living, the rice fields did not dry out. In the past when the flood waters came, there would be floods and when the dry season came, everything would dry out...” (Mrs. Samran – rice farmer, 38 and Mrs. Noi – rice farmer, 45 years: Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The Irrigation Department provided budget support to dig and dredge the Khao Pung Grai Canal and Laem Canal. The canal was approximately 13 kilometers long and 9-13 meters wide. The existing canals had become shallow. In the past, the canal was a transportation route for boats. The digging and dredging of the canals helped to solve the drought problem, the canals could now provide some water for rice farming…for rice farming, at present, the canal makes it possible to release more water into the farmland” (Mrs. Jamnien – TAO, 542 years: Ban Talat Don, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Around 1994, the villagers all switched to multi crop rice farming throughout the village…they switched to producing 2 crops of rice per year or in some cases 3 crops per year and changed from the rice farming method of replanting the seedlings to broadcasting the




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seeds. The community seemed to become more active. There was work to be done all year and the economy improved…it was no longer necessary to rely solely on rainfall. Everyone dug an artesian well so they could farm all year round. As a result, income was generated. But investment had to be increased. It was necessary to revolve more money. When the rice was sold, the money had to be invested. This was the revolving cycle. The various technologies started coming in such as the plowing machine, the harvesting machine and the water pump. It was no longer possible to use only human labor. However, the income generated improved somewhat” (Mr. Kamol – Village Head, 47 years – Ban Nong Makoh, Kampaengpetch Province).

The expansion of the industrial zone resulted in the development of basic infrastructure in the area i.e. roads and electricity. In the study of the villages that were affected by the development of industrial cities in the area of Prachinburi Province from 1990 onwards, the findings illustrate that various factories were constructed near villages. The factories ranged from automobile tire producing factories, electronic equipment factories and consumer product factories. The villages benefiting from the development of industries were Ban Ta Udom, Ban Hua Don, Ban Yan Naka and Ban Nong Ree. In addition, the villages in Chaiyaphom Province that benefited from the establishment of factories were Ban Gud Gao Noi and Ban Naree which had a textile factory and a sugar factory nearby. Because of these factories, villagers were provided with employment and the local people were able to generate income thereby affecting the prosperity of community residents.

In addition, there were areas which were affected by the expansion of educational institutions into the area such as Ban Koke Lek, Nakon Si Thammarat Province. Walailak University was constructed in the area near the community resulting in the development of the basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity and communications for rapid and convenient travel.

2. Changes in local politics and the community economy system between 1998-2004 2.1. Changes the community economy system: The system of integrated production

and the creation of local entrepreneurs. In this study, the study team has separated the findings concerning the major

factors that promote community prosperity into the following aspects: the changes in the principle income of the family and the capacity to access the basic factors of production.

2.1.1. The Principle Source of Income of the Family and Community From the collection of community level data in 40 communities in 4

provinces, the findings illustrate that in the past 13 years, there have been changes in the community economy. Concerning occupation and income, the findings show that the occupation of agriculture generates the principle income of the community at the rate of 97.5 percent.

In addition, the findings concerning agriculture show that communities have shifted from the production system that emphasizes production to one that increasingly emphasizes commerce and that the focus is on single crops and economic crops such as cassava, sugar cane, annual crop and multi-crop rice farming, orange plantations, Pai Tong bamboo farming and other fruit farming. These farming activities rely on both rainfall and water from the irrigation system. The majority of farming families rely on rainfall for




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agricultural activities, thus they are only able to generate income once a year when they sell their products. Almost every household that is in the status of being “planters or producers” generate income on accordance with the rainy season and wait for the growth of their single crop. There are only a few farming families in each community that are able to upgrade their production to being “sellers of products” of the community or “entrepreneurs” who establish outlets for the exchange of products.

The influence to changing the focus of farming to emphasize commerce was provided by civil service agencies through the Agriculture Promotion Office. Advice and support was provided for the cultivation of single crops and the farming of new types of livestock at the rate of 67.50 percent. For example, the changing of crop seeds used for farming i.e. species of rice, corn, cassava and soy beans and the promotion for the farming of new species of cows instead of the local cows and the emphasis on raising livestock for commercial purposes.

In addition, the findings show that the emphasis on single crop farming placed heavy reliance on using technology and labor saving equipment to support increased production. With the presence of markets to support the products resulting from the farming of economic crops, the income of the villagers is increased. The main products farmed are rice, corn, sugar cane, cassava, rubber and oranges.

“They said that if rubber is planted the price will be good. The civil service provided the seeds for free and also provided loan funds. In the village, 5 families are planting rubber. The area is approximately 60 rai. Not very many people are willing to take the risk because they have to wait for a long time before the latex can be tapped and sold. During the waiting period they may starve to death because there is no income. I believe that in the present, rubber farming is spreading from the south to the northeast region. I see them planting a lot in Nong Kai Province” (Mr. Prajuab – TAO, 46 years: Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“In 1985 almost all of the villagers turned to farming cassava following the advice of relatives in the same village. At that time, the Agricultural Office brought in ‘local’ seedlings from the middleman to be distributed for free under the condition that the crops had to be sold only to that middleman. In the first few years, the crops and income was very good as compared to farming jute. In addition, the purchasing point was only 25 kilometers from the village. The middleman would bring a truck into the village to transport the crops from the farm to Jaturat District and would charge for transportation expenses. In 1987 the middleman constructed a lot for the purchase of cassava at Ban Nong Chim in Nong Chim Sub-district which is 8 kilometers from the village. This facilitated the sales of the crops. Thus in 1989, the villages in Ban Ba Siew and nearby villages turned to farming cassava in the whole village.” (Mini Case Study – Ban Ba Siew, Chaiyaphom Village)

“Nowadays, the are for farming sugar cane is gradually increasing. Some families have quit rice farming and turned to farming sugar cane and buying rice for consumption. This is because there is a quota received from the factory in the amount of 3,000 tons per year. The villagers that receive the quota from the factory will also receive low interest loans from the factory at the rate of 4 percent per year, fertilizer, scythes to harvest the sugar cane and insecticide. The families with lots of farmland can make almost 100,000 baht before deducting expenses or 30,000 – 40,000 baht after deducting expenses. If this is




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carefully considered, the factory gets the profits both ways.” (Key Informant Interview – Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The villagers increasingly turn to farming sugarcane because the factory is located nearby at Phu Kiew District. Loans are provided and fertilizer and insecticides are provided for sugarcane farmers and in the initial stages, representatives of the factory provided advice. As a result, more villagers turned to sugarcane farming. After a while, area quotas were provided for farming sugarcane to be sold to the factory. There were regrets for the rice farming occupation. If there was rice to eat, everything would be good. There could be 2 crops of rice per year but the price was not good so they turned to sugarcane farming because they could sell their entire crop and the price of sugarcane improved with the advance price guarantee provided by the government. The Sugarcane Farmer’s Association received training before hand and also receives information from the television and radio media. Comparing the price of rice and sugarcane, the income generated by sugarcane is better. For example, in farming 3 rai of rice, the crop can be sold for 10,000 baht, however, in the same amount of land, sugarcane can make 14,000 baht. At present, the villagers farm just enough rice to eat and farm a lot of sugarcane. This farming activity depends solely on labor within the family and does not hire outside labor because ‘it is not cost effective to hire labor’, however, some extra labor may be hired as needed.” (Mr. Prasert – Village Head, 44 years: Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Village).

Supplementary Occupation: The supplementary occupation is that of commerce. The characteristics of commerce include both retail and wholesale trade of agricultural produce such as vegetables, chili, bamboo shoots, maprang, mayong chid and mangoes. These are products produced by communities such as Ban Wang Po Tong and Ban None Sung in Chaiyaphom Province where vegetables and chili are produced sold in urban markets. On the other hand, Ban Koke Mai Lai in Prachinburi Province where fruits are produced has organized a community market on the side of the road as the location for selling produce in the village. Other types of commerce include the sales of food made to order in communities near factories, mobile sales of food and groceries and consumer products for daily use in Ban Nong Ree and Ban Ta Udom in Prachin Buri Province. Moreover, in Ban Koke Lek, Nakon Si Thammarat Province, the commercial activity is concerned with writing supplies, school supplies and photocopying shops.

Laboring in the Area: From the community level data collected, the findings illustrate that 32.50 percent of communities with factories located nearby (as stated in #1) are provided with increased occupational choices such as being employed in factories and farming crops such as sugarcane, cassava and eucalyptus to feed the factories. The types of factories located near the villages are textile factories, electronics parts factories, consumer products factories, sugar factories, animal feed factories and the cassava purchasing lot.

“In the past, after rice farming, the villagers would find labor work in other provinces. Almost all the villagers leave the village that it is alarming. We would go to work in other provinces (harvesting sugarcane) and some have not yet returned. However, they have not moved their house registration. They would return to visit occasionally. However, at present, not very many people leave the community to work. When they have some money, they buy and raise cows and fix their house. The textile factory started recruiting factory workers in 2001. When they started offering jobs not very many people went to work there. In 2002, the factory expanded and the number of workers increased.




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Many families went to work there, maybe 2-3 people per family. When the factory was just opened, I went to send workers to the factory in Muang Tong Sub-district. The factory is approximately 10 kilometers from the village. Having this factory is good…people in the village do no have to go to work else where. There are thousands of sewing machines at the factory. I have cash in hand to revolve. Our family does not raise livestock. Working in the factory near home is good. There is time to come home and stay at home. There is always money. The income is different from other kinds of labor employment. In the past, the water and electrical expenses had to be borrowed from others. Now we don’t have to borrow…. There is money to buy a motorcycle, a refrigerator, a washing machine, a CD player, a television and a Kubota (manually driven tractor). At present, I have savings of at least 10,000 baht. It is easier to make money as textile remnants from the factory can be taken home for my wife to transform into blankets… The children that go to work in Bangkok do not have any left over money, but the parents living here have more savings….Now many more people have returned home. Before when they go to other provinces, some go for years. (Mr. Muangmont – rice farmer, 39 years; Mr. supab – rice farmer, 58 years; Mr. Kosol – rice farmer, 39 years; Ban Gud Gao Noi, Chaiyaphom Village).

Laboring outside of the Area and Abroad: After the harvest, some of the villagers have to rely on selling their labor in other areas, urban areas, major cities and in Bangkok. These skilled laborers work in factories, entertainment complexes and residences. Some of these laborers migrate abroad to countries such as Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Brunei. A large number of these migrants are from Ban Ba Siew, Ban None Fai and Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province. In general, they work as laborers and as housekeepers abroad. In the case that they are able to save their earnings, the income from working abroad is sent home and treated as “cash” to pay off their debts and to purchase daily and monthly consumption goods during the period of time between planting season. Some families were able to use the earnings to invest in buying additional farmland or invest in raising cows and engaging in commercial activities in the community.

“A lot of villagers go to work in Bangkok and other provinces. Approximately 20-30 households went to find work in Bangkok. They work as day laborers because it does not require investment. They go to find work in order to make money to invest in additional farming. Particularly in 1997, a lot of them went. I also went to work in a factory. Some families traveled to work abroad and returned as a new person. The people that returned came back rich. For example, the villagers that went to work in Israel legally. Some stayed there on the average of 6-7 years. At present, 4-5 people have not yet returned. In some families, both the husband and wife went. They make between 60,000 – 70,000 baht per month. The majority of the villagers go to work in factories in Bangkok. Contract work in Bangkok pays well. Over 10 ten-wheeled trucks were used to transport them to work. They went independently without any binding contracts or advance payments. During the dry season, approximately between December and May, people will leave the village to cut sugarcane in nearby villages. Lots of villagers, approximately half of the village, will go. The villagers will do any kind of cork. They are not picky. As long as they get wages, they will work.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Around 1986, a lot of villagers went to work abroad, almost every household. They went to Taiwan and Japan. The people that went to work were between the ages of 18-40 years. They would enter into the country using a 3 month tourist visa or a fake




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visa and meet with relatives who are already working there. In the past, they were not normally deceived. They would contact the employment broker or agent themselves. The first time they would pay the broker 40,000 baht per person and then the price per person increased to 80,000 baht per person. Around 1993, the price per person increased to 180,000 per person. Nowadays, more people are deceived. A lot of people travel aboard and some of them are deceived and fall into debt. Nowadays, villagers in the village are employment brokers that send people to work abroad. Thus the villagers still travel abroad for work in sets of 3-4 people at a time.” (Mini case study activity – Ban Ba Siew, Chaiyaphom Province)

“Traveling to work abroad…has quite high expenses. The villagers that do no have money but want to go and work abroad have to get loans from money lenders that charge high interest rates. When they go to work abroad, they have to repay the loan in installments. In some cases, working abroad for one year is not enough to repay the debt and they have to go back to work again. Some people were deceived into going to work abroad but after getting there did not have any work and had to return to Thailand. Some were deceived up to 3 times but still obtained loans to go to work abroad in order to repay their debts. Some had to sell off their farmland to repay the debt, thus losing their farmland.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban Wang Po Tong: Chaiyaphom Province)

2.1.2. Access to Factors of Production. The major factors of production for agriculture are land, capital, water

sources, markets and information. From the community level data gathered, the findings illustrate that communities are more capable of accessing factors of production as compared to the past. For example, they are able to access credit at the rate of 72.50 percent, they are able to access agricultural factors such as new seeds, raising new types of livestock at the rate of 62.25 percent, they are able to access the irrigation system at the rate of 40 percent and they are able to access markets and commercial centers at the rate of 55 percent. The details are as follows:

Land is a major factor of production for villagers engaged in agriculture. From the household level data collected (600 questionnaires), the findings show that 82 percent of the participants have assets in the form of land but that the majority of poor families work as daily wage earners and do not own farmland or own limited farmland, approximately 3-5 rai. Some families have to rent farmland or some communities are located in forest conservation areas and can not own farmland such as Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province and Ban Salieng Tong Chaiyaphom Province. In some cases, the condition of the soil in the farmland has deteriorated and the location of the farmland is far from the water source resulting in unproductive farming activities. As for communities that are located near industrial development areas such as Ban Ta Udom, Ban Nong Ree and Ban Hua Don, Prachin Buri Province, the price of land is high resulting in the villagers selling off their land and retaining only a limited amount of farmland to make a living. The youths in these areas are not interested in agriculture as an occupation and are turning to working in factories, engaging in commerce and entering into the civil service.

“In the past, we were farmers owning 40-50 rai per family. We obtained loans from money lenders. The Forestry Industry people started forest re-plantation following our activities. When they came, they called a community meeting and told us that they would like to persuade us to replant the forest. We would have income and an occupation. After 3 years, they drove us off and some were arrested. My brother was arrested. A manual tractor




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was confiscated and not yet returned. The villagers fled to work in other places. Forestry Department officials came and tried to find us farmland but the land was not appropriate as it was too sandy so we did not go. After that the villagers increasingly went out of the village to find work because there was not work at home. And then Member of Parliament Kam Soong and Provincial Council Member Annant came and organized the villagers to rally and demand the return of their property a number of times. They were successful and in 1997 land was allocated to the villagers making it possible for them to stay. Their status was improved as they received land in the amount of 15 rai, 10 rai, 7 rai, 5 rai and 3 rai in accordance with the criteria and the principle of original ownership. Depending on the type of document proving land ownership they would receive a maximum of 15 rai down to no land ownership document but having proof of long time residence a limited amount of land would be provided. But not all residents received land, only 302 cases. In case of our household, we received only 70 percent. Lots were drawn to determine who would receive which piece of land. Those who did not receive land would farm on trespassed land or work as laborers.” (Mr. Pon – TAO, 48 years: Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Now we have farmland, we have loan funds in the village and do not have to go outside for loans, the Forestry Industry Organizations has allocated farmland to the villagers so we have farmland to make a living and do not have to move from place to place seeking labor employment as in the past. Some went to work in construction and were cheated. Now they stay home and have farmland to make a living on their own. With the return of the farmland, the people have come back to farm and generate income.” (Freedom, Power, Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion: Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Before the presence of the factory, the villagers had farmland but did not have capital. With the establishment of the factory, the price of the land increased. In the past, the price of the land was 15,000 baht per rai. When they came in to construct the factory, the price of the land rose to 50,000 baht per rai. The villagers sold almost all of their land and a few of them became millionaires. The children of the villagers went to work in the factory and the elderly remained at home to care for the house. At present, there is capital to make a living but no land. Maybe in the next ten years, if the government does not promote or support the villagers, their lifestyle would remain the same as in the present. But if the government provided assistance concerning farmland, the lives of the villagers would be better than today.” (Mrs. Ubon – trader, 45 years: Ban Prasat Prachin, Buri Province)

From the household level data collected, the findings show that 72.50 percent of the participants in the 600 questionnaires were better able to access credit as investment for occupation such as for farming, for trade and for travel to work abroad. In addition, the main source of loans for the villagers is the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC), the 1 million baht Village Fund and agricultural cooperatives respectively. On the other hand, the families with limited land and the poor generally obtain loans from the 1 million baht Village Fund and money lenders such as the middlemen who provide cash loans or factor of production loans: fertilizer, insecticide and investment capital. The farmers have to pay high interest rates. The majority of the middlemen are the people who buy the agricultural products and deduct the amount of the loan from the payment. It is generally found that the middlemen and the merchants from




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outside the village generally take advantage of the farmers by charging high interest rates and pushing down the product purchase price.

From the community level data gathered in the 40 villages, the findings show that 40 percent of communities are able to benefit from the development of the irrigation system for agriculture. However, the benefits provided by the development of the irrigation system is not universal and that the majority of the poor have limited land that is far from the irrigation canals (the price of the land near the water source is expensive). In order to gain access to the water for agricultural use, heavy investments have to be made such as purchasing a water pump and fuel expenses.

“The water from the Lam Kan Choo Dam can not help all the villagers. It is possible to help only some of the villagers. The Wa Canal is not capable of distributing water to the villagers with farmland in the highlands. However, both the dam and the canal help the villagers improve their ability to make a living by alleviating the drought situation…as we have other occupations other than rice farming…and extends the period for making a living of the villagers. In addition, they help the villagers in their ability for forage naturally for food such as crabbing and fishing because there is water in the Wa Canal throughout. The Irrigation Department constructed the dam to provide the people in the area with water. As a result, there is water in the Wa Canal all year long and there is water for agriculture all year. The villagers are able to make a living by means other than rice farming such as chili farming. Another benefit is the resolution of the problem of flooding. In the past, there would be floods every year.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

On the issue of access to markets that purchase produce, the findings show that 55 percent of communities participating in the study were able to access these markets. In other words, individuals in many communities were able to transform themselves from producers into middlemen responsible for gathering community products and transporting them to the markets in the urban areas. The study team refers to these people as “local entrepreneurs”. Examples of local entrepreneurs can be seen in Ban Wang Po Tong (selling vegetables) and Ban None Sung (selling chili) in Chaiyaphom Province. However, villages that are situated far from urban areas are either unable to access or have obstacles in accessing agricultural markets. The majority of these villages have to rely on the middlemen with the only exception being villages that are located near roads. Such villages would construct roadside markets to sell community products. For example, a village in Prachin Buri Province near the Nai Muang Market that farms Pai Tong bamboo to be sold in the Bangkok Market.

2.2. Changes in Local Politics: Decentralization of Power and Creation of Grassroots

Democracy Elected Leaders: From the collection of community level data the findings

show that over the past 13 years in 92.50 percent of the communities, community leaders came from elections. In addition from the household level data collected (600 questionnaires) the findings show that the 87 percent of the villagers are of the opinion that local elections are fair because they involve people living in the village that are known by everyone. They know the people with friends and money. Money has to be used while campaigning and those who know how to work also have to be financially ready because they have to work for the




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collective good rather than personal gain which affects the occupation and ability to make a living of the leader. In addition, having lots of relatives also provides better opportunities to be elected. Leaders that are elected in the locality are the Kamnan and the Village Head.

The Role of Leaders: In the past, the situation of politics and governance in the communities was that the leaders with the most important role in the community was the “Village Head”. The major characteristics of a leader include being held in high esteem (Head Man: in the south), being a good person and being a leader that carries out responsibilities in coordinating with civil service agencies. The role of the “Village Head” is being an “individual” and “governance organization” that links with “the world outside of the community” for factors of production, capital, markets, services provided by the civil service while being a “community change agent” in many communities by initiating collective activities such as savings groups, cooperative groups, formation of occupation groups based on the location of household groupings and the network of relatives, faith and religious networks, influence networks or network of benefits.

The Role of Local Administration: From the decentralization of power to the regions through the establishment of the Tambon Administration Organization (TAO), the villagers have learned about democracy from the TAO and working with civil service agencies. There has been stimulation of the people to participate in village development more than in the past through the organization of meetings to consult with the communities on their concerns. These meetings are called “village civil society gatherings”. From the collection of household level data (600 questionnaires) the findings show that 84 percent of the participants in the questionnaires state that villagers participate in more consultation meetings concerning community issues as compared with the past. In addition 66 percent of the respondents stated that in addition to the formation of groups there was also the formation of various organizations particularly the formation of financially oriented organizations. Moreover, representatives were elected as committee members responsible for work administration and and implementation of various development activities in the communities. As a result, 61 percent of the respondents stated that the TAOs expressed interest in the opinions of the people and were more willing to listen to grassroots communities. Concerning the provision of support for basic infrastructure development, the villagers in the various communities are able to receive increased information and are able to submit projects to the TAO so that the TAOs can implement more village development activities. Representatives from each community are elected to work with the TAO to collectively manage and administer the projects. From the collection of household data, the findings show that 66 percent of the respondents are moderately satisfied with TAO operations.

“In the past, the village head and leaders made decisions concerning everything. All civil service directives are carried out by the Village Head. The villagers were not able to participate. In the past very few meetings were called. The majority of the time of the villagers was spent farming and they did not have much free time. When public announcements are broadcasted, if there are not people there, then no one knows.” (Freedom, Power, Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion - Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

“There is increased participation in meetings but there is also increased trust that the Village Head will be a good representative and work diligently. In the past, the Village Head was appointed but now, this position is elected. There are no fears.” (Freedom, Power,




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Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion - Ban Huay Bong Nua, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Village meetings are increasingly used to make collective decisions. Local Administration come in and clarify things for those who do not understand as a result, participation is almost 100 percent and when civil society meetings are arranged voting is based on the majority voice. At this point, the emphasis is on the majority voice thus the most of the people participate in decision making. When anything is to be done, it has to be publicized and meetings have to be arranged in order to consult with each other on the best way to do things. In the past nothing really happened. When meetings were called, people were not ready. In the present, everything has improved and when meetings are called everyone is ready.” (Freedom, Power, Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion -

Ban Ba Siew, Chaiyaphom Province). “Villagers know more and the diverse media help such as watching television,

listening to the news and having telephones. This helps people to know things, show interest in their rights and know about the things that concern themselves. In the past, there were not very many meetings. Nowadays, meetings are arranged more frequently. The leaders also show interest and broadcast announcements for the people to attend the meetings and more people participate in the meetings. There has to be at least one representative from each family. Those who do not attend the meeting will not be informed and may be deprived of their rights to receive civil service assistance.” (Freedom, Power, Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion: Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

2.3. Social Capital: Provision of Assistance and Compassion within the Extended

Family The findings of the study show that within most communities the structure of

relationships is based on the extended family. The provision of help and the patronage system is still in existence within the family network. For example, the provision of loans for investment in farming, expenses for travel abroad in order to work and construction of houses.

The culture of gratitude and the sense of obligation of children and grandchildren is still seen such as when children and grandchildren complete their education and start working, they send money home to help out the family or when work is found within the country and abroad, they would draw their extended family to work with them in order to help them.

2.4. Community Power: Groups or Organizations that play an important Role in the

Community From the collection of data at the household level, the findings show that 66

percent of the respondents state that there was group formation in the community particularly groups involved in financial organization activities, savings groups, agricultural cooperatives and the 1 million baht Village Fund in order to bring revolving funds into the community. Low interest loans are provided for investment in occupation creation with conditions for savings and repayment in monthly installments within a period of one year. The findings show that those communities are able to create a system for the management of community finances and create cash flow from the money that flows out and is repaid by members. The




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money is allocated and apportioned out to members that are in trouble and those who are poor.

This is the creation of a financial system within the community that is parallel to the system of taking advantage of the “middlemen”. In many communities there are savings groups, cooperative groups and occupation groups based on the location of household groupings and the network of relatives, faith and religious networks, influence networks or network of benefits.

“Ban Kiak Kai Savings Group is the organization that enables the villagers to live well and eat well. It is the source of capital within the community and the gathering place for villagers. At the same time, the group is the hub for village activities. When a fund is created in the village, the requirement for membership in the new fund is membership in the savings group so that the villagers know how to save. Members can obtain occupation loans once a month but have to deposit savings every month and make loan repayment every month. Each month the amount of money revolving is over one hundred thousand baht. Deposits are accepted only for the monthly savings. No special deposits are accepted. The interest rats are very low. At present, the original members have approximately ten thousand baht in savings and are the core member of other groups. This group is the largest group in the village and is the oldest and most important group. Many activities were initiated by this group such as the Poverty Alleviation Fund and the Cremation Welfare Fund.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban Kiak Kai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“In the beginning, the villagers did not want to be a member of the 1 million baht Village Fund because of previous experiences with failed savings groups managed by the previous group of leaders. The original group of members was comprised of only 40 – 50 members. At present memberships has extended to over 100 people. The villagers obtain loans to raise pigs, raise cows and purchase fertilizer. The status of people has improved. Deposits are received and installment payments are made every month. Loans are provided every month. At present, there are funds remaining and no one obtaining loans, thus the fnds have been deposited in the bank.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban Pung Kam, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“If it was during the period of time when the rice and chili was sold, the savings group provided assistance to members with non-formal debts whose land title was about to be confiscated. The land titles were redeemed for 1.7 million baht. The group would bear the burden themselves and charge interest at the rate of 1 percent per month. In addition, members were provided with the opportunity to obtain an emergency loan in the amount of between 1,000 – 10, 000 baht to be repaid within 3-7 days. In 2004, members obtained loans to purchase cows because the price of cows was good. In addition, other community development activities were implemented such as the establishment of a community shop using the group capital in the amount of 13,000 baht, the digging of a drainage system to drain water out of the village where the savings group provided money for food while the villagers donated their labor. In addition, a Cremation Group was established. If a loan was obtained from the group, the person obtaining the loan also had to be a member of the Cremation Group.” (Mr. Somparn – Village Head, 43 years: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).




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“With the establishment of various funds in the village, the villagers were able to get low interest occupation loans. In the past, there were no funds and the villagers had to get loans from money lenders at high interest rates, between 3-5 percent per month. In addition, not every one could get loans because those who looked as if they could not repay the loan would be denied. In addition, those without collateral could not get loans and those with assets had to provide them as collateral. The loans had to be repaid otherwise the collateral that was farmland would be confiscated.” (Mr. Kamol – Village Head, 47 years: Ban Nong Mah Kor, Kampaengpetch Province).

3.2 The Negative Factors affecting Community Prosperity

The finding of the Moving Out of Poverty Study show that the negative factors affecting community prosperity include the economic crisis, increased daily expenses, higher prices of factors of production, low prices of agricultural products, droughts, floods, deteriorating environment, debts, disturbance by pests, being driven off the land, the integrated farming project, drugs and gambling, details provided as follows:

ปจจยเชงลบท�มผลทางดานเศรษฐกจ/ความม�งคง

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04-น�าทวม5%05-ยาเสพตด / การพนน

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11-ภยธรรมชาต6%

10-หน�สน4%

12-สวนปา1%

16-โครงการไรนาสวนผสม4%14-คาใชจาย

ในชวตประจาวนสง

17-ส�งแวดลอมเส�อมโทรม4%




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Negative Factors that Impact on Economy/Prosperity

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01-Economic crisis 02-Drought03-Low price of produce 04-Floods05-Drugs/gambling 06-Driven off the land09-Damaged agricultural products 10-Debts11-Natural disasters 12-Forest plantation14-Increased daily expenses 16-Integrated Farming Project17-Deteriorating environment

3.2.1 The Drought Problem The main problem facing every village is the drought problem. From the

collection of data at the community level, the findings show that 28 percent of respondents stated that the most important problem that they were faced with was the drought problem. Communities that were most affected were villages that did not have irrigation systems or villages that did not have any rivers flowing through. In the past 13 years, almost every community encountered problems of the drought every 2-3 years. Particularly in 2004, communities faced the problem of the drought that affected farming activities such that they were not productive. The was the main cause of debts because the majority of farmers obtained loans to invest in farming and would repay the loans after the harvest. With the drought situation, villagers had to migrate to the urban areas to work as daily laborers, construction laborers and general laborers in order to work and generate regular income.

Farming activities still rely on natural rainfall, thus farmers have to bear the burden of the risk because rainfall is a natural factor that cannot be controlled. The damage that results from the drought cannot be made up for by the government even though attempts have been made to provide farmers with drought assistance. The amount of assistance is very little when compared to the loan amount obtained to invest in farming.




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“With the occurrence of the drought and forest fires, the impact that occurs is insufficient water for the rice. After a number of months, the rice would dry out and be damaged. In addition, there would not be enough water for consumption. Water would have to be hauled from the mountain. If it is very dry, the elderly would have to go and haul water. Approximately 20 cases would suffer from damaged crops. The drought situation remained for about 8 months. The District Office provided assistance by trucking in and distributing water, distributing water containers but only a few were provided. ‘Kood hai wua kin muan ee look ta noan (it was so dry that in digging ponds for the cows to drink, it was necessary to dig so deep that it was like the ponds would be dug through to the other side).’” (Key Informant Interview - Ban Sala Takian, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“This year the drought lasted many months…the rain was delayed. The drought affected the villagers who are corn and chili farmers. This year, the condition of the rice fields was salty or ‘pen iad’. This was most likely a result of the weather conditions that were very dry and lacking water. Other reasons may be the villager’s continued use of chemical fertilizer or the excessive pumping of water. As a result, the salt came up to the surface because there is a lot of salt in the area, however it is deep down. Because of the salt, agricultural activities were not productive and the villagers suffered losses. Whatever income was made was used to repay their debts.” (Key Informant Interview - Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The villagers have been faced with the drought situation for many years. The agricultural crops were damaged because of plant diseases and the amount of crops was reduced. Some farmers did not have any products to sell at all. The Village Head and TAO representatives have gathered the names of the farmers with dead crops and told them that the state will give them drought compensation payments at the rate of 10,000 baht per family. We have not yet seen a single baht. When there is no rainfall, the state helps by producing artificial rain. We keep looking at the sky waiting for the rain, but there is no rain so we keep on hoping without any hope. The villagers are affected greatly by the drought. Especially those with ‘na koke or na don (highland farmland)’ that is far from the irrigation canals. There are over 100 households that farm cassava and corn. Everything dies. The cassava are attacked by worms while the corn crop is stunted.” (Mr. Saeng – Chairman, savings group, 43 years: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The surge of the salt water made it impossible to farm. The damaged dam made it possible for the seawater to reach our village during the planting season. It was not possible to farm because seawater was present throughout the village. There is no water works in the village. We use pond water. We had requested for a water works project for the past 10 years but did not get it. We do not lack drinking water yet. The salt water has not yet seeped into the dirt ponds.” (Ladder of Life Focus Group Discussion - Ban Kiak Kai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Storms…floods…droughts have hit one after another for the past two to three years. The impact of the storms was on fruit farms and rubber farms. All of the trees were knocked down. Fifteen houses were damaged with all of the roofs destroyed. The entrance to the village was flooded. In the same year, after the floods, the drought that lasted a number of months occurred. The villagers suffered greatly. They do not know where they can get water. There is no water. Before, the original trees were standing. After the storm, they were wiped




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out. Over 70 percent of the agricultural crops were damaged.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban Pung Kam, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“The drought situation was very bad. The drought came every year and became increasingly severe since 2003. It affected the farmers. There were no products. Laborers were affected because no one hired them to plant corn seeds or harvest corn. If there was no drought, they would have work all the time. But with the drought, they would lose out and would probably not have anything to eat because they do not have any other occupation. Farming relies mainly on water.” (Mrs. Malai – TAO, 44 years: Ban Nong Samakkee

Kampaengpetch Province). “In the past 2-3 years, Ban Huay Boong suffered the most serious drought. There

was not enough water to for rice farming or watering plants. Vegetable and flower farming requires more water. With the increase in decorative flower cultivation, more water was needed because they have to be watered everyday. If they are not watered they would wilt and be damaged. As a result, the existing water sources could not meet the needs and the plants in some of the farms were being damaged and trees were dying out. The investments were not yet recouped because the flowers were planted to be sold.” (Mr. Tongrak – farmer, 63 years: Ban Hua Boong Prachin Buri Province).

“The drought started in 1998 until now…it was so dry that nothing could be done…the villagers could only wait for nature or rain. There are no streams flowing through. With the drought, instead of producing 100 tung (1 tung=20 liters), farmers could only produce 50 tung…the whole village had to buy rice to eat. They lacked water for consumption. The cows and buffaloes did not have water to drink. There was no water for bathing. People had to move out to work in other places.” (Mr. Maen – rice farmer, 40 years: Ban Huay Bong Nua, Chaiyaphom Province)

3.2.2 Self-reliant Community towards Monetary Society: Increased Daily Expenses

In the past 13 years, community development has gradually changed starting with the development of public utilities, roads, communications and markets which has opened communities and facilitated their interaction with other communities. Merchants were able to come into the communities to sell consumer products and non-essential goods. At the same time, the villagers shifted their emphasis to producing commercial products and seeking employment to generate income in order to buy food rather than producing food for household consumption. Communities have gradually transformed themselves from being self-reliant communities to being market communities that consume products and goods that are brought into the villages. Such economies require the use of cash to purchase products and support the consumption values of the community. As a result, households have to bear the burden of increased expenses as follows:

• Daily expenses: food, water, electricity, telephone expenses • Investment expenses: fertilizer, insecticide, equipment and labor saving

devices, wages • Health care expenses • Children’s education expenses In addition to these necessary daily expenses, there are cultural and traditional

expenses including gambling, lottery and alcohol expenses for households that are so inclined. Such expenses increase the burden on families and steer them into the “currency era”. From




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the collection of household level data in 600 households concerning income and daily expenses, the findings show that currently 47 percent of households have enough income that is equal to expenses and are known as the group that ‘ha chao kin kam (makes money in the morning and eats in the evening)’ as they use al the money they make. In addition, 36 percent of the households have income that is less than expenses and is the group of the poorest people in the village. Lastly, 16 percent of households have income that exceeds expenses and are the group of people that are well off and richest in the village but is the smallest group in the village. This group is generally engaged in trade, work in the civil service or have a lot of land.

“Fuel is expensive. Vehicles are required in making a living. In farming it the cost of fuel for plowing costs 80 baht per rai, 130 baht per rai. Machines are necessary for rice farming. It is an expense that the villagers have to bear and this burden is very heavy. As the price of fuel gradually rises and the villagers suffer even more.” (Mrs. Jinda – rice farmer, 33 years: Ban Sala Takian, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Ten years ago, households without electrical appliances expenses could live on 5,000 baht per month. Now, expenses are almost 10,000 baht. The expenses have increased. If the children go to school, the expenses are higher. Before it was not much but now it is more. In the past, everything was slow. We can’t turn back now. Everything is easier…more convenient…have to make more money because there are more expenses. Luxuries and conveniences increase hardships accordingly. Household expenses increase: necessary items are a car, a truck, a television, a refrigerator, a fan and a telephone.” (Mr. Sathithaya – Village Head, 47 years: Ban Nai Pood, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Rice farming has changed. The investment is higher: fertilizer, insecticide and fuel is more expensive. But the profit remaining is enough for household expenses. Because the price of rice is good, the people who went to work in Bangkok come back to farm rice at home. This is true for many families.” (……………………..)

“On thinking about it, it is worth it. Wage earning has also changed. It is difficult to find farm laborers. Most of them work on their own farms. The wages have also changed. Before it was 30 baht per day. Now it is more, over 100 baht per day because things are more expensive and the economy has improved. For example, the rate for harvesting soy bean used to be 35 baht per ngarn (1 ngarn = 400 square meters or a quarter of a rai), but now the rate per ngarn is 90 baht. The price of the product increased, the labor cost increased also.” (Mr. Sanit – pig farmer, 59 years: Ban Nong Mah Kor, Kampaengpetch Province).

“Crop farming now is worse. Now the effort that is used rebounds as the farmer’s burden. To farm, the factors of production such as fertilizer, insecticide, money for plowing and wages have to be gotten as an advance. When everything is done and the crop is to be sold, the creditor will provide a quote. We cannot determine our own price. In the end, nothing is left. Being a laborer, the wages remain the same, but things are more expensive. With the use of labor saving machines such as the tiller and the corn husker there is less work for laborers, for example, in the past, people were hired to plant seeds but now a machine does it. Fertilizer is now more expensive than every year. It costs 650 baht per sack. The price of farm crops is low…the investment is high.” (Mr. Rung – laborer, 57 years: Ban Nong Sang, Kampaengpetch Province).

“Nowadays, the villagers own less farmland because they sold their land to investors to farm eucalyptus etc. With eucalyptus forests, the natural water sources were




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plowed over and disappeared, thus it became more difficult to find crabs and fish in nature for food. Before, there were a lot of ponds and natural canals so there were lots of small frogs, crabs and fish. It was not necessary to waste money to buy them. The people who work in factories do not have time to do anything. They have to go to work early in the morning and return home after dark. They buy their food in front of the factories. Nowadays, cars come in and sell everything to the door step, anything you want to eat. The only thing lacking is the money to buy it. If there were no factories, life would be worse. Nowadays, those who are 30 and above work as daily wage earners such as a cement worker or a farm hand to make enough to eat each day. Other than that, the children that work in factories will share some food.” (Mrs. Ubon – trader, 45 years: Ban Prasat, Prachin Buri Province).

“Rice farming in the past used buffaloes to plow the land. Production was limited, income was limited and expenses were limited. Cow dung was used as fertilizer and was used on plants producing good results. To plant rice every year, there were no burdens of expenses. It was not necessary to buy seeds because rice seeds in the past were easy to find way back in the parent’s generation. But the seeds were the existing species. After the harvest, the best seeds were separated and stored to be used in the next year. Currently, the price of rice is better at 6-7 baht per kilo but the price of fertilizer has also increased like a shadow. This portion of expenses has increased. After planting the rice seeds for a number of years, the seeds become thinner and drier and are not as productive. The species have to be continually changed otherwise the seed will not be nice and the rice will not be soft. Currently the seeds are purchased. The species that has already been planted cannot be selected to be planted again.” (Mr. Sutin – rice farmer, 40 years: Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Since cassava and corn was planted a lot in successive years, the condition of the soil has gotten worse…productivity has reduced. Now it is necessary to use more chemical fertilizers. If it is not used the productivity will not be good. The price of fertilizer increases everyday. Nowadays, a sack of fertilizer is 400-500 baht (in the past it was only 300 baht).” (Mr. Cherd – rice farmer, 36 years: Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The villagers in Ban None Fai farm rice, cassava and corn. Their supplementary occupation is raising pigs, cows, chicken and chili farming. The price of agricultural products is higher than before, but there are more expenses. The more work, the more debts. The people that get richer everyday are the shops that sell fertilizer and insecticides. Farming today requires the use of chemicals because the soil is damaged. There are plant diseases, insects, mites that come every year.” (Mrs. Sudjai – rice farmer, 38 years: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province.)

“The main occupations in our ban (village) are rice farming, raising cows and weaving bulrush. Every family around here does it. Around 15-20 households. Rice farming nowadays is not yet good. Enough rice is farmed for eating. It is not as good as it could be because of lack of water. There are no irrigation canals. Twelve years ago there was a canal but now it is shallow. Currently a lot of fertilizer is used resulting in the deterioration of the soil. The soil is sour and lacks water. In the past, fertilizer was not used and planting was done naturally. In the past, using buffaloes to plow provides enough to eat. Rice is farmed twice a year. Little investment is needed and labor is shared. In the past, buffalo labor was used. Currently rice farming erodes the capital. The cost of harvesting is 330 baht per rai.




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ออกปากชวยแรงกน คาเกยวไรละ 335 บาท หามาไดกไมเหลอ ” (Ban Sala Takian, Nakon Si Thammarat Province)

“The cost of living is high. Everything is expensive. The children in every household do a lot of schooling because it is necessary to support education. Farming rotating crops is not very productive. There are lots of diseases and more insects. As there is more growth and development (materialism) people have debts. The Rubber Plantation Fund does not provide enough, for example, it provides 6 baht for the purchase of a rubber plant while the cost is 16 baht. It is not enough. Nowadays, expenses are high, the cost of living is high and major investments have to be made. There are a lot of diseases and insects. A lot of manure fertilizer is used. If it is not used, there is no productivity. The price of fertilizer increased from 300 baht to 700 baht. There are lots of diseases and pests requiring the use of chemicals and major investments.” (Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

3.2.3 Low Price of Agricultural Products

“The price of agricultural products is low. Farming requires higher investment because instead of rotating collective farming activities as was done in the past, farmers currently have to hire labor and use labor saving machines. There is also more use of fertilizer and insecticides. But when the products are sold, the price is low and not worth the investment. For example, cassava and corn, sometimes loans are obtained for investment but when the farmer has losses, the result is increased debts.” (Mrs. Khemporn – rice farmer, 38 years: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The main occupation of Ban Nai Pood is fruit farming. When lots of fruits are produced and the price is good, the income of the villagers is increased. But when the fruits trees are not productive or the price is bad, the villagers suffer. The majority of the villagers farm mangosteen. When the fruits flood the market, the price is low. For example in 2001, the drought occurred because of logging activities and destruction of the forest. As a result, there were not enough natural water sources. The impact on communities was that trees and fruit trees dried out and died. The fruits on the trees also dried out. It was difficult to find water for farming. In 2003, the price of the fruit was 2 baht per kilo as compared to over 10 baht per kilo in the past. Thus, the villagers let the fruits ripen and fall from the trees (the cost of harvesting alone was 3 baht per kilo). When the price is low, the villagers have no income. They have to turn to other agricultural products such as rambutan, durian and farm crops. In 2004, the price of agricultural products became cheaper because of the problems of unrest in the South. The merchants in the 3 southern border provinces could not or would not come to buy fruits in Nakon Si Thammarat Province. Thus the villagers had to sell their products to the merchants within Nakon Si Thammarat Province who bought the fruits at a low price (Mr. Sathithaya – Village Head, 47 years: Ban Nai Pood, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Around 1992 the price of rice was low. It was very low, between 2,000 – 2,500 bahr per ton. That year was also a drought year so the productivity was not good. It was bad for the people because the majority of the villagers were rice farmers. The rice farmers suffered with the drought and the low prices. During that time, a lot of people migrated to Bangkok because they could not remain. They had to find work. The only people remaining in the village were the elderly and children. If they did not go in pairs, they would take the whole family. Each family had to have someone leave to work outside. Most of them went to




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Bangkok to work as general laborers and construction workers. Some who did not make it to Bangkok would go to work in the district or in other provinces such as Sukhotai Province, Uthai Thani Province and Nakon Sawan Province.” (Mr. Rit – Village Committee Member, 54 years – Kampaentpetch Province).

3.2.4 The Problem of Debts – “For Consumption and Investment”

From the gathering of data at the household level (600 questionnaires), 76 percent of the participants stated that their debts comprised of loans for daily expenses and for investment. Almost every household stated that the main source of loans for household expenses was the 1 Million baht Village Fund and savings groups. In addition, the findings of the data collected at the community level (40 communities) show that 87.5 percent of the communities state that loans for investment in agriculture or for business activities have to be in larger amounts, thus the villagers obtain such loans from financial institutions such as the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC).

The BAAC has become the major source of credit for large-scale farmers who farmland and other assets that can be used as collateral for their loans. Poor farmers that do not own farmland do not have assets that can be used as collateral and are not able to access credit. Thus they have to obtain loans from money lenders and have non-formal loans that charge high interest rates.

Villagers obtain loans to invest in farming activities from money lenders known as “Tao Kae” who are the merchants that buy farm products and sell factors of production such as fertilizer, insecticides and farming equipment. The characteristics of the loan is generally in the form of taking the fertilizer as an advance and cash loans to pay the wages of the hired labor. Interest is charged and a loan contract is drawn up. After that, the farm products have to be sold to the Tao Kae. After the harvest, the amount of the loan will be deducted first with the remaining amount being the income received from the sale of the agricultural product.

Table 3 - 1 Major Sources of Loans of the Community

Amount Percentage 1. Banks or financial institutions 35 87.50 2. Cooperatives / groups / various organizations 27 67.50 3. 1 Million Baht Village Fund 40 100.00 4. Other civil service organizations 3 7.50 5. Middlemen 14 35.00 6. Moneylenders 28 70.00 7. Relatives 24 60.00 8. NGO 2 5.00

Source: Community Questionnaires (40 communities)

Thus, in the past, the formation of groups of farmers have been that of the formation of legal entities such as cooperatives and agricultural groups under the leadership, control and care of the Village Head and Kamnan (governance aspect coupled with economic aspect) with civil service agencies providing oversight.




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Debts were incurred as a result of obtaining loans for production and consumption within the family. In addition, loans were also obtained for their children’s and grandchildren’s higher education expenses i.e. high school or higher levels in the district or in Bangkok. Most importantly, poor families that have no opportunities to move out of poverty are mostly overwhelmed with debts, concentrate on revolving their debts and are caught in the trap of consumerism.

“Families that do not show any mobility are trapped under their burdens: they have children who are of school age so they have to send them to school. This and that is used for their children. As the children grow up, the expenses increase. Sometimes it is necessary to borrow money from relatives, neighbors, BAAC or the 1 Million baht Village Fund to provide the children with the opportunity of going to school. Some families monetary help from children that have completed their education and have a steady job and regular income.” (Ladder of Life Focus Group Discussion: Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Farming requires high investment because laborers have to be hired and machines have to be used instead of collective activities for mutual assistance as in the past. In addition, more fertilizers and insecticides are used. However, when the products are sold, the prices are low and not worth the investment. For example, cassava and corn, sometimes loans are obtained for investment but losses are suffered so the debts are more serious than in the beginning.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“In the past, merchants from Korat came into the village to buy vegetables. We did not know anything. The vegetables were sold at the given price and were sold only once a day. If we were not ready to sell the vegetables when the merchants came, we did not know where else to sell them and the vegetables that were harvested would be wasted. Sometimes, even knowing that we would be selling at a loss we still had to sell.” (Ladder of Life Focus Group Discussion: Ban Wang Po Tong-Chaiyaphom Province).

“It is possible to say that we are better off but yet it is also possible to say that we are poorer. In the past, we did not have very much debts but now, we have lots of debts. This is true for all families. The debts may range from almost 10,000 baht to 100,000 baht. Those who never had debts, now have debts. But their lifestyle, their well-being, their ability to make purchases and their status has improved. What is the meaning of having increased debts? There have been many changes. All expenses have increased - fertilizer, insecticides and fuel. These are things that we have to use. In the past they were not this expensive. For example, fertilizer used to be 300 baht per sack and fuel 8 baht per liter. As for food, before we did not have to buy this much. It was possible to find fish and crabs. Now, we have to buy everything. The things that we do not have to buy are vegetables that can be picked from various places. Now almost every little thing has to be bought. So how can we not have debts? A family may be indebted to 2-3 funds. Loans will be gotten from any fund that provides loans and the loans will be repaid in turn and continue revolving. In the past we had debts, but they were limited to maybe 3,000 – 4,000 baht. Nowadays, the amount of debts is in the ten thousands and hundred thousands. For example, for farming, investments had to be made all along but it did not seem as high as that of today. We did not used to have to buy as much fertilizer and insecticide as we do today. Sometimes we did not use any at all. But nowadays, it is not possible to not use any insecticides because the mollusks and insects would attack. If we did not use fertilizer the plants would not grow, they would not look good




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and would not be productive.” (Mrs. Samnieng – farmer, 31 years; Mrs. Ting – rice farmer, 53 years; Mrs. Kha – rie farmer, 54 years: Ban Bueng Nong Lom, Kampaengpetch Province).

3.2.5 Deteriorating Natural Resources and Environment: Plant Disease Epidemic

Emphasis on producing single-crops for commerce and the use of technology and labor saving machines in production has led to the encroachment of the forest areas in order to expand the agricultural area. In addition, intensive agricultural activities have led to the deterioration of the soil condition and the emergence of plant diseases and pests. For example, producing 2-4 rice crops per year is widespread in all the target villages of the study. These villages have changed from rice farming the traditional way where the seeds are planted and then the paddy sprouts are transplanted in the paddy fields to broadcasting because of the need to produce in volume and the need for speed in rice farming. In addition, it is necessary to use a lot of fertilizer which destroys the soil and leaves chemical residues.

In addition, it was discovered that shrimp farming was implemented in Nakon Si Thammarat Province and Prachin Biri Province and that orange farming was undertaken in Kampaengpetch Province. These farming activities require the excessive use of chemicals. If fertilizers and insecticides are not used, they would not be productive. These issues are becoming a major problem for the villagers. They create environmental problems which is the reason for the villager’s low level of productivity, high investment costs and results in their investment losses. From the data collected at the community level (40 communities), the findings show that 70 percent of the participating communities are faced with the problem of deteriorating soil conditions. This is a major problem for farmers and impacts on the prosperity of the communities.

“In 1992 villagers engaged in farming activities had to use a lot of fertilizers resulting in the deterioration of the soil and the reduction of the agricultural produce. The District Office has come in to provide information concerning the use of organic fertilizers. In addition, the Land Development Department has provided information on producing the base solution for the production of compost fertilizers and has piloted the planting of ground cover such as the planting of mung beans. However, the villagers interest was limited because the results take time.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban Talat Don-Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

The soil condition has deteriorated and the soil is getting increasingly more salty. When crops are planted, they are disease ridden. Some people have to constantly move their planting plots. Rice and chili farmers are faced with the problem of the spread of plant pests that damage the plants. Both grubs and diseases attack the chili plants requiring that they be replanted. At the same time, pests attack the rice plants resulting in low productivity. In ability to kill the aphids results in lower prices and low productivity. The soil is not very good anymore.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The rubber plants have died of root rotting disease. Various agencies have come to look around but have not been helpful. As a result, there is not very much latex. Planting new rubber plants takes a number of years. It is a waste of both time and investment. All of the farmers plant rubber. The Center for Soil Research does not have any answers for the death of the rubber plants. In the past, rubber farms did not have very many problems concerning plant diseases and pests. Nowadays, the rubber plants just die. There are lots of




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diseases and pests. Nowadays, plants can not be grown (naturally)...chemicals have to be used. In the past, there were no diseases and the soil was good. Nowadays, the soil has deteriorated and there are numerous diseases and pests. In the past, it was not necessary to use fertilizers or pesticides. Now they have to be used a lot. As a result, major investment is required.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province)

“I think that it is more difficult to make a living because in the past, we raised chickens and could do so for home consumption. Nowadays, it is not possible to raise chicken because of the Avian Flu (situation). The government issued a directive stating that housing has to be constructed in order to farm chicken and ducks. The villagers have limited money, how can they do so? In the end, we had to buy everything because they could not find food on heir own. We could not forage for food or fish because a lot of chemicals were sprayed in the rice fields and the farmland. This year it is very bad because things are very expensive. It is not possible to see (forecast) at all. We can’t guess whether productivity will reduce or increase. Lately, it has decreased and if there is insufficient fertilizer, there would be none at all (The amount of fertilizer used has to be increased every year. If limited fertilizer is used, it will not be productive.) Don’t think that just increasing the amount of fertilizer is enough. If there are aphids or cherry shells in the rice fields, everything will be damaged and nothing will be gained. Today, the plant diseases are new diseases that are constantly emerging. It is difficult to keep up with them. So it is difficult for anything to improve. Maybe it will remain as it is. Just trying to maintain the present situation and not let things get worse may be possible. The productivity per rai nowadays as compared to the past is reduced. The weather conditions are not good and it is not possible to rely on rainfall as in the past.” (Mrs. Porntip – rice farming, 42 years: Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

“In the past, the problem of salt water in the village was not as severe as today. About 20-30 years ago, there was no salt water leaching in as in the present. Even if there was some occurrences, they did not last long. Today, salt water from the sea flows inland in the canals from March – July of every year. This happens during the low tide season. When the weather is very dry and the water in the rivers start drying out making it possible for the sea water to surge in earlier than before around February. This affected the villager’s ability to make a living. The villagers were not able to farm rice which is the major occupation in the village nor were they able to grow vegetables or other plants. The crabs and fish that the villagers used to be able to find are now nonexistent. If they want to eat fish, they have to raise them in their private ponds. The salt water killed off all of the aquatic animals. The villagers were no longer able to find food naturally. Everything had to be bought: rice, , vegetables, fish. As a result, the villager’s expenses gradually increased. In addition, it was not possible to make use of the land for anything other than rice farming, fish farming and coconut farming. Coconuts can be sold for 1 baht per fruit. As a result, the villagers did not have any other alternatives for making a living.” (Mr. Jaruek, Village Head: Ban Hua Don, Prachin Buri Province).

3.2.6 Problem of Drugs and Gambling

From the collection of community level data in 40 communities, 22 percent of the communities stated that the negative factor that affects the prosperity of the communities that




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occurs with youths is that of drugs. The problem of drugs is spread out in every community; however, the severity of the problem is different throughout. The communities that have somewhat severe drug problems are Ban Nong Ree, Ban Prasat, Ban Hua Don and Ban Ta Udom in Prachin Buri Province and Ban Naree and Ban Gud Gao Noi in Chaiyaphom Province. The communities in the south and central regions have some drug problems but they are not very severe such as in Ban Talat Don, Ban Kiak Kai and Ban Sa Nang Manorah in Nakon Si Thammarat Province and Ban Nong Choom Saeng in Kampaengpetch Province. The impacts that occurred as a result of the drug problem were petty thefts in the communities, robberies and lack of safety in the communities, broken families, debts, children and youths with no future who have left school and got caught. The spread of drugs mostly started from those who went to work in factories. They either work in day or night shifts or have to work hard in order to get pay raises, thus, they have to rely on amphetamines. From there the drugs spread among the youths.

“Around 2001 – 2002, drugs was widespread in the village. There were lots of users and pushers. Youths were affected most. When they took drugs they caused trouble and disturbed the villagers. The youth’s families were also affected. Other than being distressed, the parents did not have anyone to help them make a living. Some youths became robbers, stealing their parent’s money and sometimes stealing from others. In short, the whole community is troubled, disturbed and not peaceful. In some places, there are cases of ambushes and hold ups (before there were no lights along the way). They would target factory workers who come home late at night or leave for work early, especially women. The police came in to work with the community and were able to arrest 28 people between the ages of 16-17 years. After that, they came in to coordinate activities and established community volunteers also known as ‘village police’ to help oversee the peace. The police would come in occasionally and also set up police check points. In addition, drug rehabilitation activities are provided with the help of the District Public Health Office. In our village there are 8-9 children who successfully participated in drug rehabilitation activities, but some of them became addicted again. In addition, there were 18-19 people whose addiction was at the moderate level. The number of people stated here is from villages 5, 6 and 9.” (Mrs. Buatong – factory worker, 37 years: Ban Nong Ree, Prachin Buree Province).

“Around 2000, Ban Nong Ree had drug problems. The status of the spread of drugs was rampant among the youths. Youths would form groups and gangs and hang out together. They would cause disturbances for the villagers and threaten the safety of property. The community collaborated with government agencies in establishing a committee of volunteers for the protection and suppression of drugs within the community. Parents of drug addicts could not make a living because they had to watch over their children, help solve their children’s problems and sometimes they had to provide bail for their children and husbands.” ((Key Informant Interview: Ban Ta Udom, Prachin Buri Province).

“Around 1995 – 1996, the villagers being actively involved in gambling because the drought made it impossible to farm and people had nothing to do so they gambled in the village. Ban Naree is ranked number 1 for gambling. The policy of the previous Village Head was in favor of gambling. He himself was a host or dealer. The police did not arrest villagers that gambled-cards, hi-lo, underground lottery. There were people who gambled and drank alcohol. There were constant problems of petty thefts. The villagers will play a lot during the dry season and when there is no work. Nobody stays home, they are usually out




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gambling. Some families lose everything and there are problems of family discord with husbands and wives quarrelling with each other.” (Mr. Prasert – Village Head, 44 years: Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“The problem of drugs was very bad in 1995 – 1996. In the village, there were users and pushers. I don’t know where they got the stuff. The users know themselves. The majority of laborers that cut sugarcane use it because they have to work hard. The work is a package deal and the more that is done, the higher the wages. Gamblers, youths, and those that drink alcohol take amphetamines. This causes family problems where the children are neglected, husbands and wives fight, some families’ breakup and some families lose everything. In the village, some people steal and sell clothes and silk. They steal and sell everything everywhere such as chicken, ducks, farmland, buffaloes, assets and houses. Both gambling and amphetamines disappeared when Prime Minister Taksin announced his war on drugs. Nowadays, there is no more. We are happy now.” (Mr. Hong – rice farmer, 73 years and MR. Supan – rice farmer, 38 years: Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Around 1998, there were amphetamine addicts in the village particularly among the youths and laborers who did heavy work. The laborers took amphetamines so that they could work harder. But this was not a major problem or a threat to the community. It was not serious. There were some youths that took drugs but they did not hang out together and do bad things. There were no petty thefts…This caused some troubles for parents and guardians. There were a few farm laborers that took drugs, not many, only a few…they took it in order to be able to do more work. But when the government cracked down on drugs, it all disappeared.” Mrs. Sujee – Committee Member, 38 years: Ban Nong Choom Saeng, Kampaengpetch Province)

“Drugs is a youth problem. Children and grandchildren do not go to school and take drugs in hiding. They dare not tell anyone. Twenty –eight people were caught because people from outside the village brought in the drugs. In the past, the timber people brought in the ‘good stuff (drugs)’ for people to take. After eating it they feel good: not tired or stiff with aches and pains” (Ladder of Life Focus Group Discussion: female: Ban Huay Bong Nua, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Around 1999, there were more people taking amphetamines that those who did not. Over half of the villagers, about 60-70 percent were users with the remaining 30-40 percent not using. Taking amphetamines was a normal situation. However, nothing serious happened. There were no deaths. The worst thing that happened was regular petty thefts. The impact was that people did not work. Some people said that they took amphetamines so that they could farm rice. After a while, they just let their manual tractor remain parked under the house. They could not go to work. In this ban (village) there are some pushers. The pushers have money. Some were arrested. The children lacked for warmth…their parents did not care for them…the people are not nice. The economy of drug sales flourished but the situation for making a living was bad. Around 2003 with the serious suppression of drugs a lot of people were arrested for both using and pushing. A lot of people went to jail. At that time around 10 percent of the villagers were put in jail. In addition, some people gave themselves up and entered into the rehabilitation program. The impact on the people that were arrested was that the families became broken; the husband was in jail and the wife who was outside got a new husband and vice versa. The children were taken to the grandparents. The families just broke up.” (Mr. Kamol, Village Head, 47 years; Mr. Rit – Village




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Committee, 54 years; Mr. Saneh – Assistant Village Head, 48 years: Ban Nong Mah Kor, Kampaengpetch Province).

In conclusion, the trend of the community was that of increased prosperity. This was because the communities viewed prosperity from the economic aspects of income, assets, conveniences from basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity, water works and rapid communications. In addition, importance was placed on comfortable and convenient lifestyles. At present, factories located near communities create jobs with good income. Thus the villagers have income and new occupation alternatives. This started the period of “the era of the currency society”.

In addition to the development of the basic infrastructure that affects community prosperity, it was discovered that the various populist policies of the government decentralized authority to the communities enabling them to manage and administer things themselves such as the Poverty Alleviation Fund and the 1 Million Baht Village Fund. The result was that the money of the people in the community revolved and they were able to access sources of funds more easily and were able to obtain loans for family consumption and investment.

The negative factor that affects the communities and contributes to their continued poverty is the lack of water source for consumption. The major income of the villagers is from agriculture that relies mainly on natural rainfall because the development of irrigation systems has not yet reached into communities. When they are faced with droughts, which is an on-going problem. The villagers are directly affected as they incur debts, which turn into a revolving cycle of debts. Additional problems are that of low price of agricultural products while the prices of factors of production increase. Thus the income generated is not sufficient to cover the expenses. At present, the villagers are able to manage their debts or revolve their debts. Their investments, those that are assets such as their house, cars, farming expenses and business are all based on money obtained as loans.

Of note is that their daily expenses increase in accordance with the conveniences received as there are expenses for the higher price of fuel that affects the cost of production of the villagers including the cost of fertilizer, insecticides and labor costs.

The social problem that occurs that was frequently referred to in the communities is the problem of drugs. The impact is the reduction of the level of safety in the community with the occurrences of petty thefts. In addition, it leads to the break up of the family unit. However, in the present, this problem is being resolved by the government and preventive measures are being implemented so that the problem does not recur.

Even though communities are faced with these problems, the majority of communities are of the opinion that the trend for economic opportunities of communities in the next ten years should be better than before.




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Farm communities comply with state policiesGrow single crops + non-seasonal labor

Farm communities comply with state policiesGrow single crops + non-seasonal labor

Village Head

Extended Family System

Local Influence

+

+

+

-

-

-

Communities 13 years ago: Poor CommunitiesCommunities 13 years ago: Poor Communities

Internal Factors

ExternalFactors

+

+

+

-

-

-

Communities sell produce + laborthrough local “middlemen”

from the center

Politics-Governance

Development-support from civil service

Rain–Floods–Drought

1

2

3.3 Economic Opportunities

Table 3 - 2 Current Trends in Economic Opportunities

Compared to 13 years ago, this community has: Percentage More economic opportunities 87.5 The same amount of economic opportunities 5.0 Fewer economic opportunities 7.5

Total 100 Source: Community Questionnaire - 40 communities

Table 3 – 2 shows the current trends in economic opportunities. From the collection of community level data in 40 communities the findings show that 87.5 percent of the participating communities perceive that their economic opportunities will increase. This is because of the impacts of development and modernization that will occur (details are in the section on positive factors that affect the communities). In addition, the level of education of the youths has increased providing them with more opportunities for better work and income. Moreover, making a living is easier as there are alternatives for earning daily wages and trading. If a person is hard working, he will never starve.

Chart 3 -1 Community Situation 13 years ago




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“In the past 13 years, there have been many changes in the village economy such as farming that requires the use of a lot of chemicals – the necessity of using fertilizer which was never required in the past and the necessity of using insecticides, destruction of forest areas, the high price of rubber as compared to the past and the cultivation of vegetable plots of corn or cucumber in between the rubber plants because the rubber was not yet ready to be tapped. In the past, farmers did not use very much fertilizer. In the past 13 years, officials from the Ministry of Agriculture promoted the use of fertilizers. There are no changes in the other kinds of work…people without land hire out their labor to their friends.” (Mrs. Uan – farmer, 65 years: Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“There are more opportunities to make money. As said before, it is possible to produce many crops of rice, the price of rice is higher, cassava is also better. However, we also invest a lot. There are economic opportunities. Things are easier. People have the opportunity to get higher education.” (Mrs. Suwan – laborer, 52 years: Ban Noing Saeng, Kampaengpetch Province).

“I believe that the future will be better because there are good work opportunities. The children have the opportunities to get better education so their well-being should be better. They should have better opportunities to make a living than before.” (Mr. Sutat - Ban Prasat, Prachin Buri Province).

“I don’t think that it is possible to fall back into poverty. It is difficult because households that have children, when their children grow up, they go to Bangkok and send money back to their parents. The majority of the new generation of youths goes to Bangkok. They do not want to farm. When they complete their studies they go to Bangkok. People now are more developed. They struggle more and have more alternatives for making a living because they receive news and information from various media. At least within the village there are meetings and various training sessions that make it possible to review the information based on other’s experiences and exchanges of experiences. In addition, there are various funds in the village that provide loans. It should be hard to be poor again.” (Mrs. Panjit – cow farmer, 32 years: Ban Nong Mah Kor, Kampaengpetch Province).

However, from the community level data collects, 8 percent of participating communities stated that they felt that there are less economic opportunities. The reasons provided were that the current price of consumer products and the high cost of necessary factors of production such as fuel are important variables that cause the price of goods to increase. On the other hand, the price of agricultural products is not constant. In addition, production of agricultural products relies on natural rainfall which is a factor that cannot be controlled. Thus the villagers have to bear the risk.

“The economy may not be any better than it is because things are getting more expensive everyday. Investment in farming is very high. It would be good if the price of fertilizers, insecticides and fuel could be reduced. I feel that it is too expensive. What is made (money) is used up without any left over for savings. I have to work harder than before. I think that I have to struggle more. For myself, I hope that I will get richer too. Otherwise I would not work. In farming, if we can’t make it this year, next year we will have to be rich so we start over again. This kind of mindset provides the incentive to work everyday.” (Mrs. Ting, - rice farming, 53 years: Ban Bueng Nong Lom, Kampaengpetch Province).

“In the future, farmers will produce less for consumption and will distribute everything to their children and grandchildren. It is not possible to expand the amount of




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farmland. In addition, cow farming requires investment in land to grow grass fro the cows to eat. The grass seeds are very expensive at 120 baht per kilo. In addition, there is no source of water to provide for the cows, thus the cows will not have any milk because they eat only dried grass. The problem of the water source is the most important problem. If there is too much water, it is not good. Cows cannot stay in water. The civil service has to be blamed for this is a problem. It can’t be helped. In the past, the rainfall was good because it came seasonally….some people still want to work but are too old and are burdened with caring for their grandchildren.” (Mrs. Sutat – rice farmer, 50 years and Mr. Boonlert – rice farmer, Ban Huay Bong Nua, Chaiyaphom Province).

“In farming chili, if the rain is good and there is water, the investment is low and productivity will be high. If it is dry, losses will be faced. Nowadays, there are diseases that create problems all the time. I have to change the location of the plants a little because the amount of land is limited. As a result, some people use very strong insecticides and some people use cheap insecticides. But now, some people have turned to organic farming. The problems are grub attacks or ‘roak goong haeng (dried shrimp disease)’ because the plants are planted in the same place over and over gain. In the pst, the chili market was far. It had to be pushed out to Nong Klo where a limited number of middlemen would purchase the chili. With very few buyers, there is no choice. At present, there are still middlemen, but there are many more however, we still cannot determine our price and have to go with the price provided by them. If there is ‘prik Kamen (meaning chili that comes from Sisaket Province), the price of chili from our village will be reduced immediately. In the past 3-4 years, the price has reduced very much because the majority of ‘prik Kamen’ have no diseases. The middlemen say that the chili are better looking and fetch a better price.” Mr. Jirayut – rice farmer, 30 years and Mr. Noi – rice farmer, 30 years: Ban None Sung, Chaiyaphom Province).

“There are many changes and more access to economic opportunities. The children learn more from other places and some come back to develop the village because the country has changed and become more developed. In farming, it is not worth the investment in fertilizer and expensive harvesting costs. Before, we did not use fertilizer, but now, fertilizer has to be used. Rice farming is not worth the investment. Planting rubber now is worth it because the price is very good now and people are getting rich one after another. The profit in rice farming is greater but the expenses are very high. In the past, plowing the field and transplanting the rice sprouts did not require fertilizer at all. It was enough to live on, but now it is not enough because things are expensive. Nowadays, the pigs don’t eat the banana trees anymore, they have to eat animal feed.” (MRs. Tassannee – trader, 47 years and Mrs. Arue – rice farmer: Ban Koke Lak, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Things may not be any better than this because things are getting more expensive everyday. Investing in farming is expensive. I want the price of fertilizer to be reduced. The price of fertilizer, insecticide and fuel is too expensive. In the next 10 years, our children and grandchildren will not know how to farm anymore. I fear that when they return in their old age, when the factories don’t hire them to work anymore, they may sell off all of the farmland.” (Mr. Jun – rice farmer, 58 years: Ban Bueng Nong Lomม Kampaengpetch Province).




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3.4 Conclusion of the Overview of the Community Situation in the Past 13 Years and the Positive and Negative Factors that affect Community Prosperity.

Poverty and inequality are complex infrastructure problems. In the past 13 years the government policies have attempted to address those problems, however, the public sector has emphasized economic growth as the means of resolving the problems. For example, basic infrastructure projects have been implemented in order to solve the problem of poverty. Such project included the construction of roads in order to facilitate transportation and communications and support the production and transportation of products. The policy for the development of agriculture such as the development of irrigation systems, development of transportation for goods, development of the use of credit, creation and increase of productivity, increase in the agricultural farmland, developments for the increase in efficiency of productivity, pricing and management policies such as price guarantees, price support of agricultural products, buying products, subsidies for the farming of major crops, formation of savings groups, rural community job creation, policies for industrial development through support of agricultural industries and support for investment in the regions.

In 1997, the major change in Thai society was the implementation of the “People’s Constitution” that emphasized people participation. In addition, in 1998 Thailand was faced with the economic crisis and the devaluation of the baht. These events impacted on the people because the government obtained foreign loans in order to resolve the problem of poverty that emphasized problem resolution at the community level. Examples of these loans were the Asian Development Bank Loan Project known as the Miyazawa Fund and the World Bank’s Loan Project known as the Social Investment Project.

In 2001, which was the first year in office of Prime Minister Taksin Shinawatr, there were many important policies that were directed towards the people such as universal healthcare, the Village Fund Project, the Farmer’s Debt Moratorium, the One Tambon, One Product Project and the People’s Bank.

The community structure was gradually being transformed with changes in the production system, the community economy system, the system for local governance and the establishment of new occupation groups and the formation of groups and community organizations that interact with each other as networks of communities. The characteristics of the communities have transformed into communities that have been upgraded with improved lifestyles and well-being.

3.4.1 Mode of Production

The major problem that occurred from farming single crops was that the price of the products was low. As a result, the production system has been adjusted from farming single crops and economic crops to integrated agriculture which is the farming of diverse crops including vegetables, fruits after the farming season, raising livestock to increase income and selling the products directly. This is done simultaneously with working in the labor force in cities and internationally. For example, Ban Wang Po Tong in Chaiyaphom Province farms vegetables in order to generate income for the family during the dry season and the rainy season. On the other hand, the villagers Ban None Sung in Chaiyaphom Province farm cassava, corn and rice and also farms chili as the economic crop that generates income. In Ban Nong Mah Kor, Kampaengpetch Province, cows are raised for food and as a source of extra income for families. In addition, Ban Yannaka in Prachin Buri Province, other




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than crop farming and rice farming which is the original occupation, villagers have turned to farming flowers and decorative plants that generate considerable income for families.

3.4.2 Means of Production

Following the Royally Speech of His Majesty the King, Rama 9, concerning the “Direction for Economic Development – Production in Rural Areas towards an Economic System of Sufficiency” and the policy of the government from 1998 until the present, rural communities have been provided with support to upgrade the formation of farmer’s groups into diverse occupation groups including vegetable farming groups, fruit farming groups, animal farming groups, wickerwork groups, weaving groups, community rice mill groups, rubber processing and smoking groups and community product market groups. The 6 main factors of production of communities are:

3.4.2.1 Agricultural sector labor The important labor force for production in the family is made up of

youths and middle aged people. Young women play an important role in the household in adjusting agriculture as they rotate activities between vegetable farming, raising animals and trading throughout the year during every season. These activities are draining using physical labor, mental labor and spiritual labor in production, processing, selling and raising animals. The family invests intensively throughout the year and knowledge, equipment, new technologies and methods are introduced and applied to production activities, management, business and group formation.

3.4.2.2 Money for investment in the occupation Communities and families are able to access factors of production

and credit, particularly the “1 Million baht Village Fund”, the 100,000 baht per village Sub-district Economic Stimulus Project (Miyazawa Fund), the Social Investment Fund, the Poverty Alleviation Fund, The BAAC Farmer’s Credit Program, agriculture cooperatives and various funds provided by government agencies to support occupations such as the Fertilizer Fund and the Soy Bean Fund. In addition, there are financial groups formed by communities by collectively mobilizing funds in order to establish savings groups.

“The various organizations that play a role in occupation are revolving funds that provide members with loans for occupation such as the Agricultural Fund, the Village Cremation Fund, the Welfare Fund, the 100,000 baht Fund, the 1 million baht fund, the savings group, and the Ban Koke Mor Waterworks Fund.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

3.4.2.3 Development of basic infrastructure Basic infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water sources for

agriculture through the development of water sources, irrigation systems, weirs, village entrance roads and waterworks were developed and provided to rural communities primarily by civil service agencies and with some funding allocations provided by the TAO after 1999.

“The traveling conditions to the district in the past were somewhat difficult. During the rainy season, the roads would have pot holes and standing water. During the dry season, the roads were very dusty. In 1996 the Office of Accelerated Rural Development constructed a paved road from the District to the village, thus the villagers were able to travel more conveniently. With the paved road, people traveled to visit relatives or brought their agricultural products to sell in the district more conveniently. For example, rice




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and cassava was taken to be sold at the rice mill or at the cassava lot. The travel time was reduced which helped in reducing the transportation cost.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“With the irrigation canal, villagers had water for use all year round. It was possible to farm rice 2 times a year. After rice farming we would plant peanuts, cucumbers and vegetables so we would have more income. But nowadays, the villagers just plant enough rice to eat and turn to sugarcane farming. There is water from the canal that provides up to 90 percent of the water for sugarcane farming. As a result, no one leaves to work outside the village as before. The price of sugarcane is good. The villagers have money to pay off their debts and have more for eating and living.” ”(Key Informant Interview-: Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

3.4.2.4 Ability to access news and information Marketing information is widely broadcasted through the media

particularly the television, radio, newspapers and telephone. Rural communities are able o access information easily through more diverse channels.

It was discovered that villagers received information concerning making a living from community leaders, relatives, neighbors, colleagues and television. The villagers insisted that they are able to access information and news more easily than in the past 13 years.

3.4.2.5 Marketing system

3.4.2.6 Use of technology and labor saving machines in production After 1992 the number of families in the communities that started

bringing in labor saving devices and new technology to use in production gradually increased in order to increase productivity and reduce the amount of time used in framing. The technology and labor saving machines include manual tractors, harvesters, fertilizer and hormones.

“The good point of technology is that it provides comfort and convenience. Basically, farmers want to be comfortable too. When one person uses technology, others follow because they can see how convenient it is. There are also bad points. The main one is that expenses are increased. If we don’t own one, we will have to hire one. There have to be exchanges for comfort and convenience. Labor savings devices do things faster, if it is completed faster, more can be done. Rice farming nowadays can be done more than once because of technology. Now, we can farm rice 3 times a year, so making money is easier. The villagers farm rice more conveniently using a tractor. It is easy. With good water and good technology, machines can replace human labor. Before, buffalo power was used to plow the fields. Today tractors are used and labor is hired so that the farming activity can be completed faster. Nowadays, farming has to be completed faster. Before rice farming was done at the pace of the buffalo, because the buffalo plows little by little, farmers follow slowly and transplants rice sprouts. Today, using the tractor, everything is completed quickly so we have to hire people quickly and when everything is completed we hire out our labor to do other things.” (Key Informant Interview: Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

However, rural communities are able to adapt to changes very quickly. Thus the occupations of villagers in communities are gradually upgraded to being




3 - 35

managers of local markets, community markets for the buying and selling of agricultural products within the community to be sold outside of the community and the purchasing of consumer goods to be sold in the community.

The labor market creates jobs, generated income and spreads the opportunity for work and entrepreneurship – the use of local labor in the locality in conjunction with the expansion of industrial factories, agricultural processing factories and consumer products markets from urban areas to local markets.

Rural families that were able to move out of poverty did so collectively with groups of relatives, occupation groups and community organization networks. There was collaboration with the TAO and provision of business credit from outside of the community to establish community rice mills. Agricultural product processing factories, weaving factories, central markets for fruits and vegetables, central markets for one tambon one product community goods in rural communities. Thus they changed their status from:

• Producers – farmers to sellers and local entrepreneurs • Production groups to groups of sellers of products, agricultural product processing

groups and groups of entrepreneurs under the umbrella of community organizations, owners of community businesses established by the collective investment of community members that is collectively managed by the community and uses agricultural products as the raw materials that is processed. This upgrades the level of investment, sales, adding value and profit to be that of the community.

3.4.3 The Community Economy System

The status of communities has been transformed into consumer markets with community products and entertainment media that reach the communities very easily and conveniently. Poor households are increasingly able to access these goods and services and need more money to pay for their expenses and “communities have entered into the currency society”.

While communities and households are able to generate income from diverse channels and are increasingly able to access community funds and external credit, the middlemen that used to provide non-systemic loans still are the “last resort to help to revolve debts” for poor families and families that are not capable of managing their money and saving appropriately.

“Now, the educated youths that are not very old go to work in factories. In the morning, a factory vehicle will come and pick them up and drop them off in the evenings. The food in the factory is cheap. The factory workers are able to economize and having more income. Each month, they get their salary and OT. All in all, it is many thousands and for some ten thousands. These families will be better off. In addition, some people will start selling food or will build housing for factory workers that come from other places. The youths working in the factory for a few years are able to establish themselves. They will have savings. Now there are many factories and it is possible to choose where to work based on the amount of pay that is given. As for the elderly or those with limited education the factories will let them work as housekeepers of security guards but the pay is not very good.”




3 - 36

(Freedom, Power, Inequality and Democracy Focus Group Discussion: Ban Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province).

In general, every community has a 1 Million Baht Village Fund as the basis for savings, obtaining loans and investments of the community. Thus, many communities have financial discipline and can rely on the community financial system and the community welfare system to oversee the risks and collectively and mutually provide for some of the poorer families without having to rely on external sources. They are capable of gathering the subsidies provided by the government such as the 1 Million Baht Village Fund, the money of the Social Investment Fund that is still revolving and the Poverty Alleviation Fund and build upon the funds in order to organize a financial system with savings and investment in order to create jobs that can be alternatives for households to upgrade their status and move out of poverty.

From the adjustment of communities from being producers to being diverse community business entrepreneurs, the organizations’ growth was gradual and they became stronger. They started improving the quality of the products, the sales level and providing employment based on profit sharing. This was an alternative form many families to move out of poverty and spread out employment in order to attract workers to return home, particularly women and youths who desire to remain within the communities. The formation of groups to engage in community business activities based on the extended family system makes it possible to work collectively without taking advantage of each other.

Poor families – and communities with higher consumption expenses and limited household savings have no household or community investment. The findings show that theses households have increasing household expenses and maintain their status of no movement or being worse off. As a result, they have to struggle even harder to work in other regions or abroad

3.4.4 The Social and Local Governance System. The TAO and community leaders including occupation groups and diverse

community organizations that were initiated and established by the communities themselves with the support of agencies outside of the community play an important role in mobilizing the community and assisting households in moving out of poverty. The main structure of the relationship of people in the community can be characterized as follows:

• The extended family – patronage system has been developed into savings groups, occupation groups, youth groups that are upgraded into business entrepreneurs, community business organizations managing community rice mills, community markets for community products using social capital i.e. faith, trust, collective learning, profit sharing for the community in the form of shares and collective welfare.

• In communities with community business entrepreneurs, strong community development and movement out of poverty, there are networks of relationships that have been upgraded from the personal and extended family level to groups and multi level networks with diverse occupations on the basis of “collective benefits”, “collective problems and collective fate” of the community.

• Communities and households have diverse sources of income and access to funds.




3 - 37

ชมชนพฒนาปจจบน

+

+

-

-OTOPกองทนหมบาน

ธกส

รฐธรรมนญอบต การมสวนรวม

ชมชนผประกอบการ

ธรกจทองถน

วสาหกจทองถน

ชมชนผประกอบการ

ธรกจทองถน

วสาหกจทองถนอบต. 3

เครอขายแกนนา

กลม

ออมทรพย

แมคา

เครอขาย

2

1

ผนาการเปลยนแปลง

คนถน

ชมชนตลาด

ชมชนโรงงานทองถน

ตางประเทศ รบจาง ตางถน

ชมชนตลาด

ชมชนโรงงานทองถน

ตางประเทศ รบจาง ตางถน

มอถอ

ICT

OTOP โรงสชมชนสนเชอ

เวทประชาสงคม+

โรงเรยน พอคาภายนอก

ชมชนและการผสมผสาน

พชเศรษฐกจ – ขาว – ผก สตวเล�ยง – คาขาย – รบจาง

ชมชนและการผสมผสาน

พชเศรษฐกจ – ขาว – ผก สตวเล�ยง – คาขาย – รบจาง

++ - -+ -

อบต.

กลมอาชพเครอญาต กลมออมทรพย- -

เครอขายองคกรชมชนHUMAN

CAPITAL

ทพนความ

ยากจน

ฝาย / ถนน / ไฟฟา

รตลาด ลกมการศกษา

การสนบสนน

จากภายนอก

ท�งภาครฐ

ภาคเอกชน

2

แผนภาพท 3 - 2 ชมชนพฒนาในปจจบน




3 - 38

ชมชนพฒนาปจจย

ภายใน

ปจจย

ภายนอก

ผนาเดยว ผนาผสม

อบต

เวทประชาคม

เครอญาต เครอขายกลม

เครอขายปญหา

เครอขายองคกร

ธรกจชมชน/วสาหกจชมชน

ผชายนา บทบาทกลมแมบาน

ดานการเงน - การออม - การคา

ผออม – ก - ผลงทน

กองทน กองทนชมชน

ออมทรพย

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ชมชน

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- งบอดหนนอบต

- เวทสาธารณะ สอสาธารณะ

นโยบาย / DUAL ECONOMY

- นคมโรงงานอตสาหกรรม

- กองทนหมบาน

- OTOP

- ธกส./ ธนาคารออมสน

การกระตน + เอ�ออานวย ของภาคประชาสงคม

การรวมทน – ลงทน ของภาคธรกจเพอสงคม

และสถาบนการเงนของรฐ

หนวยงานราชการสนบสนนในเกดการจดการภายในของชมชน

ดานการเงน

ภาพท 3 -3 ปจจยภายในและภายนอกของชมชนพฒนาในปจจบน




3 - 39

ชมชนพฒนาปจจย

ภายใน

ปจจย

ภายนอก

แผน ๙ - แผนชมชน – แผนยทธศาสตรชาต

อบต. - งบอดหนน

- แผนชมชนรวมกบแผนอบต.

- เวทประชาคม

กบการสวนรวมทกภาคในชมชนทองถน

ระบบผวา CEO จงหวด

สอสารมวลชนกบเวทสาธารณะกระตนจากภาคสอ – ภาค

ประชาสงคม – วทยชมชน

พรบ.สอ + พรบ.กระจายอานาจสทองถน

ผใหญบาน

สง

ประชม

กาหนด

อบต

ผหญงผร

อศม

รวมคด

รวม

บทเรยน

รวม

ตดสนใจILTA

5

รวม

รวม

ประโยชน รวมทาประชาธปไตย

ชมชน

รวมจดการ

รวมพฒนา

การปกครอง

นา

“ประชาธปไตย”เชงอานาจ

แผนภาพท 3 - 4 ปจจยภายในและภายนอกชมชน




3 - 40

6

1 2

ชมชนยากจน ชมชนพฒนา ชมชนเขมแขง

มวลชนกอการ+

ชมชนสถาปนาสถาบนชมชน

“พนความยากจน”

ครอบครว

พนความยากจน

(บางครอบครว)

เครอขายกลม

พนความยากจน

(บางครอบครว – บางกลม)

HUMANCAPITALระดบบคคล

ระดบครอบครว

HUMANCAPITAL

ระดบเครอขายชมชน

HUMANCAPITAL

ระดบ”มวลชนกอการ”(CRITICAL MASS)

โดยผรเรมกอการคนถน

ทมกมบทเรยน

ความรจากนอกชมชน

ออม – จดการ

ทนทางเศรษฐกจ

หรอทนทางสงคมบางสวน

คนพบตวตนใหมภาคภมใจใหม ขยายผลออม – ลงทน – ทวคณ

ทนทางเศรษฐกจควบคทนทางสงคม

ปจจยภายใน

ปจจยภายนอก ประชาธปไตยมสวนรวม

กอต�ง – เรยนร – เตบโต

ระบบเศรษฐกจผประกอบการชมชน

รฐเปดทางเลอก - ลดความเสยงเกษตรกรสนเชอ

เขาถง

กระจายอานาจทองถน – ประชาธปไตย

แบบมสวนรวม

เอ�อ + สงเสรม + ตอเนอง

สนเชอ + ตลาด + การเมองเปด

นโยบายDUAL ECONOMY

ประชาธปไตยปด

ระบบเศรษฐกจพงพอคาตลาด

น�าแลง - น�าทวม

แผนภาพท 3 - 5 สรปภาพรวมของชมชน




4 - 1

Chapter 4 Moving Out of Poverty at the Household Level

Chapter 4 is the synthesis of the overview of the study concerning the household level factors that affect movement out of poverty. The analysis provided is based on 40 community synthesis reports from the target area of 4 provinces (Kampaengpetch, Chaiyaphom, Nakon Si Thammarat and Prachinburi).

The analysis is based on the findings from the following activities: 1. Community Interview 2. Focus Group Discussion :Ladder of life 3. Focus Group Discussion : Freedom Power Democracy and Good

Governance 4. Community level questionnaires (40 communities) 5. Household level questionnaires (600 households) 6. Individual Life Stories 7. Key Informant Interview

The factors concerning movement out of poverty at the household level are divided into

economic factors, social factors and environmental factors of households that have: 1. Remained constant in their level of poverty 2. Moved up significantly 3. Moved up gradually 4. Moved down significantly 5. Moved down gradually

This analysis will present the details of the issues concerning the differences of the

factors that affect the upward and downward movement.

4.1 Factors that Keep Households at the Same Level Earning Daily Wages. This includes being employed in the agricultural and service

sectors. The income is not very good and depends on the minimum wage rate and the agreed upon rate in each community which makes it difficult for villagers to upgrade the lifestyle of their family.

“People who remain poor work from day to day. This is particularly true for those at step 1 (of the ladder of life). Most of these people are mainly day laborers.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province)

“..Being a day laborer, have limited farmland…nothing that can be expanded. With limited land, whatever is made this year has to be used to pay off last year’s debt. A loan was gotten to have money to use first. The next year, work will be done to pay off the loan. Nothing is saved and nothing additional is made. Just work to repay debts.” (Ban Naree: Chaiyaphom Province)

No Regular Employment. Because of no regular employment, the income is not

regular and there is no guarantee about individual income. In this case, it is difficult to move up but at the same time, there is no downward movement. From 600 households, the findings show that 339 households receive temporary wages while the remaining 238 households do not have temporary wages.




4 - 2

“The household does not have any farmland. They have nothing to do. When they work, the wages are used up. They do not know to save or make more money.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Not Much Work. This is equal to not having necessary income. The families that

have this problem generally work earning daily wages in the area. With the opening of factories in the area of 13 communities while factories were closed in the area of 2 communities, however, 194 households stated that it was more difficult to find work.

“There is not very much work…money has to be used constantly.” (Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“No occupation…don’t know what occupation to do. There is no work.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Burdened with Debts. Being chronically indebted is a major obstacle to movement.

When money is made, it is used to pay off debts to others. “I live alone and rely on my children. I work just enough to eat and don’t make

anything more. I earn wages caring for cows. I can’t do anything. Earning wages driving a ten-wheeled truck. This is an occupation…have to be responsible for a big family, many mouths to feed. For example, one family has 7 people but there are only 2 people making a living. This is not very successful. Whatever is made is used to pay off old debts. This is a burden that is never paid off.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Constant Income. Having the same amount of income from the chosen occupation

is an important factor that prevents villagers from moving up but at the same time not moving down.

“The person that lives alone, has a lot of children but they have just disappeared. The children do not help. ‘look mai koon (the children do not multiply – meaning that they do not help out)’…the person eats to live, picking enough vegetables to eat. What ever is found is eaten. Buy alcohol. Have the same amount of income, never increases.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Lack of income, no occupation. Used to make furniture but don’t do it anymore.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province)

Bad or Low Agricultural Productivity. This is a result of unproductive farming

activities in the farming season or round of farming. As a result, villagers that are mainly farmers are not able to make plans for themselves. This is particularly true for families that are outside of the irrigation zone because they will face this problem more often. Officials have come in to provide advice concerning new species of plants and animals in only 27 communities.

“Sometimes when there is no rain and it is dry, I cannot plant. I only produce one crop a year. If there is no rain, then there is no crop. It has been many years already. There has not been a single drop of rain for 2 years.” (Ban Ta Mai Daeng, Kampaengpetch Province).

“The drought came. Used to be able to produce 200 tung (1 tung=20 liters) of rice but was only able to produce 23 tung in the sam amount of land. Some people were not able to produce anything at all, after planting, it just died.” (Ban Prasat, Prachinburi Province).

“With dry weather, productivity is not good or there is no productivity at all. After the investment has been made, everything is gone.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province)

Uncertain or Low Price of Products. This is a factor that concerns most farming

families particularly for rice, cassava, sugarcane and fruits etc. Because the variation of the price




4 - 3

of these crops is great in each year, the impacts that occur depend on the type or crop cycle, whether the rice is the annual crop or the second or third crop and whether in each year, it is possible to produce that crop many times. With 477 households out of 600 households engaged in agriculture, the main occupation is that of farming. Of all of the households, only 232 households stated that their ability to negotiate was improved.

“The price of products is lower, this is very important (Ban Nong Ma Koh: Kampaengpetch Province).

“The price of things…good orange prices,…that may be possible.” (Ban Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province).

High Cost of Production. These costs include electricity, water, fuel, tractor,

harvesting, threshing the paddy, food, wages, seeds, chemical fertilizer, chemicals etc. These are important factors of production that tend to get more expensive. Thus, the villagers have to bear the burden because it is their main occupation. Some families keep on farming and getting poorer or keep on framing and suffer losses.

“If the cost of production remains high and the price of products does not increase, cheap oranges may stay on the trees until they just drop” (Ban Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province).

Lack of Money to Make a Living. Families are not able to invest in agriculture or

expand their business or set up a new business for the family because they do not have money to invest. Thus families that do not have money to invest will remain constantly in poverty or will not be able to move up higher.

“Only earn daily wages. No additional investment…no money to rent additional land to make a living. There is the burden of having to find enough to exist and to eat…and send the children to school. This is the highest I can go. I do not slide down but remain at the same place and may not move up.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Not having capital and not being provided with opportunities to access sources of capital in the village…the opportunity to make a living is limited. If there is no capital or sources of capital where loans can be gotten, there are no opportunities to go all out and make a living. There has to be money before anything can be done. If the money in hand is invested and losses are suffered or the money is used up for other purposes, everything depends on each family. For example, not every village will be addicted to amphetamines and not every village will be searched but on the other hand, the price of rice whether it drops or rises affects every house.” (Ban Nong Ma Koh: Kampaengpetch Province).

Landless Households. Some households do not own farmland and have to rent land

or ask others for farmland. Some households are even worse off because they do not even have land on which to build their houses and have to build their house on other people’s land. Thus these people do not have the heart to work and do not try to think of new methods of production because they are not working on their own land. Out of the 600 households, 102 households do not own their own land and another 133 households do not have farmland.

“I am disabled or ‘khahd hoon (a penny shy of a dollar-or not complete)’…my husband is dead, I am blind, do not have any children, do not have any place to live and ‘din mai mee (do not have any land)’.” ( Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Step 1 am I, no money, no land, bad health, do not know anything”. (Ban Koke Lek, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Because of lack of farmland, I can only earn wages. Without any land at all, I have to live with my parents or relatives.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).




4 - 4

Social Aspect Lack of Enthusiasm. Some households lack enthusiasm in moving a household up

or out of poverty. This is particularly true for the group of the chronic poor or at step 1 of the Ladder of Life as it seems as though they are at this level and will remain at this level. Enthusiasm seems to increase according to the step on the ladder. The lower the step on the ladder, the less the enthusiasm, as you go higher on the ladder, the level of enthusiasm increases accordingly.

“…work earning daily wages and live in a small house…do not have farmland and eat everything, even rice with salt…drink alcohol…are lazy and do not want to make more…low level of education.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province).

“No enthusiasm for work…do not seek work…do only what is there…make just enough to use.” (Ban Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province).

Working to Get By. Some households just do enough to get by. If there is work,

they will wok. If there is no work, they don’t do anything. Some families work one day and take two days off. This is an important characteristic of households who remain in poverty. If they are families that are not poor but do not desire to move up, they will do as they used to and will not get richer or poorer but will maintain this status.

“The work is only tying things up…even if it is done well, nothing will improve…but just do the same amount of work.” (Ban Sala Takien, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“No farmland and limited land to farm. Did not try to expand the property. Making just enough to get by.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Satisfaction. Some families are satisfied with what they have. It is the feeling that it

is not necessary to be enthusiastic or to strive and struggle and trouble oneself or do more than the person is capable of doing. In this life, this is enough to suit the needs. They do not want to get into more trouble. If it is enough for the family to self-sufficient and content then it is alright. However, poor families will never be able to move themselves up. Even if there is an attempt to stimulate them by the community, they will be happy to remain as they are.

“We are satisfied…do not have to struggle… do not have to strive anymore.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

“…the occupation of earning daily wages is enough to provide for daily expenses…in addition, there is no enthusiasm… they are not hardworking…live outrageously and spend beyond their means. They have lots of debts and lots of children. There are no opportunities to move up. They eat better than rice and curry or fried rice. They eat more than 200 baht per day. I have seen workers buying one kilo of pork and eating it all. Give them a kilo of duck meat and they will eat it all in one day. A big jackfruit will be eaten by the couple. When they are full, they are too lazy to work and cannot lift a digging tool with a broad blade.” (Ban Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province).

Do not know How to Economize. These households will use all their earnings or

some will use more than their earnings to the point that they have to get loans. Poor or middle level households do not economize. This is different from rich families. They know how to economize to the point of being stingy. It shows that the poorer they are the less they economize while the richer they are, the more they economize.

“The families do not own farmland, do not have anything to do and go out to work as laborers and use up all their earnings. They do not know to save or find ways to make more. If this is all they have, this is how they will live. They are lazy, if the have one hundred, they will




4 - 5

use one hundred or if they have five, they will use ten. Id they don’t have any money, they will sign for it.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Love for Luxuries. In this case, it means that some families are willing to pay to

provide themselves with conveniences such as telephones, a large house, a big car, a motorcycle, television, refrigerator etc. Poorer or middle level households will be more willing to splurge on luxury items than rich households. In the 600 households, 404 households had mobile telephones.

“They work to eat…they do not work to save.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

“If those at step 1 are indifferent and lazy, they do not have anything and do not know themselves. If they make 10 they will help with 20” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Limited or No savings. Some households have little or no savings. This is

particularly true for poor families or families that show no movement as their savings is very limited when compared to families that are better off. This may be a result of their lifestyle and the cost of production.

“Drink alcohol…don’t know to keep things or save.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

“Savings can not help, in general it is the character train of not wanting to save. They are like sieves, anything that is out inside leaks out. They earn enough to live daily.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Numerous Expenses. Some families have lots of expenses, both daily expenses and

expenses for occupational investment. These expenses also include expenses for luxury items. It seems as though poor or middle level households have more expenses than rich households. From the 600 households, 216 households have income that is less than expenses. Only 98 households had more income than expenses.

“There are family burdens…the children are not yet grown and are still in school so their burden of expenses is quite heavy.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Unwillingness to take Risks. Some households are unwilling to take risks in

investing because of a number of reasons such as fear of losses, not wanting to create debts, lack of confidence concerning capability etc. This was found in families that are poor and middle level families. On the other hand, rich families were more willing to take risks.

“Received some property back…educated…industrious…unwilling to take risks.” (Ban Pung Kam, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“Only earn wages…no additional investment.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

Invest in Occupation for Children. Some households invest in occupations for

children who are in the process of starting a family or who need to build up their own status. Thus the parents provide them with monetary support for activities such as starting up a new business, farming and trade. This requires a lot of money, thus the parents savings are used up. If the children are good people and the activity is successful, everyone will be better off, but if the children are not good and the activity fails, the money will be used up and no benefits will be made.

“Got money to invest for a child to establish himself/herself up. The family of the child is going to form their own family unit.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).




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“Helped the child to borrow money…for example, the son is getting married or the son has created debts.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province).

Distribution of Inheritance. Some households distribute the inheritance to their

children and grandchildren. Inheritance that is of great value is land. This is a major indicator of being richer or poorer. Households with fully grown children or children who already have families will be provided with their inheritance. Thus some parents will immediately become poorer or will not be able to upgrade their standing or they will become poorer.

“Before we had a lot of farmland and gave some to our children. We had lots of children. But when the children have their own families, they do not come back and take care of us. Now my wife is ill.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Big Families or Extended Families. Some families have lots of people living

together such as grandparents, parents, children, and grandchildren. The bigger the family the more difficult it is to move up. This is particularly true for families with lots of children because of their numerous expenses.

“…have to be responsible for a very big family. They eat a lot. One family has 7 people, but there are only 2 people working.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

New Families. These are families that have just been established as a result of

separating themselves from their parents or newly married couples. They will have great difficulties in building up their status because they are in a new situation. If the original family was well off, it may be possible to take off from that point, but if the original family was poor, the possibility is that they will remain so. This is particularly true for families that did not receive any inheritance. Of the 600 households, there were 41 households that were new families that moved into the communities in the past 15 years.

“Some families are just starting out and have separated themselves from their original family.” (Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

Limited Labor. Farming families need lots of labor, however, it appears that the

main labor force is comprised of the parents or grandparents who are aging. Some families are not able to farm because they do not have any labor and they would have to hire laborers. The children and grandchildren who are old enough to work have gone to the factories or work in the city as clerks or civil servants. As a result, the families suffer from a lack of labor.

“In farming, I do not hire additional labor. The number of workers is the same. Nobody helps to do the work.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province)

Sales of Farmland. With the sales of farmland, the amount of land to make a living

is reduced, thus the productivity is reduced. Land is a factor that helps in increasing the family income. When the amount of land is reduced, the income is also reduced. The money received in exchange for the land may be a large amount, however, it can be used up in a short period of time. In the end, the families become poor families because they do not have any farmland with which to make a living.

“(land) was sold, was stolen, was confiscated, was sold to pay off debts, was sold for expenses…selling land…not doing anything else.” (Ban Kiak Kai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Head of the Family Died. With the death of the head of the family such as the

father, paternal grandfather or maternal grandfather, the family loses the most important person in the family responsible for making a living, generating income and going into society. The




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wife or children have to step in and assume that role. Families in which the wife did not work side by side with the husband will be in great trouble. Some families even become poorer immediately.

“Father…mother died” (Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province). “I am disabled or ‘khahd hoon (a penny shy of a dollar-or not complete)’…my

husband is dead, I am blind, do not have any children, do not have any place to live and ‘din mai mee (do not have any land)’.” ( Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Limited or No Education versus the Learning Process. People with limited or no

education are people who do not seek additional knowledge. As a result, they lack the know how in making a living and the ability to move themselves up. This is a major difference between the poor and the rich as those who are well off are constantly seeking new knowledge, however, some of these rich people also have limited education. It should be noted that limited education is not the factor that makes people poor or remain constantly poor. The contributing factor is the creation of the learning process of the villagers in knowing to strive to be better and to better one self.

“Lazy people…do not seek anything else…limited education”. (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province).

No Existing Capital or Inheritance. People that have to start from zero and struggle

for survival on their own have a harder time in moving out of poverty “Both the husband and wife have no knowledge…do not think clearly…do not have

farmland. They have a place to live…drink alcohol and have a good time with the money they make. They have some savings but do not have any farmland.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“The parents are poor…and when they have their own family, they increase the burden even more. They have no inheritance from the past.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

No Life Plan or Family Plan. An important factor that keeps families in poverty is

the lack of planning or determination of goals and methods for moving up. More important is the fact that these families may not even know that good plans have to be made in order to move up.

“Send the children to school…is a person who likes to drink alcohol…other than that, there are no plans.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province).

Burden of Caring for Others. Some families are unavoidably burdened with the

care of others, particularly children and grandchildren or even the elderly and the ill. These people are not able to help in generating income, which makes the situation even worse. Thus, such families are not able to improve themselves and move up but have to remain in poverty.

“I get older everyday and cannot work but have to care for my children and grandchildren.” (Ban Nong Ree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Elderly Families. This may be an elderly couple living alone as their children and

grandchildren have all moved their families out and have neglected their parents. They have to struggle on their own with reduced ability to generate income. They are no longer able to do hard labor, thus they remain in poverty and are not able to move out but can only maintain their status and try to prevent themselves from falling further.

“Getting older and do not have the energy to do more. The children are not able to help.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).




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“We are old and living alone, just the two of us. We work enough to be comfortable. Invested in framing rice but it was not productive, so it was a loss and we now have lots of debts.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Not Hardworking. Some households are not sufficiently hardworking enough to

move up i.e. they re picky about their work, work every other day, are not committed to their work. These families do not want to work too much, they work just enough to get by or to maintain their level and do not hope for very much.

“My child has a family…I send support my child in starting a family…I just work, but not very seriously. I stay with my child…tell them to invest but they refuse to…they are already poor, no money…lazy…someone hired my child to get coconuts, the child refused to climb and said that it was too high.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Single Worker. Some families have only one breadwinner i.e. only the father or

only one child, which affects the income of the household because the income depends on the number of people able to work. Poor people will be affected more if the income is limited and will not be able to move up.

“I am the only person working. In the past, there was some help from the others.” (Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province)

Problematic Children. Some families have children, who create problems for the

family, are spendthrifts, do not work or live off of the family. They are a great burden to some families. Not only do they not generate income, but they also create expenses. Families that have a number of children so disposed get poorer and are not able to move out.

“..don’t have very much farmland…the children have completed school…children work in Bangkok or are civil servants…they do not send money home to aging mother.” (Ban Koke Matoom, Chaiyaphom Province).

Children’s Education. Parents are burdened with the regular expenses of supporting

children in their education. Expenses include school fees, food, travel expenses and dormitory. The higher the level of education and the larger number of children to be supported, the greater the burden and the greater the inability of the household to move up.

“The reason for the heavy responsibilities is that the children are still going to school. Some families have a lot of children in school so they have a lot of expenses…the parents cannot make money in time.” (Ban Koke Mor, Kampaengpetch Province).

Younger Children. Younger children are not able to help out in the house or help to

make money. In addition, they need to be taken care of very closely preventing the care provider from making money. This problem occurs in new families or families with young children regardless of the step in which the household is located. When faced with the burden of caring for young children, the status of household remains somewhat constant.

“…there are still a lot of burdens…there is less energy…children are growing up…there are a lot of expenses.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

…burdened with taking care of the children and grandchildren”. (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“…family burdens like small children that have to be cared for, it is not possible to go out and find work.” (Ban Nong Ma Koh: Kampaengpetch Province).




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Addiction to Vices. Some households are addicted to vices such as gambling, alcohol, drugs and minor wives resulting in their wasting time, money, assets, good name and may also incur additional expenses. This is an important factor that obstructs households from moving up.

“Both the husband and wife have no knowledge…do not think clearly…do not have farmland. They have a place to live…drink alcohol and have a good time with the money they make.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Accidents resulting in Illness or Disabilities. The major accidents are car or

motorcycle accidents. After being involved in accidents, they are not able to make a living and may become a burden because of the possibility of additional expenses. This is particularly true if the accident results in illnesses that are chronic such as paralysis or disabilities. This seriously affects the income and expenses of the family.

“Because there is work to do…have to be industrious…expand myself…if I don’t become paralyzed first.” (Ban Sala Takian , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Single and Living Alone. People who are single and living alone lack the impetus to

make something of themselves. This is because they are not responsible for anything. As a result, they only make enough to meet their daily expenses. Even though they may not be poor, they are not rich.

“Single…all by myself…I am 70 years old…lacking a leader.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

People without Children. Families without children are not burdened with having to

care for children and grandchildren. Thus they do not have to work ward to support their family. They would like to have just enough to eat and use because they do not know who they will leave everything to. There are many families like this in communities. Event though they do not move downwards, they also do not move up.

“Some couples live alone without any children so they are not enthusiastic about their work. They just do enough to get by. On the other hand some people have bad children. They do not help out with the work.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province)

Environmental Aspect Families Affected by Natural Disasters. Natural disasters such as droughts, storms,

floods and epidemics are things that the villagers are not able to control. However, these events seriously affect the villagers and their expenses. This is particularly true for farmers.

Droughts are an important factor that cause extensive and serious damage to

agricultural plants or prevent farmers from being able to plant according to the season. As a result, agricultural products are not produced in accordance with the season. Of the 40 communities participating in the study, 27 communities suffered from droughts and 4 communities suffered from major fires. The result of these events was that 1 community suffered greatly from starvation.

“Nature has changed…there is no rainfall…the drought has come…it is not possible to do farming activities.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Storms are the cause of damages to agricultural plants and products. Due to the

severity of the storms, perennials and annuals are either destroyed or die. This also affects




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economic plants that need a lot of time before they can generate income such as rubber and fruit trees.

“When the storm hit, the trees were all knocked down including the betel palms, coconut, rubber and fruits. Nothing was lefts. The storm was very strong. The villagers lost a lot. They had to invest and replant. It takes a long time so during that period of time they have to use their savings and work as laborers in the meantime.” (Ban Koke Lek , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Floods are another cause of the death and damage to agricultural plants. When floods

last for a long period of time in a large area, the agricultural plants and products become damaged and rotten. Major losses are suffered when this occurs as harvest time approaches. There were a total of 19 communities that suffered from the problem of floods.

“I remember that at that time, the water flooded the rice fields that were about to be harvested. The floods lasted 2-3 months making it necessary to use boats to harvest the rice. If the rice could not be harvested in time, the rice would rot and not be fit for eating because of the smell. The villagers suffered greatly. Life in that year was tough. In Kiak Kai, we had to go out and buy rice to eat.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Disease epidemics are a cause of damage and death to agricultural plants and

livestock. In addition plant diseases force farmers to pay more in order to resolve the problems of aphids, shells and crabs etc. There were 11 communities that suffered from the occurrence of plant diseases and another 5 communities that suffered from disease epidemics in humans and domestic animals.

Inability to access News and Information. Some families were not able to access

news and information concerning markets, factors of production, prices or costs. As a result, the income that should be received may be reduced or the farmer may not be able to negotiate with the merchant. For example, the price may be lower that what it should be. Even though the price may be only a little nit lower, it represents income that was a whole year’s work.

“Lack of knowledge, news and information concerning alternatives for making a living”. (Ban Nong Ma Koh: Kampaengpetch Province).

Lack of Occupational Knowledge. Some families lack occupational knowledge

such as species, fertilizer and care. These families rely on the old way of doing things or by following the other villagers’ examples. As a result, their productivity is not as much as it should be or they may pay more than they needed to. There were 27 communities out of 40 communities that were provided with the opportunity to receive information from external sources. 4.2 Factors that help Households to Move Up Dramatically.

Economic Aspect Having more than One Occupation. Some families have more than one occupation

providing their family with substantial income for example, rice farming, crop farming and earning daily wages or rice farming and trading. Families that are engaged in more than one occupation are capable of moving up dramatically and rapidly.

“In the beginning, I was mainly a rice farmer, but it was not very successful because the drought came very often. Then I turned to selling things and was able to make some money. However, there were some families that made money by selling their land. These people did not




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remain rich for long because they used the money that they got to build a house and buy a car. Some industrious families farm rice, farm crops and sell necessities such as detergent, soap, fish sauce and sugar. In addition some families rent additional farmland in order to expand their farming activities. This would be done when the price of rice is good and the profit is good. Some people sell prepared food in the village such as somtam (papaya salad) and noodles. Nowadays, people like to buy food. The meals eaten at home are brought home in plastic bags. Some husbands go to work in construction or driving taxis in Bangkok and send money home to build a house, invest in rice farming and pay for their children’s schooling. In addition, these people know how to economize and save.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Appropriate and Timely Occupations. Some families are able to engage in appropriate

and timely occupations such as commerce and wage earning. Thus these families have substantial incomes. Families that fall in this category are able to seize the moment and start doing something that not very many people are interested in doing and are able to generate income.

“Families that are innovative, dare to take risks, dare to invest, dare to create debts, able to obtain a loan for investment, have good human relations and know people outside of the community such as the public relations personnel of the sugar company in Phu Kiew District provide knowledge on sugarcane farming. Thus land was adjusted from being land used for rice farming into being prepared for growing sugarcane. As a result, there was an increase in income. In addition, the family invested in buying a small truck to be hired out for hauling sugarcane into the factory. This also made good money. On the other hand, the wife knows how to save. Thus the husband and the wife complement each other and there is no quarrelling in the family. They are very hard working.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Making a living with every opportunity.” (Ban Nong Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Being Innovative. Some families are engaged in new occupations that others did not

think of or don’t do. This creates substantial income or profit or creates a situation of market ownership. As a result, it is possible to upgrade the status of the household. Examples of these innovations include factories, hotels, road-side stores. The characteristics of these households are that they are people with vision and foresight.

“The family is successful in rice farming without hiring laborers because the parents and children are hard working. In addition, they help each other in raising fish, growing vegetables, raising chickens, frogs and small frogs. They have children working in Bangkok…they rarely get sick…and they are lucky.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Some people ‘tam mue khuen (get good results when they do things)’. Some moved from step 5 to step 10. Suppose they have 100 while we have 50, out of 100 if they still have 10-20 they still make something, but all of ours died so we have nothing. It is all gone. Thus they were able to move from step 5 to step 10.” (Ban Nong Choom Saeng, Kampaengpetch Province).

“Have a lot of buffaloes…did not have to invest anything…they eat grass. Nowadays, a buffalo is 30,000 baht. If it is of a good species and is breeding it is even better. This person has over 30 buffaloes and does not have to invest at all. They just have to be fed.” (Ban Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).

Expansion of Investment. Regardless of occupation, it is possible to expand activities

such as planting area and buying a car to provide services. Families that expand their investment are generally able to move up dramatically because the profits are good. The greater the expansion, the greater the farming area, the greater the income and profits.




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“This is a hardworking family with both the husband and wife economizing and knowing how to save. They invest in commerce and are able to make money everyday, and save money everyday. In addition to commercial activities, they also invest in rice farming and storing rice to eat with the remainder being sold. This family used to be needy. Some families have a lot of farmland.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province)

Daily Income. Some families have cash revolving daily. This income comes from their

occupation that generated daily income without having to set a target for the amount of income per day. Occupations include agriculture oriented commerce and other commercial activities. Thus, this type of family is capable of revolving funds or investing more because they have daily cash flows. In this study, there are 475 families out of 600 families that own their own business.

“Some people do chicken farms while others are involved in commercial activities that make it possible for them to get rich quickly and dramatically such as selling noodles or somtam (papaya salad).” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Regular Income. Some families have regular incomes or salaries because they are civil

servants or employees in the private sector. As a result they are able to make income and expense plans. At the end of the month or cycle, they will receive their income which can be used for investment or other activities. Of the 600 households, 184 households have salaries and 31 households receive rent.

“Being in the civil service…having farmland…being a retired civil servant.” (Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province)

Increased Farmland. Some families have increased farmland because they purchased

additional land, received an inheritance and received government allocations. Thus the villagers did not have to rent additional farmland and are able to have an occupation that they can be fully committed to. This is particularly true for the increase of farmland that can be used for farming activities. With an increase in the amount of farmland, the income will increase accordingly.

“…both husband and wife are hard working…some people are rice farmers…some people have a lot of land…some farm sugarcane on their own land and rent additional land.” (Ban Koke Matoom , Chaiyaphom Province).

Working in Bangkok or Abroad. Some families have the opportunity to work in

Bangkok, in major provinces or abroad so they are able to save large amounts of money to invest in various things such as additional farmland, machines, vehicles and debt repayment.

“The majority of people go to work in Bangkok. Some work in glass companies and some work in construction. Some send money home to help with expenses when they have money. Some people are able to build a house. Some families do wickerwork as a supplementary occupation. The children help with the work and help in caring for the family. For example, some of the children are teachers and have an electone band that can be hired out to play at merit making festivities and weddings providing them with income. They do not have to buy rice because they produced rice and stored enough to eat.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Being Self-sufficient. Some families do everything themselves. They prepare the land,

broadcast the seeds and harvest, transport and store the grains. This reduces their cost and increases their profit. This is different from other families that hire people to do everything.

“The family is successful in rice farming without hiring laborers because the parents and children are hard working. In addition, they help each other in raising fish, growing vegetables,




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raising chickens, frogs and small frogs. They have children working in Bangkok…they rarely get sick…and they are lucky.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Selling Farmland. Some families sold their farmland for a very good price so they have

a large amount of money for investment or to buy more land in areas where the land is cheaper so that they can have more land and still have enough left over to invest and buy farm machines. Examples of these families include those who sell the top soil or the soil in urban areas. In addition, they still have money left over to provide loans to others.

“It fetched a good price…so there is money to be invested in more work.” (Ban Koke Lek : Nakon Si Thammarat).

Land Compensation. Some families received compensation from the government for

land that was reclaimed by the government to be used in government development projects such as roads and irrigation canals. Thus they received a large amount of money that could be used for investment. In addition, this increased the value of the remaining land because it was next to a road or an irrigation canal.

“Lots of villagers received compensation for land from the government so they have a big sum of money and are better off.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Occupations that facilitate Dramatic Movement. The occupations that the villagers

are engaged in that facilitate dramatic and rapid movement include: integrated farming, sugarcane farming, cassava farming, vegetable farming, raising livestock, rice farming, commerce, contract work and working in the public and private sectors.

Social Aspect Good Human Relations. Some families have family members with good human

relations both with the villagers and other people. They are able to talk and socialize with everyone they meet. These families are well liked by the villagers who want to know them and work with them.

“…good human relations and know people outside of the community such as the public relations personnel of the sugar company.” (Ban Naree , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Being Innovative. Some families have family members that ‘mee hua…hua dee…rue

hua mo (literally: have a head…good head…lawyer head)’ meaning that they are innovative, bright and cunning. They know how to think, how to make a living in order to be rich and what to do in order to become rich or make money. These families are able to ‘kit raew…tam raew (think on their feet and do things quickly)’. In addition, their way of thinking is different from that of others’ providing them with an advantage.

“Get loans from others…willing to do everything…ready to provide for others…daring to invest…hard working…’hua dee (innovative)’…able to pull through.” (Ban Sala Takian, Chaiyaphom Province).

Daring. Some families are very daring as they are willing to take investment risks and

dare to get loans so they are able to make substantial income from their investment and get richer. This trait generally belongs to the head of the family. While being daring van make people rich dramatically and quickly, it can also make people poor incredibly quickly if losses are suffered.




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“Families that are innovative, dare to take risks, dare to invest, dare to create debts, able to obtain a loan for investment…” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province)

Inheritance from Parents. Some families receive an inheritance from their parents.

Generally, this inheritance is in the form of land or cash. Thus they are able to expand their current activities. These families are generally established families that just received the inheritance. They are not a recently married family. The inheritance coupled with what they already have make it possible to move up dramatically and rapidly.

“have existing capital…old wealth…newly made assets.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“…live alone…have savings…have land…have cows…received inheritance from sister.” (Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Existing Capital. Some families have existing capital such as lots of property, lots of

money, lots of other assets and wisdom that can be transformed, thus they are ready. When this is coupled with investment, the existing capital can be out to good use and fully utilized.

“People with enough to live on and enough to eat can become people who are almost successful because they own farmland near the water. Some families have a lot of cows and buffaloes. They have enough to eat and use. They economize and save and are never in need. They wake up early in the morning and go to work and never have to get loans for investment. Moreover, they are debt free. In the dry season they earn wages so that they have some additional income to provide for their family.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Community Leaders with Regular Income. Some families are that of community

leaders who have regular income such as the Village Head and the Member of the Tambon Administration Organization (TAO). In the past, they never had regular income and were just villagers, when they became community leaders, they receive regular income making it possible for them to invest the money. In addition, they gain greater acceptance so they are able to make a better living and invest more too.

“Being the Village Head gets more knowledge and gets a salary. This helps out s lot.” (Ban Sala Takian: Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“As a member of the TAO there is a salary that can be used to help build up the status of the family.” (Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Constant Work. Some families are hard working and work all the time. They wake up

early in the morning and go to sleep late at night. Regardless of whether it is their work or earning wages working for others, these families will ‘tam ngarn ham roong ham kam (work from dawn to dusk)’. They work a lot and get very little sleep. They will get up at 3 a.m. to collect vegetables and tie them in bunches or in some cases they will tie up the vegetables until late at night, sometimes 11 p.m. or midnight. The villagers call them ‘ypd manoot (super heroes)’ because they never sleep and are good at working.

“…both husband and wife are hard working…some people are rice farmers…some people have a lot of land…some farm sugarcane on their own land and rent additional land…some have a son-in-law who works as a construction contractor…some people go to work abroad and save money to invest in rice farming and sugarcane farming.” (Ban Koke Matoom , Chaiyaphom Province).

“I work in construction and have been able to save some money. There is the 1 million baht fund that provides assistance. In addition, I inherited some land. As a result, I decided to sell noodles. I farm rice and other crops and am hard working.




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Willingness to Work. Some families are willing to do everything. They persevere and are not picky about jobs. These families will seek work all the time both their own work and that of others. As a result, they have more income.

“..work all the time, make money but don’t use very much money…the children are all grown up…These people work hard until they are rich…they persevere…economize…don’t buy things…children provide the family with some help…the children are good…they help to support the family…they are hard working…they have endurance and they are committed to their work.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province)

Planning Expenses. Some families know how to make plans for their expenses. They

know what they are paying form and what they should not buy. Expenses are very important and are directly related to the money used for occupational investment.

“Now, the family has fewer expenses because the children have completed their schooling and are working. They send money home to help their parents. The husband and wife help each other work. They are hard working and help each other save. Another family in this category is the family with regular income that uses money very strictly. Detailed accounts are maintained for household expenses. These families plan their expenses and do not use money without thought.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“..own farmland…is hardworking and engaged in many occupations…knowledgeable in management and is able to manage finances.” (Ban Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).

Limited Expenses. Some families have limited expenses and have enough money to

continue working. These families are generally elderly families or families that grow their own vegetables or rice to eat so they do not have very many expenses.

“Have a personal business…children have completed schooling…economize.” (Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Economize and Save. Some families economize and save so the income that is

generated does not disappear. They are a ble to save a considerable amount and then invest their savings in additional farmland or farm machinery.

“This is a hardworking family with both the husband and wife economizing and knowing how to save. They invest in commerce and are able to make money everyday, and save money everyday. In addition to commercial activities, they also invest in rice farming and storing rice to eat with the remainder being sold. This family used to be needy. Some families have a lot of farmland.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province)

Good Children. Some families have good children who are not troublemakers and help

to work. Some work in other places and regularly send money home to the parents. This increased the family income and reduces the family burdens after being responsible for school fees. Of the 600 households, 205 households state that their children regularly send money home.

“…own farmland, hardworking in making a living…is a source of loans…sells land…most important is the fact that they have good children. After completing school and getting a job, they send money to provide for their parents.” (Ban Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).

Constant Development. Some families constantly seek out new things and develop

themselves. Thus these families are advanced and well aware of their environment and are able to constantly adjust and improve their status. They develop their ability to conceptualize, their




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knowledge, their technical know how and methodology concerning their occupation. In addition, they receive technical support from various agencies.

“The way they work follows the principles (of greatness)…they don’t quit work until the mosquitoes bite…they don’t do the norm…they don’t work 8 hours but they work 12 hours because they also work the night shift…as they work they find additional information and adjust their work constantly…they consult with experts and specialists and do not let their time go to waste.” (Ban Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province).

“For example the family of Mr. Nontajit. His parents provided him with existing capital of selling all agricultural products. They also farm rice. He is a survivor and never sits still. He started farming sugarcane which is what led to having everything today. He planted the sugarcane himself and then bought sugarcane from his neighbors. He had a revolving fund and later used the bank credit line. He always has money to pay off his debts. He also has credit at the sugar factory. He plans his work to determine how the losses he is going to suffer and what his profits will be. He does not work hard but uses his brains.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Quality Families. Some families have good relationships between family members.

These families are closely knit families where they help each other out and are united in making a living.

“The wife knows how to save…husband and wife complement each other…they do not quarrel with each other in the family…they are really hardworking.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Before, the status was not very good…got a new husband… ‘pua pa tam pa sang (the husband did and built – led me in doing things and building the family.)…farming rice and farming vegetables for eating and for sale. Rice is produced to eat and to sell if there is any left over…quit playing the lottery...lose up to a thousand…not home very much…go to work in other places…return home during the planting season…hardworking in making a living…not very much debts…for example, hardworking in making a living working as a farm laborer and consistently making investments. Whenever possible, cows are bought.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Supportive In-laws. Some families are provided with support from their in-laws such as

introductions to networks and alternatives and helping out with investment capital, land and equipment etc.

“Received support n making a living from my mother-in-law who is a good person and well-off. As a result, this family is richer than before and does not have to starts from scratch.” (Ban Ko Node, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“…is a hard working person willing to do everything and is not picky about work. When he got a wife, he went to sell vegetables and prepared food at the Klong Toei Market in Bangkok. His mother-in-law saw that he was a hardworking person so she gave him the stall to make a living. Whenever they have money, they would send it home to build a house. They come back to visit their children that they left with his mother to raise.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province)

Good or Rich Son-In-Law. Some families have son-in-laws that are good or rich and

capable of helping the family in making a living by providing both cash and labor. These son-in –laws are not addicted to vices. These families are able to build up their status very quickly.

“This house has pretty daughters. When the daughter got married, the son-in-law is a hardworking person. He makes a living in farming rice, earning labor wages, commercial activities such as selling fish and selling produce in ‘poom puang trucks (trucks with plastic bags




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of portioned produce and prepared foods hanging from the every possible place)’. He was able to save money to buy a second hand pick-up truck to use for commercial activities. Thus the family income was improved. He wakes up at 3 a.m. and goes to the market in the city to buy fresh and dried produce in order to sell in the morning.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“…both husband and wife are hard working…some people are rice farmers…some people have a lot of land…some farm sugarcane on their own land and rent additional land…some have a son-in-law who works as a construction contractor…some people go to work abroad and save money to invest in rice farming and sugarcane farming.” (Ban Koke Matoom , Chaiyaphom Province).

Vice Free. Some families from the parents to the children and grandchildren have nothing to do with

vices, thus the income generated is not lost. The majority of the time is used in making a living. “The family is a rice farming family like the others but they are very hard working. They

do not stop working. ‘Tam saggrbua yun rua rob (meaning make pestles to battleships - they do everything, from the smallest thing to huge things)’ such as cleaning and washing dishes in the temple. In addition, they are good and loyal, do not drink alcohol or take drugs, do not gamble, have great endurance, support their child in higher education. The child completed her studies and has a good job in the civil service as a nurse.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Marriage. Some people are able to upgrade themselves by getting married and starting a

family because the have to establish themselves and cannot just go out and have fun like they did when they were single.

“In the beginning I lived alone, but when I got married, there was someone to help in making a living. I have to make something of myself so that I can provide for my wife and children.” (Ban Sala Takian : Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Good Health. Some families are physically strong and the parents are able to make a

good living. “The family is successful in rice farming without hiring laborers because the parents and

children are hard working. In addition, they help each other in raising fish, growing vegetables, raising chickens, frogs and small frogs. They have children working in Bangkok…they rarely get sick…and they are lucky.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Environmental Aspect Support from the 1 Million baht Village Fund. Some families received occupation

loan support from the 1 Million baht Village Fund. A total of 179 household out of 600 households were able to obtain loans. In addition, 33 percent of the 40 communities participating in the study were of the opinion that the 1Million baht Village Fund helped make the community better.

“Moved up because I have land…received the land in order to make a living. Got capital, there is a source of capital that provides loans. Obtained a loan from the 1 Million Baht Village Fund. Before, loans were gotten from the stores and not everyone could get a loan. The interest was 6 percent per month. In the past, if there was only a handful of rice remaining, I would have to go out and find work. In the beginning, the children were small, did not own any land. When the children were bigger, they helped to work on the land that we received. We work hard everyday. It was possible to get loans.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).




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Connections. Some Families know merchants, factories or markets that buy goods so they are aware of alternatives for making a living and have an advantage over others such as being in charge of the quota and transporting workers etc. These families are able to move up dramatically because they are closer to the buyers than other villagers.

“…know people outside of the community such as the public relations personnel of the sugar company in Phu Kiew District provide knowledge on sugarcane farming. Thus land was adjusted from being land used for rice farming into being prepared for growing sugarcane. As a result, there was an increase in income. In addition, the family invested in buying a small truck to be hired out for hauling sugarcane into the factory. This also made good money.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Access to Information. Some families are able to access information more than others.

This includes information on production, consumption and product sales. This information is useful because the families are able to make better work plans so they are able to generate more income than other families. There are civil servants or private sector employees ready to provide the villagers with advice concerning new plant strains or animals. A total of 27 communities out of 40 communities stated that they received increased information from local administrations and the central administration. There were only 25 households out of 600 household that stated that they received less information.

“…from a poor family, but already have a family. Both husband and wife help to make a living and are hard working, accomplished and smart. They have personal skills and know people and know what to say because they go outside often.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Good Prices. Some families are able to get good prices because of the volume of their

products. These families have an advantage over other families that have smaller amounts of products. Examples of these products are rubber and jasmine rice.

“Now the price of rubber has increased a lot, almost 40 baht, so we have a lot of income. Not like before when the price of rubber was low and we had debts. At this rate, the people with extensive rubber plantations will be rich.” (Ban Nai Pud, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“…crop farming is successful because the price is better…such as farming papaya, because other people do not do this…Went to work abroad made it possible to increase assets very quickly. The salary is good. The money was used to build a house and there was money left over to save. Now I work as a construction laborer.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

4.3 Factors that Facilitate Gradual Movement Upwards Economic Aspect Use of Machines. Some families use machines such as vehicles, tractors and harvesters

to help in making a living. They are able to improve the status of their families. A total of 181 households out of 600 households stated that they use vehicles to help in their work.

“With capital…a tractor was bought…work all the time, so there is a lot of income…he is hardworking.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Know how to economize and save…quit drinking alcohol…the wife is hard working and finds things to sell all the times. For example, renting additional farmland to farm rice, have a push tractor, have a motorcycle, after finished harvesting the rice I go out to find work cutting




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sugarcane. I go regularly using ‘e-goang (a small truck powered by the tractor engine)’…don’t have any children.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

Two Crops of Rice. Some families are able to produce 2 crops of rice a year because

they have access to the irrigation system. As a result, they have more income and more quickly – 2 times a year.

“…having property near the irrigation canal, these families can farm rice twice a year. Their status is improved. In the past, they could only farm rice once or if it was dry then they could not farm at all.” (Ban Rai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Supporting Occupations. Occupations that facilitate gradually improved well-being

include raising cows, wage employment, contract work, dressmaking, commerce, business, furniture production, sugarcane farming, rice farming.

Social Aspect Sufficiency. Some families produce their own rice so they do not have to buy rice. This

is particularly true for farmers with limited income. They farm rice for consumption which kelps a lot. From the 600 households participating in the study, 109 households stated that they consume their own crops.

“Cultivate vegetables to eat…do not buy vegetables…any remaining vegetables is sold.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Assistance from Relatives. Some families receive assistance from relatives in making a

living. This assistance is in the form of capital and other equipment. A total of 35 households out of 600 households stated that they borrowed money from relatives.

“The group of relatives will pull us all together so our status is not very different from each other on both sides of the family.” (Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Good Credit. Some families have good credit and are able to obtain loans from funds in

the village or outside of the village so they have funds to revolve in their occupation. There are only 249 households that did not answer the question of whether or not they obtained loans. The remaining households stated that they obtain both formal and non-formal loans. This shows that their credit rating is good enough.

“…the factory approved the use of advance credit and provided a loan for investment so we had money to expand the sugarcane farm and became richer.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom

Province). Environmental Aspect Support from the Farmer’s Rehabilitation Fund. Some families received support

from the Farmer’s Rehabilitation Fund through the provision of revolving fund and investment expenses for activities such as raising cows and rice farming. This is a fund established by the government to help farmers. Over all, 566 households out of 600 households received benefits from government projects.

“The parents go to work as laborers in other provinces working in construction, factories and cutting sugarcane. At planting season they return home to farm rice and during the dry




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season they go to work as laborers. Some families have a number of children who go to work in factories. They help to make a living and send money home to the parents so that they can build a house or buy additional farmland and sometimes they buy audio equipment and household appliances for their parents. Some families received cows to raise from the Farmer’s Rehabilitation Fund in order to help in making a living. Cows are like a piggy bank that saves money for the farmer.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

External Learning. Some families have the opportunity to learn outside of the

community in other provinces and communities or abroad. This learning is generally a result of going to work outside rather than going to exchange learning or going on observation tours. As a result, the learning received from working is used in their occupation in order to improve their status. There is more movement into 16 communities than movement out, but there was more movement out of 11 communities rather movement in. In addition, there were a total of 132 households that moved out of the communities temporarily to do seasonal work outside of the communities.

“I saw that this person had the opportunity to go and work abroad in a number of countries so he should have ideas of some good things that could be done to improve himself and the community. Thus, I asked him to become the Assistant Village Head and to be a candidate for TAO membership. It has proved true, his thinking and reasoning ability has improved.” (Ban

Ba Siew, Chaiyaphom Province). Water Source Development. Some families benefited from the development of water

sources by the government such as the digging and dredging of water sources or the development of irrigation canals. As a result, they are able to do more planting or use water for more farming activities. Some households are able to plant more than one crop more conveniently. A total of 36 households stated that they received benefits from the water development projects of the government.

“With the irrigation canal cutting through the property it is possible to farm rice and do other farming activities. These people have better occupation opportunities than others.” (Ban

Khao Goy, Nakon Si Thammarat Province). “The development of the irrigation canal to the village provides the villagers with more

opportunities. The canal is relatively big and long covering an area of 2 villages. There is a lot of water making it easy to draw water for use.” (Ban Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province).

Development of Roads. Some families received benefits from the development of roads

that cut through their land because it makes travel easier. It also facilitates the transportation of goods and factors of production. A total of 44 households received benefits from the development of roads.

“The roads that were constructed every year to the villager’s farmland facilitate travel and transportation of goods. Even though they are only laterite roads, but the situation is greatly improved. In the past, we would have to walk or ride motorcycles. It was very difficult. It is now very convenient.” (Ban Ba Siew, Chaiyaphom Province).




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4.4 Factors that facilitate Dramatic Downward Movement Economic Aspect Business Losses. Some families were faced with trade losses to the point that some were

bankrupted. These losses were due to the fact that the businesses required large investments such as trading goods and contract work. Even though the profits were great, when the businesses failed, the losses were enormous.

“The business failed…selling groceries and prepared foods was not a successful investment. In the beginning, my friend was successful and made money so I got a loan to buy a pick up truck to sell groceries and prepared foods. Thus I had debts for the truck and for investment in the business. I was not able to revolve the money so I had losses. The farmland was confiscated so I did not have land to make a living. Before, I was a jute buyer, but the villagers stop providing supplies because the drought made it difficult to farm jute. After that I farmed chickens but also suffered losses. In addition, I provide loans with high interest rates. If the debtor does not make repayments, I would take his things. I have to send many children to school.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Farming Losses. Some families suffer from farming losses. They are not able to make

profits or their income is equal to their expenses or their crops were damaged because of the various natural disasters.

“bankrupted from making a living…parents are both dead…I received my paternal grandfather’s assets…I went to work abroad but was not successful.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom

Province). Outstanding Debts. Some families had lots of debts that were incurred from their

occupation and their lifestyle. The debts were large amounts that had to be repaid within a fixed period. This affects the savings and money for other investment because they have to be used to pay off the debts first. Of the 600 households, 456 households had debts.

“I sold all my farmland but spent the money on luxuries. From a person without debts, I bought clothes, vehicles, motorcycles on installment payments. Whatever could not be paid off was confiscated. Now, I work cutting sugarcane.” (Ban Naree, Chaiyaphom Province).

“I have debts, I got a loan to invest and to pay off debts to other funds.” (Ban Klong

Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province). High Production Costs. Some families have high production costs particularly farming

families. These costs include chemical fertilizer, wages, seeds, soil preparation etc. “The price of agricultural products is low but the cost of production is increasing.” (Ban

Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province). “Uncertainty about agricultural products, the cost of farming equipment that is

increasing, price guarantees, investment, spraying insecticides, fertilizer expenses all resulted from the economic crisis. As a result, the prices fluctuate. In addition there are ‘social taxes’ which include wedding gifts, assistance in the form of money at funerals, birthday gifts, merit making etc. Families with children who have passed away have to provide for themselves.” (Ban

Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).




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Being Cheated. Some families were cheated or defrauded of their money i.e. going to

work abroad. “Some people have to care for their grandchildren because their children went to work in

other provinces. The children don’t send money home very often, some have debts or drink alcohol often. When they don’t have money, they sign for it. Some people invest in contract work in construction and were cheated.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Confiscated Farmland. The farmland of some families was confiscated because they

had debts or were cheated or suffered business losses. The majority of farming families that mortgage their farmland with moneylenders or banks generally face this problem. There were 54 families that did not have formal loans.

“I mortgaged my property with the bank and it was confiscated so I don’t have any farmland to make a living.” (Ban Klong Pattana, Kampaengpetch Province).

“The government reclaimed the land because it was going to be a turned into forest plantations. I am not able to make a living. I suffer a lot because I have to travel from place to place.” (Ban Salien Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

“I was going abroad but was cheated by the broker. The money that was taken was money I received from mortgaging my NS3 with a finance company.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom

Province). Social Aspect Addicted to Vices. Some families are addicted to vices such as gambling, drugs, alcohol

and women. The income that is made is used towards these vices. If the head of the family is addicted to vices the other family members will suffer too. They are not able to save any money or they may lose their land or house to these vices.

“I was arrested for having a gun…I stumbled into selling amphetamines…I take amphetamines…on the chance of getting rich.” (Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Heavy Burdens. Some families have heavy burdens, caring for children, caring for

grandchildren or providing for the elderly. It is the burden of the family to make enough to pay for expenses. This is a major problem if it is an extended family with only a ferw people working. They may face the problem of lots of debts.

“I have burdens that I have to provide for and I have debts that have to be paid, so the money that is made is not enough and the family situation deteriorated a lot.” (Ban Sa Nang

Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province). Problems concerning Children and Grandchildren. Some families have problems

concerning their children and grandchildren such as too many children, the children do not help to make a living, the children are lazy and do not work. Thus they are a burden on the family. The problem gets worse if the children create problems for the family that requires the use of large amounts of money. This will make the family situation even worse.

“The son had a legal case that had to be fought. We had to sell the house and all the money was used. By the time the verdict came, we did not have any more farmland. We don’t




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have a house anymore and now live with the parents as we used to.” (Ban Rai, Nakon Si Thammarat

Province). School Age Children. Some families have children of school age from primary school

though the bachelor’s degree. The higher the education support provided, the higher the expenses. The burden of education is a monthly expense and is the cause of both formal and non-formal debts.

“Send the children to school. I have a lot of children. This uses up my income. I cannot make enough money. From being relatively well off, things are getting gradually worse and not getting any better.” (Ban Kiak Kai , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Sales of Assets. Some families have to sell their original capital or assets particularly

inherited farmland in order to have enough to eat. This is sometimes an effect of addiction to vices. Some people are lazy and do not want to work so they rely on this method. From the 600 households, 206 households have to sell their assets in order to survive.

“Before I had a herd of cows, it was sold. I had a vehicle, it was sold. I received my share of farmland but did not farm. My expenses were higher than my income. I sent my children to school but they did not finish school.” (Ban Salieng Tong, Chaiyaphom Province).

Spendthrifts. Some families habitually buy luxury items and are not careful about their

expenses, thus their income is either less than their expenses or about even with their expenses. This is especially true for fashionable consumer products.

“Some people have to care for their grandchildren because their children went to work in other provinces. The children don’t send money home very often, some have debts or drink alcohol often. When they don’t have money, they sign for it. Some people invest in contract work in construction and were cheated.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

“Failed in shrimp farming, suffered losses and went into debt. There is only water in the ponds and nothing can be done. I invested a lot but suffered losses. Some families spend money on luxuries and use money beyond their means.” (Ban Yannaka, Prachin Buri Province).

Death or Separation. Some families suffer from deaths in the family of a separation of

ways resulting in the loss of the main worker or the head of the family. The remaining members have to bear the burden and become the head of the family. Sometimes they have to do things that they had never done before. This is generally a problem for wives who have lost their husbands because the men are usually the leaders. If adjustments can not be made, the family situation deteriorates rapidly.

“My husband was ill and passed away 2 years ago. From a comfortable situation and not having to work, I had to start working. I had to invest and drive the truck myself. I had to sell my assets to provide for my husband’s healthcare and to invest. I readily accept that my life has deteriorated quite a lot.” (Ban Rai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Family Problems. Some families have a lot of family problems such as quarrelling in

the family, the husband has a mistress, relatives do not help, in-laws do not help, etc. These problems make families that used to be rich or middle class families clearly move downwards because they concentrate on keeping up with the problems and trying to solve them rather than make a living.




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“Families disintegrate…husbands and wives quarrel constantly because the husband has a mistress but still has to send the children to college…only have sons…do not have daughters to help with the work.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Bad Son-in-Law. Some families have bad son-in-laws i.e. addicted to alcohol, does not

love their family, likes to go out and have fun etc. Thus they do not generate income for the family but have enormous expenses that are burdens on the other family members. The father and mother in-law that accepts the son-in-law into the family does not receive any benefits but suffers because the family that was comfortable deteriorates rather quickly.

“My daughter married a person that is poorer and without anything. They attach themselves to the family to survive.” (Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Serious or Chronic Illness. Some families are faced with family members with serious

or chronic illnesses such as accidents, paralysis and cancer. These illnesses require major on-going healthcare expenses and are a heavy burden on the families. This is particularly true for farming families that are not rich. If the person that is ill is the head of the family, there will be many more problems. There are 288 households out of 600 households that have problems concerning illnesses. Of those households, only 152 households used their savings or welfare money. The remaining households had to sell their assets or obtain loans.

“Being handicapped make life more difficult. It is not possible to work very much or some people do not have much work to do.” (Ban Sa Nang Manorah, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Accidents. Some families had family members who were involved in major accidents

such as car collisions, being hit by a car or a car overturning. Such accidents cause the families to pay for healthcare or compensation for the other person. Some people’s situation deteriorated so badly because the amount of money was large and had to be provided in one installment. As a result they had to obtain a loan.

“A number of years ago, I was involved in an accident. As a result, I was paralyzed and could not work. My children had to leave school. Friends did not visit. My wife then got ill. All the money that we had was used for healthcare and living expenses. Today, the situation is bad.” (Ban Pang Kam, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Legal Cases. Some families had court cases such as drugs, fraud and accidents. Thus

they had to use a lot of money. Some people had to sell their farmland or their house or other assets in order to pay compensation or to fight the case. Thus the family situation deteriorated quite a lot. There were 27 household in 40 communities that do not have a house of their own.” (Ban Ta Mai Daeng, Kampaengpetch Province).

“This family invested in buying a truck that was converted into a small bus that receives passengers. An accident occurred where the driver hit and injured a person. As a result, the hospital care of the injured person was the responsibility of the owner. Thus additional debts were incurred because the car payments had to be made and the healthcare of the injured person had to be made. Thus the status of the household did not improve as much as it should have. Driving a passenger truck provides daily income.” (Ban None Fai, Chaiyaphom Province).

Aging Families or Families with Elderly Members. Some families are aging families

or have members that are elderly, thus they are unable to work or they have clearly reduced incomes. This is particularly true for families without any children or grandchildren or families




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in which the children and grandchildren do not provide for the parents or grandparents. Thus the family situation deteriorates.

“I am old and don’t have very much strength and energy to work like the younger people. The children separated their family and do not help me to make a living. I have one disabled child that I have to care for. The family lacks warmth and lives separately.” (Ban None Fai,

Chaiyaphom Province). Inheritance. Some families distributed their assets particularly farmland to their

children. The result is that the situation of the family deteriorated. If the children and grandchildren do not provide for them their situation is even worse because their farmland is reduced and they are getting older so their income is reduced.

“Distributed farmland to 9 children, as a result, we became poorer immediately because there is very little or no farmland remaining.” (Ban Sala Takian , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

Environmental Aspect Serious Drought Situation. Some families were faced with the serious drought situation

because there was no rainfall and there was no water in the irrigation canals. As a result, the agricultural plant and crops were destroyed or it was not possible to plant. In the past, there were 27 communities that suffered from the severe drought situation with 264 households having to rely on income from agriculture. With the drought problem, the income was reduced.

“The rain does not fall very much here. For example, in farming mangosteen, in the past, we would have a crop every year. But now, we have a crop every 3 years because the rain does not come seasonally.” (Ban Nai Pud , Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

“The drought problem comes every year. It is not possible to farm. This is very bad. We have to go to work outside. The villagers here suffer greatly. The fruits have to be produced many times before a crop can be harvested. It is a waste of money and a waste of time.” (.......................................................).

Impacts from Government Policies. Some families are impacted upon by government

policies and they are not able to make a living on the land that they received because it is in the forest conservation area.

“When the government closed off the forest, it is not possible to go into the forest to get wood to make furniture or to sell timber as in the past. Thus their source of income disappeared because the main occupation of area families is working with wood.” (Ban Ta Mai Daeng,

Kampaengpetch Province). “It is not possible to go onto my own property because they are replanting the forest. In

the beginning they said I could go in but in the end they do not let anyone in at all.” (Ban Salieng

Tong, Chaiyaphom Province). Spread of Drugs. Some families were impacted on by the spread of drugs into the whole

community. People turned into drug sellers and were arrested and went to trial. In the end, all of the savings was used up to fight tie case.




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“During the drug epidemic there were a lot of problems particularly family problems. The people that were arrested had to use money, destroyed their future and wasted time.” (Ban

Naree, Chaiyaphom Province). Uncertain Agricultural Prices. Some families were impacted upon by the uncertain

agricultural prices such as sugarcane, cassava, corn and fruits. As a result, they lost a lot of income. This does not reflect the expenses that are rising constantly. There were 424 households out of 600 households that stated that their main income was from agriculture.

“Fruit farmers have uncertain income because the price of fruits fluctuates greatly and it is not possible to control it. The year in which the price is good, the make a lot of profit, but the year in which the price is not good, we suffer. I once took the fruits to sell in Talat Thai, the central fruit market, but the price was depressed greatly.” (Ban Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).

4.5 Factors that facilitate Gradual Downward Movement

Economic Aspect Insufficient Capital. Some families do not have any or enough capital for occupational

investments. As a result, they lack the opportunity to make a living (even for doing things the same way without expanding the business). They let the land go to waste and did not use it for anything or did not use it fully because they did not have money.

“Capital to be used for work is difficult to find so I did not farm cassava even though I already had the farmland. If I were to farm it, I would have to get a loan from the moneylenders who charge very high interest. Some people just left their land alone.” (Ban Ta Mai Daeng,

Kampaengpetch Province). Bad Agricultural Crops. Some families produced bad agricultural crops such as rice,

sugarcane, shrimp and cassava. As a result, their income was reduced. If this happened for a number of years consecutively, they will be even poorer.

“Invested in a lot of sugarcane…in the past I had a car. With the drought, there was no sugarcane to send to the factory. I went into debt, obtained a high interest loan from the cooperative. I took my sugarcane to the cooperative but the cooperative did not reduce my debt. I was totally indebted over my head. The cooperative sued me. I had no more will to do anything so I sold all my assets to repay the debt.” (Ban Huay Wa, Chaiyaphom Province).

Intensive Hiring. Some families hire people to do everything and do not do anything

themselves. Thus the cost of production is higher. “I am burdened with debts…the crops are not good so I obtain more loans. With the

increased burden of debt, the capital and interest kept compounding. It was the same for the farm. I invest in everything and hire people to do everything…plowing…planting …milling.” (Ban Nong Bua Sammakee, Kampaengpetch Province).

Inability to make More Money. Some families are unable to find ways to make more

money even though they have more expenses. As a result, they get poorer. The families are unemployed or do not have any work to do during certain periods. Of the 600 households there




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were 69 households that have and abundance of food remaining, 462 households with sufficient food for the whole year and 62 households with insufficient food.

“I am unemployed during this period of time. In the past I worked for a company nut I don’t work there anymore. I do not have regular income and have to find work or sometimes I am unemployed.” (Ban Laem Yang, Prachin Buri Province).

No Additional Investment. Some families do not make additional investments in order

to increase the income of the family while the expenses are gradually increasing. “I used to work abroad and had almost 10 million baht. Now I don’t have anymore

money. I used the money recklessly. When I had money I just used it and did not work or try to make more money.” (Ban Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province).

Social Aspect Not Very Hardworking. Some families are not as hard working as they should be. “I dropped because of my eldest child. The number of family members increase but the

income remained the same. My son brought a grandchild for me to raise. The baby cries a lot. My son did not ask me to care for a healthy child but asked me to take care of a disabled child. My son does not work. He drinks alcohol everyday and does not eat rice. When the money is gone, he goes out to find work. My husband is dead so I have to be the pillar of the family and have to rely on myself. I have to do everything. I have both responsibilities and debts.” (Ban

Nern Din Daeng, Prachin Buri Province). Simply Sons. Some families only have sons so they have high expenses. If their

children are troublemakers even more money has to be used. “I only have sons so I have a lot of problems. They are unruly. As parents, we have to

be responsible for their education, work, marriage or even establishment of a family. As a result, our well-being is worse. As the children grow up, there are more expenses.” (Ban None Fai,

Chaiyaphom Province). No Families. Some people do not have a family or live alone so their level of

enthusiasm is gradually reduced. When they get older, they will drop even further because they do not have the will or any burdens so they do not need to seek for much.

“I have been living alone for a long time so I am not thinking of working hard. I just keep on working without any expectations so I gradually drop from my previous position.” (Ban

Koke Lek : Nakon Si Thammarat Province). Environmental Aspect Floods. Some families are faced with the problem of floods and are not able to farm or

their crops have been destroyed. As a result, in that year, their income was reduced and they may have become poorer. This is particularly true for annual crops. There were floods in 19 communities in the period covered by the study.




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“There are major floods regularly because we are located between two rivers. The shrimp farms were flooded causing severe damages. Hundreds of thousands of baht losses were incurred by many people and they had debts from then on. This does not include the problem of the price of shrimp that used to be sold for 300 baht per kilogram but can only be sold for 100 baht for 3 kilograms in the present.” (Ban Yannaka, Prachin Buri Province).

Plant Diseases. Some families were faced with the problem of severe plant diseases and

plant pests, as a result, their crops were damaged or they had to use a lot of chemicals to resolve the problem. This was particularly true for fruit trees that require a lot of time between planting and harvesting. There were problems of plant disease epidemics in 16 communities.

“In the past, insects came in and ate up all the young leafs of the rubber and palm trees. The damage was great because it takes time to replant. The villagers remained poor for a long time. In addition, at that time, there was a storm and the spread of diseases made things worse.” (Ban Kiak Kai, Nakon Si Thammarat Province).

4.6 Synthesis

The findings of the community synthesis reports show that the household level factors that affect movement out of poverty and the factors that trap people in chronic poverty are based on human capital. This is the driving force and the potential hidden in each individual and family that causes life changes and leads to the path for movement out of poverty at the individual and household levels. There are 4 processes as follows:

1. ระดบบคคล และครอบครว

2. ระดบกลม และเครอญาต

3. ระดบเครอขายชมชน

4. ระดบมวลชนกอการ

4.6.1 Individual and Household Level. The factors at the individual and household

level are the most important factors that facilitate movement out of poverty. A “change agent” is the catalyst as this individual is generally a person with a wider perspective than the villagers. This individual may be “a returning migrant worker or a person who dares to think and act” and is remained committed until success is achieved. The findings of this study are as follows:

4.6.1.1 Internal Factors that impact on Moving Out of Poverty 4.6.1.1.1 Change Agents with External Knowledge. Change agents

with life experiences outside of the community that may be due to migration to work outside of the community in cities or abroad are a factor that stimulates the learning process of the individual. These individuals have a new vision for their lifestyle because they have become aware of new models and alternatives for making a living. Thus they experiment within their own family. In addition, the opportunity to work outside of the village made it possible for them to “accumulate money from their hard work” and use the savings to purchase land and build a house after they have returned to invest in trade or in building upon the agricultural foundations that exist. As a result, the well-being and status of the family is improved.

4.6.1.1.2 The Social Capital in the Family. Good relations within the family unit are a factor that helps families to improve their well-being. For example, the husband is hard working, economizes, saves, does not drink alcohol, does not gamble and does




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everything that provides wages. In addition, the wife economizes and saves the money that the husband makes. Decisions within the family concerning major events are collectively made. The husband and wife help each other in making a living and actively are supportive of everyone in the family because of the presence of love and unity. The children are good people who listen to their parents and do not cause trouble for the parents.

Examples of patronage and the provision of assistance in the family can be seen clearly in rich or prosperous families. These families originally have good foundations and well-being. When the children get married, they receive their inheritance such as land, a house and necessary equipment for making a living and form a separate family. As for the children who were supported with an education, on completing their education they would get a job and send money home in order to help their family to improve their well-being. In the case that the elder child works in order to support the younger children’s’ education, when they have completed their education they will work to help out the elder sibling’s family when they are in trouble. This form of assistance comes from the sense of gratefulness or obligation and a deep seated desire to return the favor.

4.6.1.2 External Factors that Impact on Moving Out of Poverty. Other than the stated internal factors stated above there are also external

factors that support the movement out of poverty at the household level as follows: 4.6.1.2.1 Application of External Knowledge. External experiences

and knowledge is brought into the village and is applied in the family. The capital used has diverse forms such as currency, knowledge and skills. For example, the villagers of Ban None Sung in Chaiyaphom Province went to work as laborers in chili farms in Ban Hua Sa, a village nearby. After that, they experimented with growing chili in Ban None Sung. When they observed that it was a success, they extended chili farming throughout the village. In addition, they created a new occupation of being a chili buying merchant. The chili is sold in markets in the city. Another case is Ban Wang Po Tong where they grow vegetables. They suffered losses due to floods, productivity was low and the merchants that came into the village to purchase vegetables depressed the price. Thus the vegetables were taken to be sold in the market resulting in the realization that it is possible to sell vegetables for good prices if they do not sell it through the middle man. As a result, they experimented with selling the vegetables directly for a period of time and then turned to the occupation of buying vegetables and gathered the vegetables in the village to sell at the market. The vegetables were bought from the villagers at a fair price. Another case is that of laborers who went to work abroad in countries such as Taiwan, Japan and Brunei. The majority of these workers invested their savings in trade or in buying vehicles to be converted in to small passenger busses.

4.6.1.2.2 The Interactive Learning through Action Process. This process includes observation tours, exchanges of natural experiences that occur from observation of things that happen naturally in model families and exchanges within various groups such as the extended family group and the group of neighbors. This process leads to a learning process that builds up skills and additional knowledge from actual practice and creates a new vision that leads to the search for oneself and the creation of new alternatives for the family. For example, before Ban None Fai in Chaiyaphumi Province received budget support for the establishment of the 1 Million Baht Village Fund, the villagers organized meetings and sent representatives to nearby villages to observe the management and administration of their 1 Million Baht Village Fund. After their return they established a savings group in order to have a fund that was based on the savings of the villagers. In addition, they received budget support for the 1 Million Baht Village Fund which was a revolving fund in which members could obtain occupation loans.

4.6.1.2.3 Basic Infrastructure development. Poor families are able to benefit from the development of the basic infrastructure system that is necessary for production and income generation such as roads, electricity, irrigation systems and modern technology.




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Water is the most important factor for farmers and is the basic factor that is necessary for agricultural occupations. In the past 13 years the development of the irrigation system has spread into almost every area. This development built upon the existing system by digging and dredging creeks, canals, marshes and reservoirs, building weirs, digging artesian wells for agricultural purposes, development of irrigation canals using electrical powered pumps and digging feeder canals to channel water to farmers etc. The development of the irrigation system reduced villagers’ drought problems and flooding problems. In addition, the villagers benefited by being able to produce multi-crops, being able to farm other commercial crops, increases in productivity, being able to produce 2-3 crops of rice and having supplementary occupation such as vegetable and chili farming, integrated farming, orange farming and raising animals etc.

4.6.1.2.4 Access to Credit. Because the majority of villagers are mainly farmers and an important thing that facilitates their occupation is capital. The findings of the study show that the financial institutes that villagers are able to access for farming loans are the Bank for Agricultural and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC), agricultural cooperatives, savings groups and various village funds (the Poverty Alleviation Fund, the Miyazawa Fund, the Agricultural Fund, the Fertilizer Fund etc.)

4.6.1.2.5 Access to Information. The findings of the study show that villagers are able to access news and information concerning current economic, social and political events from various media such as the radio and television. On the other hand, marketing information is received by direct contact with the buyers or by watching television. An additional way to receive timely information is by telephone communications within the group of merchants.

4.6.2 Group and Extended Family Level. Moving out of poverty at the household level leads to being a “pilot or model family” that brings changes to the group, neighborhood and extended family. People will imitate and unconsciously learn from the model families through their extended family relationships and extend the results until they become a family group that is able to move out of poverty. A “new way of thinking” is created. This is an attempt to search for a way to improve the status and well-being of the family. An overview of the household level movement of the Ladder of Life focus group discussion shows that households move on groups of extended families or groups of neighbors.

4.6.2.1 Internal Factors at the Group and Extended Family Level. 4.6.2.1.1 Model Families. These families are important models that

stimulate change. Families in communities have similar foundations, lifestyles, cultures and environments. In addition, every one in the village has the freedom to live and work. Thus seeing that the model family in the village has improved well-being and status from an occupation in which there are similar foundations and experiences provides them with a new income generating alterative for the family. Thus it is an incentive or a stimulus for other families to follow suit in order to have improved well-being and status and increased income and assets like the model family, their neighbors and extended family. As a result, the culture of competition within the village is created. For example, the northeastern region villagers going to work abroad and the case of Ban Ba Siew that is in the high growth and far inequality group that has the capacity to accumulate prosperity at the rate of 100 percent.

4.6.2.1.2 Informal Learning Forum. This forum came about based on the relations between the extended family and neighbor group. Informal learning was provided through observation of model family activities and exchanges of perceptions and experiences.

4.6.2.2 External Factors at the Group and Extended Family Level. 4.6.2.2.1 The Extended Family Relations System and the System of

Relations of Community Members. The provision of mutual assistance and patronage between




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parents and children, siblings and neighbors including community harmony and unity where the village collectively provides assistance to its members by helping each other out during harvest and participates in development activities such as building roads, providing security and producing projects to request budget support from the civil service. This is an important innovation that occurred as groups and organizations were formed to collectively manage local resources, to manage community funds and funds received from external sources. The things stated above are important factors that facilitate the movement out of poverty through the formation of mutual assistance groups and mutual reliance of community members.

4.6.2.2.2 Community Network Level. The movement of households that moved out of poverty into model families for community members resulted in the expansion of family groups engaged in “imitation “of activities and “following the leader”. From then natural leaders began to emerge: community leaders, group leaders and extended family leaders. In addition, community organizations were organized and linked the new production foundation and community business foundation based on “participatory planning, decision making, implementation, benefits and extension of the lessons of success of the model” in an on-going manner that leads to the emergence of “a new community concept”. In addition, the community began to collectively realize the new identity of the new leaders, the experts that emerged from commercial activities and community business particularly the women’s groups and the group of people that linked market information and external information to the group of producers. Moreover, the community gained the ability to manage funds through the savings – loans activities of the savings group attached to the Village Fund. Thus the various groups in the community began to form natural linkages gradually based on “participation and collective benefits” or the “collective fate of the community/stakeholder”.

4.6.2.2.3 Critical Mass Level. The critical mass has the capacity to be a “social multiplier” in communities in which there is movement of the households that have moved out of poverty based on the foundation of production – trade – investment of community economic capital coupled with management in the form of a community organization with production processes and new entrepreneurial practices through a central forum that provides social space for collective activities and leads to the learning process of interactive learning through action. The collective outcome is new wisdom that has settled in the group of leaders (the initial group of leaders, the middle level leaders: both female and male, and the new leaders that are educated and have the urban experience or the ability to link with the external society). These leaders keep in touch with each other and “create learning fora” for people who constantly participate in collective activities until these fora are transformed from “community learning fora” into “community learning centers” that are the foundation for the development of new knowledge, new identity and new foundations for production – trade – investment for community members and other communities.

The “critical mass” has a diverse composition and is capable of linking the 3 generations with formal organizations, local administration organizations, occupation organizations – community business, community financial organizations and various funds, experts, respected elderly people, religious leaders, extended family leaders and neighborhood leaders. In the end, this will result in the “collective management” of “community resources” which includes economic capital, human capital, intellectual capital and natural resource capital which collectively are the “social capital” of the community and lead to the emergence of "collective values” or the “community plan”.

In strong communities, there will be the establishment of an independent community organization based on the growth of the community’s production group – commercial group – investment group and group of experts. The structure of this diverse community network organization generally has 4 main community institutions as follows:




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1. The Community Plan which provides the collective direction and collective values of the community.

2. The Production Network Institute – Community Business 3. The Investment Network Institute – Community finances 4. Community Wisdom and Information Learning Center – a forum




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Chart 4- 1




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Moving out of Poverty at the Household Level

Out-migration of labor brings back external knowledge, experience and capital.Training/field trips for occupational skills & choicesPoor families access Village Fund, savings groups, water sources and information

Extended family system, village system, community relations based on unity

Access to credit, information, local markets

TAO/core leaders create participatory process with diverse community organizationsEmergence of civic fora supporting collective planning and decision-making by networks

Support provided by civil society sectorProvince adopts as “Provincial level community learning center” and supports “community plan”Access to business sector/credit support

Expert / change agent: brings about changes based on external knowledge, life experiences Family based social capital

Emergence of “model family”

Emergence of learning informal for a based on the model family through extended family relations

Emergence of natural leaders based on new activities i.e. activity leaders, experts, women leadersPresence of collective benefit activities (WIN – WIN) that foster networking

Have experts, elderly leaders, coordinatorsTAO/administrative leaders’ participationVillage forum – on-going learningBody of knowledge upgraded to learning centers + community plans

Household level

Group levelExtended family level

Network/community level

Mass mobilization

level

Developed CommunityInternal Factors External Factors

Chart 4 - 2




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Diverse linkage of

critical massInternal Factors External Factors

Savings Fund + Village Fund create equal opportunities for the poor

Network of production organizations-trade-investment build foundation for new life, new community organization-new leader forming new identity + new wisdom

Community plan + community business as central forum for TAO community to determine collective direction-collective values-participation of external partners

Critical mass and Social multiplier

SavingsMobilization Investment

Add economic value

Add spiritual value

Community Economic

Capitalvalue

Community Social

Capital

Multiplier capital

Multiplier PowerEstablish new

community institution

STAKEHOLDERWIN - WIN

Provincial CEO support TAO in fostering community participation-civil society fora 9th Plan ~ community plan is opportunity for critical mass to gather and show power of unityAccess to external information + news through mass mediaBAAC business/public sector financial institution: accessible -support collective management-collective community fund mobilization-community financial institute“Social capital” : policy supported by state agencies9th Plan supports linkage of community plan, Tao plan and provincial planCouncil of Leaders – Council of Experts promoted and supported by government

value

Democratic Unity Participatory DemocracyLeaders 3 generations–experts–TAOcollaborate–central participatory learning fora

Chart 4 - 3




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Chart 4 - 4



Documents

Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Background and Importance of ...siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMOVOUTPOV/.../Thailand_NSR.pdf · Introduction . 1.1. ... However, the pattern of the implementation