Change Management - APPAbokcms1.appa.org/pdfs/58-04072012.pdf · Change Management Summary Introduction We have all heard the adage that the only thing constant is change. Not only

Change Management

John Morris, P.E., CEFP, LEED AP, GBE, APPAFellow

Change Management Page 1 Copyright APPA 2020

Published by APPA:APPA is the association of choice serving educational facilities professionals.APPA's mission is to support educational excellence with quality leadershipand professional management through education, research, and recognition.

Reprint Statement:Except as permitted under copyright law, no part of this chapter may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted in anyform or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or

otherwise - without the prior written permission of APPA.

From APPA Body of Knowledge APPA: Leadership in Educational Facilities, Alexandria, Virginia

This BOK is constantly being updated. For the latest version of this chapter,please visit

www.appa.org/BOK .

APPA1643 Prince Street

Alexandria, Virginia 22314-2818www.appa.org

Copyright © 2020 by APPA. All rights reserved.


http://www.appa.org

Change Management

Summary

Introduction

We have all heard the adage that the only thing constant is change. Notonly is this statement accurate, but in fact, change and expectations ofchange are increasing exponentially. There are changes in customerexpectations, changes in building systems, changes in informationtechnology, changes related to building construction and building systemperformance, changes related to the environmental impact of ouroperations (including sustainability and energy), changes in securityrequirements, changes in reporting capabilities, changes in workforcedemographics, and so on. In turn, access to the Web and e-mail has led toan increased demand for timely and accurate information. Facilitiesdepartment and physical plant employees often see change management assomething that is required of other departments at the college anduniversity. Nothing could be further from the truth. In fact, failing to changewith the times and new demands will doom the facilities department tomediocrity. To achieve the world-class service that many of us strive for, wemust be willing to embrace change and prepare our organizations to do thesame.

The true challenge of organizational change lies not in the mechanics ofmaking change, but in addressing the cultural norms that define the currentorganization. This begins with identifying the need to change and having thewillingness to honestly examine every aspect of the organization.Management must be able to detect trends in the macro-environment, aswell as the micro-environment, to be able to identify changes and initiateprograms. It is important to estimate what impact a change likely will haveon employee behavior patterns, work processes, technologicalrequirements, and motivation. The program must then be implemented,disseminated throughout the organization, monitored for effectiveness, andadjusted where necessary.

Change also will affect the individuals within the organization. People whoare confronted by change will experience a form of culture shock asestablished patterns of the organization's culture are altered, or as staffview those patterns as being threatened. Effective change managementrequires an understanding of the possible effects of change on people, andhow to manage potential sources of resistance to that change. Managementmust assess what employee reactions will be and craft a change program


that will provide support as workers go through the process of acceptingchange.

Change management includes both organizational change management andindividual change management. Organizational change managementincludes processes and tools for managing change at an organizational level.Individual change management deals with understanding the people side ofchange. When combined, organizational change management and individualchange management provide a structured approach to transitioningindividuals, teams, and organizations from a current state to a desiredfuture state.

Once the facilities manager has identified and accepted the need to change,various concepts and processes will make the change effort easier toimplement. When leading change, the facilities manager must understandthe various roles of a change leader. Facilities managers must be able todevelop and effectively communicate a shared vision with a strong sense ofurgency. Developing a strong coalition and gaining departmental buy-in willhelp to overcome the normal resistance to change. It is critical that thefacilities manager understands their work place culture and anticipatesresistance to change or any gains may quickly revert back to the old norm.

To effectively implement change, the facilities manager must have anobsession with quality, and this obsession must become part of the facilitiesorganization’s culture. The facilities manager must embrace the concept thatquality leadership starts with the customer. In turn, the organization’s goalshould be to meet and exceed customer needs. Quality organizationsencourage teamwork in order to foster a sense of unity in purpose, andeveryone within the department must understand that work always hassome form of structure. By embracing quality service as the “norm,”following prescribed procedures for process improvement, and effectivelyutilizing teams, the facilities organization can ensure a successful changeprogram.

Leading Change

The Facilities Leader as a Change Agent

There is a difference between change management and change leadership.Managers are responsible for planning and establishing budgets, organizingand staffing, and controlling and solving problems. Leaders establishdirection, align people and resources, and motivate and inspire. Managerstend to be goal oriented, focus on the current state, and generally controlrisk. Leaders are visionary and mission oriented, future and changeoriented, and risk takers. One analogy is that managers focus on climbingthe ladder, while leaders question whether the ladder is leaning against theright wall.

Therefore, leadership is critical to the success of any change initiative, and it


requires a change leader or change agent. Someone who leads the charge;someone with the strength and courage to initiate change; someone whocan see the vision; someone who can lead the implementation plan tofruition; someone who can set milestones; someone with the authority orempowerment to make necessary adjustments; someone who can inspirethe “troops”; and someone who can respark the team when morale gets low.

To be an effective change agent, the facilities leader must fill various rolesto guide the change process. At times the change leader will need to act asa director, guiding the organization in particular ways to produce therequired change. The change agent will need to take on a navigator role,carefully moving through the various complexities that arise from controlledand uncontrolled outcomes of the change process. At other times, thechange agent will need to function as a coach, reinforcing the values andskills required for the organization to achieve the desired outcomes. Thechange agent must be a caretaker, supporting the organization through thechange process. Change in some areas may inadvertently create change inother areas, so the change agent must be a caretaker for the entireorganization, not just for specific areas that have planned change. Thechange agent will need to act as an interpreter, helping the organizationmake sense and meaning out of the various events and actions thatconstitute a changed organization. Often, a change agent will need to act asa nurturer. As in a parent’s relationship with a child, future outcomes arenurtured and shaped. Lasting change must emerge and cannot be producedinstantaneously. Most important, the change agent will have to perform as amotivator. The organization will need motivation to begin the changeprocess, and it will need to be reinfused at various points during the changeprocess. Lasting change takes time and energy. After working for a fewyears with no immediate end in sight, it is natural for people to feel tired.The change agent will need to motivate teams to stay focused and continueon track.

Change agents need to ensure support and active involvement from top andmid-level management. Active leadership of top management is crucial foreffective change management. The most frequent cause of failure of anychange effort is uninvolved or indifferent top and mid-level managers. Topmanagers must be actively involved, demonstrate their passion for thechange effort, effectively communicate those goals, and assist or guide theimplementation process to ensure lasting success. Quality cannot bedelegated to others. Developing a strong coalition, with active support fromtop and mid-level management, is necessary to overcome the sources ofinertia that resist change. Often top and mid-level managers will alsobecome the organization's change leaders, so they too will need tounderstand the various change agent roles.

Change agents need to create a sense of urgency. By far the biggestmistake people make when trying to change organizations is to plungeahead without establishing a high sense of urgency in fellow managers andemployees. This error is fatal because transformations always fail to achievethe objectives when complacency levels are too high. Without a sense ofurgency, people will not give the extra effort that is often critical, they will


urgency, people will not give the extra effort that is often critical, they willnot make sacrifices, and they will not be willing to leave their comfort zone.When establishing a sense of urgency, the change agent must overcome thecommon perception that the status quo is not bad. When the organizationdoes not see that a highly visible crisis exists, the change agent must beable to define the driving force behind the need to change and describe thebenefits of improving.

Long-term change and creating a change culture is a process that requiresdedication, patience, and persistence. Facilities leaders and change agentsmust master these qualities. Declaring a victory to a major change too sooncan fail to bring about desired results. New approaches are fragile andsusceptible to regression. In turn, declaring defeat during the middle of along-range change process can frustrate employees and discourage theorganization from future attempts for change. People who have beenthrough difficult, painful, and unsuccessful change efforts often end uppessimistic and angry. True, lasting change will succeed only if newbehaviors become rooted in the organization’s social norms and sharedvalues.

Have a Strong, Sensible Vision

Vision plays a key role in providing useful change by helping to direct, align,and inspire the actions of large numbers of people. Without the appropriatevision, a transformational effort easily can dissolve into a list of confusing,incompatible, and time-consuming projects that go in the wrong direction ornowhere at all.

As Stephen R. Covey states, effective leaders must start with the end inmind. All things are created twice: first mentally, then physically.Organizations and teams shape their own future by creating a mental visionand purpose of any project. Creating a culture behind a shared mission,vision, and values is the essence of leadership. Envisioning the varioussteps required to bring your vision to fruition will provide the clarity neededto guide the implementation team. The extent to which leaders begin withthe end in mind often determines whether or not they will be able to createa successful enterprise.

A strong vision serves three important functions. First, it sets the generaldirection for change. Second, it motives people to take action in the rightdirection. Third, it helps to coordinate the actions of different people.

Clarifying the direction of change is important because not everyone mayagree on the direction. Some may be confused, or may fail to see the needfor change. A clear vision will describe what is leading the need for changeand provide compelling reasons for the need to meet those changingdemands. The vision facilitates change by motivating action that may not bein people’s short-term interest. Change often involves some sort of pain,such as more work, learning new skills and behaviors, and moving from thenorm or comfort zone. There is a natural inclination to deny the future, soan appealing vision can motivate individuals to explore the unknown. The


vision is also effective at aligning individuals and coordinating their effortstoward a common goal. With a clear sense of direction, motivated peoplecan perform in remarkably efficient ways.

A clear and effective vision has six key characteristics. First, it describessome activity or organization as it will be in the future, and conveys apicture of what the future will look like. Second, it portrays a set ofpossibilities that is in the best interest of those who have a stake in thesituation. It appeals to the long-term interests of employees and customers.Third, effective visions are realistic and attainable. Pie-in-the-sky visions failto capture the interest of those who need to be involved in theimplementation process. Fourth, good visions should be clear enough tomotivate, and focused enough to guide decision making. Fifth, effectivevisions should be flexible enough to inspire initiative, or to allow foralternatives in response to changing conditions. Finally, effective visionsshould be easy to communicate. A vision that cannot be articulated clearlywill fail to fulfill the other five key characteristics.

Vision alone is not sufficient to accomplish effective change. A vision is morethan a pipe dream, so the leader must have some idea of the road map oran implementation plan required to achieve the vision. Without a strategyfor change, the vision is only that, “a vision.” This does not mean that everyaspect must first be defined in detail, but identifying and developing theresources needed within the organization is a need that should beconsidered early on in the improvement process. Before implementingchange management efforts, questions should be considered, such as thepart of the organization in which the transformation should start, thepotential projects that have the best chance of success, the resourcesneeded, the individuals who will provide guidance and technical support, theindividuals who will coordinate logistics and communications, and thepossible need for external support.

Taking the time to consider the answers to these questions will ensuresuccessful implementation. A common mistake is to involve too manypeople too soon without considering the supporting structure to ensure theirsuccess. Failure to consider this concept can create frustration and dampenenthusiasm, with dismal results.

James M. Kouzes points out that, with the importance of being futureoriented, some leaders developed a sense that they had to be thevisionaries. Exemplary leadership is not about being a prophet utteringdivinely inspired revelations. Developing a vision does not have to be atop-down process. To develop a shared vision, leaders need to engageothers in a collective dialogue about the future.

The collective dialogue must ask the right questions. These questions shouldinclude both effectiveness and efficiency. Our jobs as educationalprofessionals and organizational leaders depend on this knowledge.

Common effectiveness questions include the following: Are we doing theright things? Are we asking the right questions? Are we tackling the right


problems? Are we working on relevant issues? Are we making the rightinvestments in facilities operations? Are we making the right investments inour buildings, infrastructure, and programs? Are the customers satisfiedwith the space and services? Are we doing effective measurements? Are webuilding a staff that can sustain excellence?

Common efficiency questions include the following: Are we doing thingsright? Are we taking unnecessary steps? Do we have redundancy? Are theoperating funds that we receive being spent in a way that best supportsdesired outcomes? Do we have efficient work processes?

Developing a shared vision allows others to share in the thrill of seeing anew state, inspires them to willingly apply extra effort, sparks theirinitiative and ingenuity, and creates a synergy that can help overcome thenatural resistance to change. A shared vision empowers employees,develops a sense of ownership, and stimulates self-directed actions. Theshared vision is more likely to encourage “buy-in” and can inspire theorganization to make it their mission to achieve those goals. A shared visionis a powerful force that the change leader can effectively utilize to inspire achange-oriented culture.

There are a variety of methods to develop a shared vision. One method is astrategic planning session among the organization’s leaders. This strategicplanning session often involves developing a mission statement, anddefining the organization’s guiding principles and core values. The processincludes reviewing the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunitiesand threats, commonly referred to as a SWOT analysis. The ultimate goal isto enhance the organization’s strengths in order to overcome itsweaknesses, and to capitalize on the opportunities to the extent that theyminimize the threats. The outcome is a shared strategic plan that can guidethe change process. Another popular method is referred to as “sensingsessions.” Sensing sessions allow participants to speak freely and openly,and can be a useful forum to discuss effectiveness and efficiency questions.The sensing session format that discusses the effectiveness and efficiencyquestions can help to identify what needs to be kept and what needs to bechanged. A sensing session approach can help to develop interest and actionfrom employees across the organization, while breaking down some of thedistrust that may be felt at the beginning of the change endeavor. Changeleaders may initiate the strategic planning process or sensing sessions, orchange agents may emerge throughout these processes.

Communicate the Vision

Once the organization has developed a shared vision, it is critical for thechange leader to get buy-in, share the vision, and create emotionalacceptance. It has been said that people do not resist change; they resistbeing changed. It is important to provide regular communication and involvepeople at every step of the process. Because transformation is a campaign,leaders need to win people’s hearts as well as their minds. The best changeoccurs when people as a group accept it. It is critical to talk to the peoplewho will be affected by change whenever possible. Help them to understand


the need to change. Listen and respond to their needs, fears, desires, andconcerns. Help people see what is in it for them and allow them time towarm up to the changes. Major change usually is impossible unless mostemployees are willing to help, often to the point of making short-termsacrifices of their time and energy. Employees' hearts and minds will fail tobe captured without credible communication.

There are several key elements to effective communication of the vision.Some experts suggest that 20 percent of the organization tends to buy in tothe need to change and will commit from the beginning, another 50 percentmay not care either way and so do not commit, and another 30 percent willtake a hard stance and oppose change. For this reason, it is important tohelp all employees understand the vision. The message should be clear,simple, and easily understood. Trying to impress people with a message fullof overly complicated terms only creates confusion, suspicion, andalienation. The leader should take time to develop a clear, concise, anddirect description of the vision.

Using metaphors, analogies, and specific examples can help people developa mental picture of the vision. Well-chosen words can express a memorablemessage. If they have a clear and attractive picture of the future, peoplecan transform thought into reality and intentions into action.

Different people learn and retain information in different ways. Some peopleare more visual and learn from seeing how it is done; some are morekinesthetic and learn from actually doing; others are more auditory andlearn from listening. The leader should present the message in multipleforums and formats. Present the message in both large and small forums.Use memos, newsletters, and posters. Discuss the vision in formal andinformal interactions. When the message arrives in multiple formats, peoplehave a better chance of remembering and comprehending the vision.

Ideas sink in deeply only after they have been heard many times. Repetitionof the message is important because many people do not fully grasp aconcept after one exposure. A sentence here and there, a short paragraph, abrief mention of the vision at various meetings will collectively add up to amassive amount of communication.

A powerful means of communicating the vision is by setting an example.The term “walk the talk” may be overused, but in reality, change leadersmust live by this principle. When the organization sees top managementacting out or actively involved in the implementation of the vision, thequestion of credibility or sincerity will disappear. Words are cheap, butaction is not. Even the most cynical individuals will tend to be impressed byaction.

When communicating the vision, the leader should be willing to listen andaccept feedback. Discussions help answer questions and clarifyuncertainties. Many people can accept new ideas only after they have hadtime to process the concept. Allowing time for processing, questioning,challenging, and discussing will provide for a better understanding of the


vision and will enhance individual buy-in.

It is critical that the organization have trust in the leader. Covey stressesthat trust from others must first start with self-trust. Covey’s first threehabits focus on developing personal integrity. To have trust from others,the leader must live a life of integrity. Self-trust is necessary to think andact interdependently. Dr. W. Edward Deming also supported the conceptthat the first step in transformation is transformation of the individual.Deming states that the individual, once transformed, will perceive newmeaning in life, in numbers, and in interactions between people. Beforegroups of people can grow and deal with change, the individuals in thegroup must develop a sense of personal integrity and move along a pathtoward self-actualization. Only then can they feel comfortable with changeand envision it as an exciting opportunity, as opposed to fearing it as adeviation from their comfort level.

To guide the individual transformation process, the organization must trustthat the leader has their best interest as a priority. This process requiresactive communication and interaction on the part of the change leader.

Create Short-Term Wins

Lasting change takes time. Strong believers in the process may stay thecourse; however, most people will not go on the long march unless they seesome compelling evidence within 6 to 18 months that the journey isproviding results. Nonbelievers will have even higher expectations of results.Without short-term wins, too many employees will lose interest.

Processes that measure incremental change over several years will take fourto five years to start indicating any sort of a trend. However, the data thatare being collected may involve thousands of contact points for those whoprovide them. For example, the change from a reactivebreakdown-maintenance-oriented culture to a proactivepreventative-maintenance-oriented culture may take several years to showimprovements. For the employees doing the preventative maintenancework, five years is more than 1,000 working days. Without shorter termperformance indicators, the changes may be so slow that the employeesperforming the work will not be able to notice those changes. Theseindividuals require feedback on a shorter cycle and need to find short-termwins to encourage the desired performance.

Short-term wins show people that their efforts are paying off and that theyare improving, and they encourage continued support. Short-term winsprovide an opportunity to celebrate. Constant tension is not healthy in thelong run, so a celebration offers an opportunity to relax and recover. This isgood for both the body and the soul.

Short-term wins provide concrete data that can be reviewed to refine theprocess, if needed. The strategy at the onset may not be entirely correctand may need to be adjusted. Without evaluating short-term wins,problems with the strategy will become apparent too late in the process andwill delay efficient progress. Short-term wins help the organization position


itself to succeed in the long term.

Short-term wins also build momentum, gain support from or for leadership,and win over those who were neutral. Everyone, including those in thehierarchy, likes to see that the transformation is on track and making animpact. Those who were neutral or even opposed to change often want tobecome involved with a successful program. This is especially true if theshort-term success confirms that the change is inevitable.

A year or two into a major change program, and with no immediate end insight, people naturally get tired and tend to take a break. They often needrenewed motivation, and short-term wins can be used to rearticulate thevision and reinforce the sense of urgency. Short-term wins are essential tokeep momentum moving forward, but the celebration of those wins can belethal if a sense of urgency is not reinforced.

Develop a Strong Coalition

Because major change is so difficult to accomplish, a powerful force isrequired to sustain the process. Even the strongest leader needs assistanceto develop a shared vision, communicate to a large number of people,eliminate all of the key obstacles, generate short-term wins, guide multiplechange projects, and anchor cultural change.

There is an inherent conflict of interest in some organizations with regard tousing teams. One common factor is that teams are not promoted;individuals are. Individuals need to demonstrate their personal capabilitiesto advance. Teams often are not rewarded for performance; individuals are.Additionally, many senior-level executives were groomed in an environmentin which teams were not essential. They may have experienced poorlyfunctioning committees where everything moved slower instead of faster, sothey are more comfortable with the hierarchical format. Leaders need todevelop an organization where individuals are rewarded for their teamperformance, managers are encouraged to promote team decisions, andteams receive training on effective decision making.

Throughout the change process, the leader must instill a sense of trust.Teamwork generally is effective only when trust is present. Teams with theright composition, sufficient support, and trust among members can behighly effective in implementing organizational change. The organizationmust trust that the leader has the organization’s best interest as a toppriority. Teammates must learn to trust one another as well. Employeesoften develop a sense of loyalty to their specific work unit and mistrust ofthe motives of others, even if they are in the same organization. Individualsor entire work units may feel that others are not doing their fair share.Stronger performers should be rewarded for assisting weaker performersand be told how their specific contribution benefits the group as a whole.Leaders must be able to help individuals and work units transcend theseshort-term constraints and develop an organizational culture thatencourages a sense of trust toward the organization’s leaders and betweenwork units.


Developing a strong common goal allows teams to have a central focus. Theorganization’s mission, vision, guiding principles, and strategic plan help tocreate a shared objective. A true desire to make the organization perform tothe highest level possible—true commitment to excellence—can be thecommon goal that every employee and team can rally around.

When a sense of trust is created, developing a shared common goalbecomes significantly easier. A sense of trust and a common shared goalmake for a powerful combination. The resulting coalition will have thecapacity to make lasting change and overcome the inertia that resistschange.

Understand Workforce Culture

The challenge of organizational change lies not in the mechanics of makingchange, but in addressing the cultural norms that define the currentorganization. Often the biggest resistance or roadblock to change is theorganization’s workforce culture itself.

Organizational culture is a strong influence and often difficult to change.This culture tends to set the rules and boundaries of our organizations,whether consciously designed or not. Think of the last time you heardsomeone say, “That’s not the way things are done around here.” This is anexample of the pervasiveness of organizational culture. Organizationalculture is reinforced almost without thought by the members of theorganization and often is described as a subtle pressure to belong byconforming.

A series of experiments performed several years ago demonstrated thisconcept. Five monkeys were placed together in a cage with a series of stepsin the center. A cluster of bananas hung from the ceiling above the steps.Naturally, the monkeys would climb the steps to reach the bananas;unnaturally, the researchers conducting the experiments would spray theother four monkeys with a high-powered water hose whenever one monkeyattempted to climb the steps. Gradually, the monkeys learned not to pursuethe bananas.

Then, the researchers began pulling one monkey out of the group andreplaced it with another. The new monkey would immediately head for thebananas, and the other four, knowing what would happen, would pull themonkey down to the ground. The new monkey quickly learned not to pursuethe bananas. The researchers continued to replace monkeys one at a timewith similar results. Eventually, a group of monkeys that had never seen awater hose would pull a new member down from the steps. None of the newmonkeys actually knew why they were supposed to avoid pursuing thebananas, but a culture had developed. Changing this culture will take awhole new approach.

This does not imply that we are all just monkeys or helpless victims of theorganizations to which we belong. However, an organization’s culture iscomplex and influential. A dedicated change agent needs to recognize thatto make effective change, the organization’s culture may require


adjustment. It takes time to develop a new culture that is willing to embracea new way of doing things. This is not an easy concept because theelements that create the organization’s culture are not sharply defined.Changing an organization’s culture takes patience and persistence becauseits values reach deeply and integrate into a network of beliefs that tend tomaintain the status quo. If the leader does not continue to push forward,the entropy of the organization’s previous culture will naturally slide back tothe path of least resistance.

Manage Resistance to Change

One of the first reactions to change is likely to be “What is in it for me?” or“How will this affect me?” Another reaction to change may be “Gettingbetter implies that we are bad.” This generally is not the case, and to gofrom good to great, an organization has to get “better.” Transitioning to theunknown, however, creates a natural resistance and triggers our innatefight-or-flight response. There is often a natural discomfort withuncertainty. Resistance to change can come in the form of how people feelabout the change, how they think about the change, or how they act in theface of change. Therefore, it is critical that the change leader understandthe signs and cause of resistance to effectively guide the organizationthrough the change process.

People resist change for a number of different reasons. Some people likestability and dislike changes. Some are uncomfortable with ambiguity anduncertainty. Some are concerned about the impact of change on theirpersonal interests, such as pay, status, or tenure. Readiness for change canbe affected by people’s attachment to the existing culture or their image ofthe existing culture, beliefs, and values. Some people have a perception ofan implied psychological or social contract and that change is a violation ofthat contract. Some may feel that change is simply not necessary, that theproposed change is inappropriate, or that the timing is wrong. Additionally,a cumulative effect of previous change affects people’s perceptions. If theyexperienced change that was poorly implemented, they will be leery ofadditional change efforts.

Change is not the same as transition. Change is situational: the new worksite, the new policy, the new process, or the new vision. Transition is thepsychological process people go through to come to terms with a newsituation. Change is external, while transition is internal. Unless transitionoccurs, permanent change will not take place. Psychological transitionrequires letting go of the old reality and the old identities. Nothingundermines an organizational change process more than failing to take thetime to allow transition to take place. For example, when a front-lineemployee first advances to a supervisory position, their role has “changed.”This individual will not be fully successful until he or she allows his or hermindset to transition from getting work done as an individual contributor togetting work done though others.

Various models of transition describe a three-step process. This process isbased on the cycle of denial and resistance, exploration, and commitment.


Denial involves a refusal to recognize the situation is changing andresistance begins with the recognition that the situation is not going away.Individuals in this stage must learn to let go of the old ways. Explorationinvolves the first step of acceptance and the willingness to explore thepossibilities of a new situation. This second step is the limbo or neutral zonebetween the old reality and the uncomfortable feeling caused by uncertaintyof what is ahead. It is not always the change that people resist; rather, theyfear the loss of the old and uncertainty of the future. During this step, thereis the temptation to abandon the situation and revert back to the old reality.Therefore, leaders must take the time to guide this step of the process. Thefinal step involves acknowledging and accepting change and a commitmentwhere focus is given to the new course of action. With an understanding ofthe signs and cause of change resistance, the change agent can effectivelyguide organizational and individual change through this three-step transitionprocess.

The first step of the transition process involves departing from the existingstate. This step requires overcoming the organization’s cultural inertia anddismantling the existing "mindset." Normal defense mechanisms have to bebypassed. During this step, it is important to set a sense of urgency and tostress the need to leave the old behind. To guide the transition processthrough this stage, it is important to acknowledge what is being lost,communicate what is being left behind, discuss how any loses will becompensated, and describe what is going to be retained in as much detail aspossible. More important, the leader, while honoring the past, mustsuccessfully express the vision for the future that will inspire people intoaction. Providing clarity of the vision, path, and anticipated outcome willhelp to reduce the perception of uncertainty. For example, consider afacilities organization that wishes to change from a zone maintenanceconcept to a central shop maintenance concept, or vice versa. The changeleader must acknowledge that there will be perceived losses by thoseindividuals within the zones and even the customers of the zone shopservices. It is critical to describe how the new central shops will functionand how it will affect the individuals involved. Taking time to fully describethe new roles and responsibilities will ease the transition process.

It is not always possible to envision every impact of a change, but it isimportant to foresee as many impacts as possible. Imagine that the changeis a cue ball rolling across the surface of a pool table. There are lots of otherballs on the table. Some of the balls that are impacted were planned, whilesome were unintentional. In billiards, it is important to foresee as many hitsas possible, and the same applies when promoting change. The changeprocess has started a cause-and-effect chain reaction, and for each of thesetry to envision the people who will be impacted and what impact thatchange will have on their familiar ways of doing things, their familiar roles,their familiar expectations, and even their familiar values.

The leader must realize that everyone reacts to change differently.Compassionate communication will help reassure that the change process isfor the benefit of everyone. The change leader must take time to listenopenly, honestly, and sympathetically. Loss is a subjective experience, so


openly, honestly, and sympathetically. Loss is a subjective experience, sothe leader must take the time to acknowledge their feelings, even if theyappear objectively unfounded. Failure to do so will give them the feelingthat the leader does not care, will lower trust levels, and make thetransition process more difficult. It is critical that the change leader notoverreact to the initial resistance. People impacted by change willexperience a sense of loss, and grieving this loss is normal. Failure to guidepeople through this grieving process will create an emotional deficit thatimpairs the transition process. Therefore, change leaders must expect andaccept the signs of grieving such as anger, denial, anxiety, sadness,disorientation, and depression.

The next step in the transition process involves the journey into unknownterritory. The change leader must effectively guide individuals through thisneutral zone. During this step, there is often some sense of confusion. Thedifficulty of this step is that the organization enters a state of affairs whereneither the old ways nor the new ways work satisfactorily. People feelcaught between the demands of conflicting systems. People are aware thatthe old ways are being challenged, but do not have a clear picture toreplace them with yet.

If the change is minor, simply waiting for the neutral zone to pass may bean option. However, if the change is deep and far-reaching, this step of thetransition may take many months or even years. It is not uncommon forchange leaders to abandon a program at this stage due to impatience orfrustration. Abandoning the program at this stage is actually moredetrimental than not embarking on the change process in the first place.During this step of the transition, people will experience anxiety andmotivation may fall. People will feel disoriented and may experience lowerlevels of energy. Old weaknesses may resurface; for instance, if customerservice has always been a little weak, it is certain to take a further dip whilethe organization transitions through the neutral zone. During the neutralzone, employees may feel overloaded as they try to manage the oldprocesses and implement the new ones. It is for these reasons that thechange leader must effectively manage the neutral zone. Managing theneutral zone is not something that would be nice if there were plenty oftime. It is the only way to ensure the organization comes through thechange intact and the necessary changes actually work. Neutral zonemanagement actually saves time in the long run because it means thechange leader does not have to implement the change a second time,people are not permanently discouraged from implementing additionalchange processes, and the organization will not totally fall apart during thetransition between the old ways and the new.

The transition period during the neutral zone is not a step function thathappens in one easy step. It is a journey, and takes time. It is a time whennecessary reorientation and redefinition takes place. There are a variety ofactions a change leader can use to guide the organization through thisneutral zone.

Leaders must provide everyone with an important role to play. People


need to have a clear understanding of what is expected of them andneed to feel that they are contributing. During the transition process,roles and expectations may change so the change leader must taketime to redefine these new roles. In turn, it is important to define howthese new roles contribute to the overall vision. These new roles mayalso require training or resource reallocations.Leaders can create a theme for the transition period that suggests ajourney from the old to the new. People are not just literal-minded;they also react symbolically to events. Creating a theme for the changeprocess can be an effective method for rallying the troops towards acommon goal.Leaders can utilize short-term wins to build momentum, gain thesupport from or for leadership, and win over neutral supporters.Leaders should provide consistent and effective communication. Thiscommunication must keep people informed and advertise the positiveimpacts of the changes taking place. Effective communication alsoincludes taking the time to listen to input from those being affected.Leaders should implement effective support systems, provide constantencouragement, look for opportunities for additional improvement, andencourage ingenuity. An effective suggestion campaign can help thechange leader address the uncertainties that arise. Input may alsooffer suggestions on how to improve the original concept. Nothing canundermine the transition process more than the appearance that goodsuggestions are being ignored or not taken seriously. As noted earlier,not every impact can be anticipated, so empowering people to solvethe unknowns that may arise will gain their support and help them tofeel a part of the solution.Leaders must establish and reinforce a perception of trust. People aremore willing to undertake change if they trust their manager. There areactions the leader can do to reinforce their trustworthiness. Leadersmust do what they say they will do. Leaders must listen to peoplecarefully and understand what matters most to them. Leaders must actwith honesty and integrity, and extend their trust to others. Aneffective leader can increase their level of trust by being decisive andcreating a constancy of purpose. Trust often has to be earned, so theleader must get started immediately.

By following these concepts and using time in the neutral zone to create asense of belonging and purpose, a change leader can effectively guide theorganization through the most difficult stage of the transition process.

The final step is acceptance or attaining a new equilibrium. The new mindset is crystallizing and comfort levels return to previous levels. At this point,a new culture begins to develop. People begin to see their new role in thechange process. The combination of trust and a common shared goal willcreate the environment that enables individuals to reach this step quickly.As the change becomes more accepted, it is critical that the organizationcelebrates successes every step of the way. The leader must then use thesesuccesses to reinforce a culture of change. The leader must publicize thesuccesses and justify any necessary adjustments. To sustain acceptance, it


is imperative that praise be given when recognition is deserved and inputfrom employees be used to make adjustments.

To promote a culture of continuous improvement, the leader will need tocontinuously guide the organization through this three-step process. It isnot uncommon for organizations to quickly become comfortable with thenew equilibrium. Continuous improvement requires a continuous circularpath through this three-step process.

During the change process, the change leader must focus on demonstratingempathy, patience, flexibility, and openness, but remain decisive andcommitted to the strategic change initiative. Since relationships that areestablished during the change process can be considered the foundation forlong-term sustainable change, the manner in which resistance to change isaddressed is very important. Understanding the three stages of transitionwill enable the change agent to not only reduce resistance but also integratepeople in the change process in a positive manner. By following the aboveadvice, a change agent can help reduce the stress and anxiety of change forboth themselves and the organization.

Implementing Change

Deming theorized that quality leadership must focus on improving how workgets done (the method or process) instead of simply focusing on what getsdone (the results). Deming also theorized that the principles of qualityleadership must include customer focus, obsession with quality, recognizingthe structure in work processes, teamwork and unity in purpose, andcontinued training and education.

Management by results often focuses on profit and losses or return oninvestment. Quality leadership starts with the customer. Theorganization's goal should be to meet and exceed customer needs.Quality organizations recognize both internal and external customers.Obsession with quality must become part of an organization’s culture.Quality must be pursued through the services that delight customers,and efficient and effective processes.Work is not haphazard and always has some form or structure. Thestructure may not be readily evident and often can be hidden behindinefficiencies. For this reason, processes must be studied, measured,analyzed, and improved. Great people with a poor process may be ableto provide good service, but great people using a great process canprovide great service. Process measurements guide processimprovement and are recognized as a means rather than an end.Quality organizations encourage teamwork and partnerships to foster asense of unity in purpose. Providing quality service should be the goalof everyone in the organization. A clear and widely understood vision isnecessary to create the sense of community and to reinforce the sensethat we do excellent work. The notion of a common goal of quality alsoapplies to the relationships with suppliers, regulatory agencies, and


applies to the relationships with suppliers, regulatory agencies, andlocal communities.In a quality organization, everyone is constantly learning. Managementshould encourage employees to constantly elevate their level oftechnical skill and professional expertise. Employees should beencouraged to master their jobs and broaden their capabilities.

One approach to translating these theories into practice has been referredto as the Joiner Triangle. One corner of the triangle refers to quality asdefined by the customer. A second corner represents the scientific ordata-based approach to studying processes. The third corner representsemployees working together as a united team to learn and apply theseprinciples. These three elements must function together to ensure success.

Defining Quality

In process improvement, the concept of the customer and supplier takes ona slightly different aspect. In this process, people or organizations thatprecede the process being studied are the “suppliers,” and those who followare the “customers.” The various campus stakeholders are indeedcustomers, and it is important to satisfy and even delight these people.Inside the organization, however, employees who pass on work to otheremployees are considered suppliers, with internal customers. Similarly,external suppliers who supply materials, information, or services are acritical part of the entire process. Therefore, each worker in an organizationhas suppliers and customers.

Once the concept of processes, including the concept of customer andsupplier relationships, is understood, people will be in a better position toappreciate what quality means. If customers are those who are therecipients of services or products, then only the customers can determinewhat quality means to them. That is the basis of the phrase “quality beginswith the customer.” Therefore, quality must be a part of the entire process,not just a part of the final product or service. Quality must be built intoevery step, process, and system to ensure a quality product or service.“Customers” and “suppliers” must be considered and collaborated withduring every step.

It is critical to remember that the responsibility for quality ultimately lieswith top management. Only they can establish the organization'scommitment to quality. They must make certain that the organization asksthe questions: Are we doing the right things? And are we doing things right?Only top management has the ability and influence to provide employeeswith the support needed to deliver quality products and services to theultimate stakeholders.

While the customer-supplier relationship is viewed from a differentperspective in the process improvement environment, it is still critical tounderstand the ultimate reason for improving the facilities managementservice delivery to provide quality service to the various campusstakeholders. This requires the organization to develop a customer-driven


focus. It requires listening to your customers, as well as identifying andanticipating their needs and concerns. Organizations should strive to gobeyond customer satisfaction to customer delight. Competition fromoutsourcing is a constant threat to any university facilities organization. Toremain competitive, the facilities organization must look for opportunities toimprove service delivery. There is no room for mediocrity, and those whorefuse to change with changing demands will soon disappear.

Christopher K. Ahoy states that superior services and relationships dependon knowing that customers are—

The most important entities on the premises.Not dependent on the facilities organization. The facilities organizationis dependent on them.Not interruptions to the facilities work, but the purpose of it.Not an outsider to the business, but a part of it.Doing the facilities organization a favor by giving them an opportunityto serve.

Therefore, it is critical to include the various facilities customers in anyfacilities change process. Customer focus is a key component of effectivefacilities management. Various stakeholders (faculty, students, staff, andother administrative departments) must feel that their needs are heard,understood, and acted upon. Tools must be in place to ensure customercommunication, assess and assimilate what is said, and implementprocedures to act on expressed needs.

The Scientific Method

People who view work as a series of processes understand how the qualityof what comes out is largely determined by the quality of what goes in.Whole new insights develop when people see tasks as a related series ofevents. If people see how their role contributes to the entire process, thenthey have a better understanding of how their role contributes to the finalproduct. Better processes lead to better quality, and often to better servicedelivery. With a common understanding, workers can define starting andending points to a process, and figure out what has to happen in between toprovide the desired service level. For example, consider the work requestfrom the customer: If the desired goal is to provide regular and meaningfulstatus reports, then those providing the front-line service delivery mustunderstand their role. If the completed work orders do not includedescriptions of the services provided, then the service center cannotadequately inform the customer. Or, if service delivery is delayed becauseof the unavailability of parts , then the service desk cannot notify thecustomer of a delay. Therefore, the front-line service delivery staff mustunderstand that their role includes more than just performing the work;they are a critical link in the customer communication process.

A series of tasks is called a process. A series of processes is referred to as asystem. Sometimes if a project improvement team feels overwhelmed, theymay be studying a system and not a process. Unless the team narrows its


focus, it stands a good chance of getting mired down and will not makeadequate progress. Teams should focus on one process at a time, unlesstwo or three processes are closely related and would be difficult to studyseparately.

Information and analysis are essential to evaluate performance and drivefuture performance improvements. The scientific approach studies thequality improvement methods and helps answer the question: How well arewe doing? Although it may sound complicated, the scientific method issimply a systematic approach to study processes. Although it can involvecomplicated formulas, data, and statistics, it is more often a simple meansfor teams to study the root cause of problems rather than relying onhunches or perceptions of superficial symptoms.

Dr. Joseph M. Juran conjectured that the concept that "organizations wouldhave fewer problems if only employees would do their jobs properly" isincorrect. In fact, the potential to promote quality improvements lies morewith improving the processes, not improving the workers. This concept hasevolved into the 85/15 Rule: at least 85 percent of the problems can becorrected by improving the process (which is determined largely bymanagement), and only 15 percent are under the employee's control. Infact, if it appears that the problem does lie with the employee, the troubleoften lies with poor instructions or inadequate training, which are both alsosystem problems.

Once leaders understand that systems and processes create the majority ofthe problems, they will stop blaming individual workers. They will startfocusing on improving systems, will start asking which processes areinefficient, and more likely will seek out solutions that will have long-termbenefits.

The scientific method was first described by Francis Bacon around 1620. Thescientific method can be described as hypothesis, experiment, andevaluation. Shewhart described manufacturing under statistical control as athree-step process of specification, production, and inspection. Hespecifically related this to the scientific method of hypothesis, experiment,and evaluation. Shewhart says that the statistician must improve the qualityof goods by showing how to tighten the tolerance range. Deming laterdescribed this process as Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA). It is also known asthe Deming Cycle, Shewhart Cycle, Deming Wheel, or Plan-Do-Study-Act.

A fundamental principle of the scientific method and PDCA is iteration: oncea process is defined, measured, and analyzed, executing the cycle again willextend the knowledge further. Repeating the PDCA cycle can bring theprocess closer to the ultimate goal, usually a perfect operation or improvedquality. One can envision an open coil spring, with each loop being one cycleof the PDCA cycle and each complete cycle indicating an increase in ourknowledge of the system under study. PDCA provides feedback in spirals ofincreasing knowledge of the process to incrementally improve the nextcycle.


PDCA is an iterative four-step problem-solving process typically used inquality control (see figure 1).

Figure 1. The Deming Cycle

PLAN. Establish the processes necessary to deliver results inaccordance with the objectives or specifications.DO. Implement the processes.CHECK. Monitor and evaluate the processes and results againstobjectives and specifications and report the outcome.ACT. Apply actions to the outcome for necessary improvement. Thismeans reviewing all steps (Plan, Do, Check, Act) and modifying theprocess to improve it before its next implementation

Quality Management Methods

The check or study phase of the PDCA cycle makes use of a great manyestablished quality management methods for analyzing and enhancingorganizational performance. The following list provides an overview of thevarious methods used to measure and analyze processes:

5 WhysAnalysis of varianceANOVA Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility (R&R)Axiomatic designApollo Root Cause Analysis (ARCA)Business process mappingCatapult exercise on variabilityCause-and-effects diagram (also known as fishbone or Ishikawadiagrams)Chi-square test of independence and fitsControl chartCorrelationCost-benefit analysisCritical-to-Quality (CTQ) TreeCustomer survey through use of Enterprise Feedback Management(EFM) systemsDesign of experimentsFailure mode and effects analysisGeneral linear model


General linear modelHistogramsHomogeneity of variancePareto chartsPick chartsProcess capabilityRegression analysisRun chartsSIPOC analysis (Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, Customers)StratificationTaguchi methodsThought process mapTRIZ (Russian acronym for "The theory of solving inventor's problems")

The following is a brief description of some of the more common tools usedto analyze and enhance organizational performance.

Flowcharts

Flowcharts are simple tools that model each step in a process. Once theteam can visually see the sequence of actions, it will have a commonreference point for further analysis. There are a variety of formats forflowcharts.

A detailed in-line flowchart is one option, but can be time-consuming tocreate and generally is the least effective option (see figure 2). As the nameimplies, this type of flowchart contains a lot of information and describes indetail what happens at every step in the process. This type of chart wouldinclude everything, such as loops caused by rework or other steps thatevolved over time to eliminate quality problems. Use detailed flowchartssparingly. The detail they provide often includes unnecessary steps, and itcan take weeks to develop one that everyone agrees on. By this time, theteam may already be discouraged, and it has not even started on the morechallenging step of analysis.


Figure 2. Detailed Flowchart

A top-down flowchart is a picture of the major steps involved in a process


A top-down flowchart is a picture of the major steps involved in a process(see figure 3). To construct a top-down flowchart, first list the most basicsteps across the top of a page or flip chart. This step should have no morethan six or seven primary process steps. Then below each primary step listthe major substeps (again, no more than six or seven). By limiting theamount of information on any single chart, the team is forced to narrow itsfocus to only those steps absolutely necessary for the completion of theprocess. Over time, invariably steps or complexities are added to a processto prevent rework or fix problems. The advantage of a top-down flowchart isthat it eliminates the need to include tasks that are not essential forcompletion of the process, such as inspections, steps to prevent rework, orother steps that evolved over time to eliminate quality problems. Top-downflowcharts allow teams to focus on only the steps that need to happen, notwhat is actually happening. Once the team can see the major steps, it cantake the time to ask questions, such as "Where do we go off track?" or"What causes us to go off track?" The answer to these questions points theteam toward potential solutions, not just the problem itself. This process istypically faster and more efficient than developing detailed flowcharts thatdescribe every step along the way.

Figure 3. Top-Down Flowchart

Deployment charts combine the two ideas: what happens in a process andwho is responsible for each step in the process (see figure 4). This methodis useful for teams to track what each person or work unit is supposed todo, where they fit into the sequence of the process, and how they relate tothe other players at each stage. To construct a deployment chart, list themajor steps of a process vertically on a page or flip chart. List each of theplayers (individuals or work units) across the top, and draw lines to create


columns under each heading. Then mark the key action at each step in theappropriate box, denoting which players are involved in which steps. Thisformat allows the team to visually see the major steps and the majorplayers simultaneously.

Figure 4. Deployment Chart

A work flow diagram is a picture of the movement of people, materials,documents, or information in a process (see figure 5). It is developed bytracing the movements on a sketch of the floor plan or similar map of thework space. The power of these sketches lies in illustrating a system'sinefficiency in a clear picture. Places where work can be simplified oftenpractically jump off the page. The interest lies in whether excessive orunnecessary movements can be eliminated by a more ideal layout,arrangement, flow path, or change in a process.



Figure 5. Work Flow Diagram

Pareto Charts

Pareto charts contain a series of bars whose heights reflect the frequency orimpact of process problems (see figure 6). The bars are then rearranged indescending order in height from left to right. This format allows the team toidentify the problems that have the most impact. The name of this chartderives from the Pareto Principle that 80 percent of the troubles are causedby 20 percent of the problems. This concept was first developed by theeconomist Vilfredo Pareto, later applied to the idea of management byJuran. Juran advises us to concentrate on the "vital few" sources ofproblems and not be distracted by those of lesser importance. Of course, incontinuous improvement efforts, once a large problem is resolved, thenlesser problems now show up as the next major cause of additionalproblems. The team can use tools such as brainstorming to identify theproblems in a process or solutions to a problem, and use Pareto voting (alsoreferred to as multi-voting) to rank them.

Figure 6. Sample Pareto Chart

Cause-and-Effect Diagrams

The cause-and-effect diagram, also referred to as a fishbone diagrambecause of its appearance, allows teams to map out a list of factors thoughtto affect a problem or desired outcome (see figure 7). This type of diagramwas invented by Kaoru Ishikawa and is also referred to as an Ishikawadiagram. The concept behind the cause-and-effect diagram is to identifyand organize possible causes of problems and factors needed to ensure thesuccess of a particular effort or process. The problem, situation, or event islisted on the right of the chart. A central arrow is drawn to the left of theproblem. Branches off the central arrow indicate main categories of factors


that affect the problem. Each primary branch can include sub-branches thataffect that particular primary branch. The advantage of this format is that itallows the team to visually see the relationship between the various factorsthat affect the process. Common factors that affect the process or solutiontypically include equipment, personnel, methods, materials, andenvironment. Because this format typically generates significant anddetailed discussions, cause-and-effect diagrams are best used after theprocess has been described and the problem well defined. By this time,team members have a good idea of which factors to include on the diagram.It is important to remember that a cause-and-effect diagram will identifyonly possible causes to the problem. Only data can identify the actualcauses.

Figure 7. Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Time Plots

Many factors that affect a process may change over time: Ingredientsdecay, new people are hired, tools and equipment wear down, and suppliersmay change. Any of these changes can affect the data that are beingcollected to analyze a problem. Detecting these time-related shifts, trends,or patterns is an essential step in making long-lasting improvements. Timecharts are a useful tool to track these process variables (see figure 8).


Figure 8. Time Plot

Control Charts

A control chart is a time chart that has an added feature; it includes therange of variation built into the system (see figure 9). This type of chartoften includes upper and lower statistical control limits, which are calculatedaccording to statistical formulas from data collected on the process. Thistype of chart allows the team to monitor a process to see whether it is instatistical control. Points that fall outside of the upper or lower control limitsor fall into particular patterns indicate the presence of a special cause ofvariation, and they deserve investigation. The control chart gives the teaminformation on variations that may come and go unpredictably. Data pointsthat stay within the upper and lower control limits indicate that the processis performing as intended or that any slight variances are coming fromcommon causes. It is important to note that control limits do not indicatewhat a process is supposed to do or what managers hope to achieve; theymerely describe what the process is capable of doing. The only way to makeimprovements is to fundamentally change the process; however, the controlchart will help monitor the impact or effectiveness of those changes. Oncethe team has identified and modified the root causes of the variations, thedistance between the upper and lower control limits will narrow.


Figure 9. Control Chart

Dot Plots

Dot plots are simple graphs that show the frequency of various values orevents (see figure 10). A dot is added to the plot above a particular factoror event each time that factor or event occurs. Dot plots are easilyconstructed and readily convey information. A quick look at the chart tellsthe team the range of measurements, the central values (mean, median,average), and how the data are distributed. These types of plots typicallyare used to get a quick look at the data before conducting further analysis.Sometimes the data will appear in the shape of a bell formed by the naturaltendency of the data to cluster around a central value, such as the averageor mean, and taper off on either end. Other times, the data may showabnormal patterns, such as those caused by errors or process variations.


Figure 10. Dot Plot

Scatter Diagram

Scatter diagrams differ from dot plots in that they show the relationshipbetween two variables or characteristics (see figure 11). In fact, the mostpowerful aspect of a scatter diagram is its ability to visually show therelationship between variables. The control parameter or independentvariable is customarily plotted along the horizontal axis. The measured ordependent variable is customarily plotted along the vertical axis. A scatterdiagram can suggest various kinds of correlations between variables with acertain confidence level. Correlations may be positive (rising), negative(falling), or null (uncorrelated). If the pattern of dots slopes from lower leftto upper right, it suggests a positive correlation between the variables beingstudied. If the pattern of dots slopes from upper left to lower right, itsuggests a negative correlation. A line of best fit, or trend line, can bedrawn to study the correlation between the variables. An equation for thecorrelation between the variables can be determined by established best-fitprocedures. For a linear correlation, the best-fit procedure is known as alinear regression.


Figure 11. Scatter Diagram

Process Improvement Methodologies

Rate of change or the rate of improvement is a key competitive factor intoday's world. PDCA allows for major jumps in performance ortransformational breakthroughs, as well as frequent small or incrementalimprovements. The PDCA cycle or improvement activities can beimplemented in several methods. Some of the most popular include Lean,Six Sigma, Kaizen, and Business Process Improvement.

Lean

Lean production, which is often known simply as "Lean," is the optimal wayof producing goods or services through the removal of waste andimplementing flow and value stream mapping. The theory is based on theconcept that removing wasteful activities or non-value-added activities willimprove productivity and improve the organization's ability to providequality products or services. The focus of Lean is to increase speed andinformation feedback. Two key components in the Lean process include the“pull” system and Value Stream Mapping.

The “pull” system is an important concept in Lean production and involveslooking at the throughput or yield. Traditional manufacturing used the“push” concept, making large batches of product and “pushing” them toeach downstream operation whether or not they are ready for them. Thepull concept involves controlling cycle time, process time, lead time, touchtime, and the rate of pace at which the customer expects to receive goods,products, or services. This leads to the concept of just-in-time delivery. TheLean process can lead to reduced inventory, quicker delivery and lowercosts related to delivering the final product or service.

Value stream mapping is a Lean technique used to analyze the flow ofmaterials and information currently required to bring a product or service toa consumer. It is also known as material and information flow mapping. The


process includes the following steps:

Identify the target product, product family, or service.1.Draw a current state value stream map, which includes the currentsteps, delays, and information flows required to deliver the targetproduct or service. This may be a production flow (raw materials toconsumer) or a design flow (concept to launch). Standard symbolstypically are used to represent supply chain entities.

2.

Assess the current state value stream map in terms of creating flow byeliminating waste.

3.

Draw a future state value stream map.4.Implement the future state.5.

Six Sigma

"Six Sigma" is a registered service mark and trademark of Motorola, Inc. Itis a business management tool that seeks to identify and remove the causesof defects and errors in system processes. It uses a set of qualitymanagement methods, including statistical methods, and creates a specialinfrastructure of people within the organization who are experts in thesemethods. Each Six Sigma project follows a defined sequence of steps andhas quantified targets.

Six Sigma was originally developed as a set of practices designed toimprove manufacturing processes and eliminate defects, but its applicationwas subsequently extended to other types of business processes as well. InSix Sigma, a defect is defined as anything that could lead to customerdissatisfaction. Six Sigma was heavily inspired by six preceding decades ofquality improvement methodologies, such as quality control, Total QualityManagement (TQM), and Zero Defects, based on the work of pioneers suchas Shewhart, Deming, Juran, Ishikawa, Taguchi, and others.

The term "Six Sigma process" comes from the notion that if one has sixstandard deviations between the mean of a process and the nearestspecification limit, practically no items will fail to meet the specifications.Processes that operate with "Six Sigma quality" over the short term areassumed to produce long-term defect levels below 3.4 defects per millionopportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma's implicit goal is to improve all processesto that level of quality or better (see figure 12).


Figure 12. Six Sigma Process

Like its predecessors, Six Sigma asserts that:

Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results(i.e., reduce process variation) are of vital importance to businesssuccess.Business processes have characteristics that can be measured,analyzed, improved, and controlled.Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment fromthe entire organization, particularly from top-level management.A clear commitment to making decisions should be made on the basisof verifiable data, rather than assumptions and guesswork.

A feature that sets Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvementinitiatives is a special infrastructure of experts to lead and implement theSix Sigma approach. Six Sigma borrows martial arts ranking terminology todefine a hierarchy that includes several key roles for its successfulimplementation.

Executive Leadership includes the chief executive officer and othermembers of top management. They are responsible for setting up avision for Six Sigma implementation. These leaders also empower theother role holders, or players, with the freedom and resources toexplore new ideas for breakthrough improvements.Champions are responsible for Six Sigma implementation across theorganization in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadershiptypically selects them from upper management levels. Champions alsoact as mentors to Black Belts.Master Black Belts, identified by the Champions, act as in-housecoaches. They devote 100 percent of their time to Six Sigma. Theyassist Champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart fromstatistical tasks, their time is spent on ensuring consistent applicationof Six Sigma across various functions and departments.Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigmamethodology to specific projects. They primarily focus on projectexecution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on


execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus onidentifying projects.Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementationalong with their other job responsibilities. They operate under theguidance of Black Belts.

Six Sigma has two key methodologies: DMAIC and DMADV, which were bothinspired by Deming's PDCA Cycle. DMAIC is used to improve an existingbusiness process, whereas DMADV is used to create new product or processdesigns.

DMAIC

The basic methodology consists of the following five steps:

Define process improvement goals that are consistent with customerdemands and the organization's strategy.Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data.Analyze the data to verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determinewhat the relationships are and attempt to ensure that all factors havebeen considered.Improve or optimize the process based on data analysis.Control to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected beforethey result in defects and continuously monitor the process.

Figure 13. DMAIC

With strategic goals in mind, an executive team identifies areas orprocesses on which to focus that are consistent with customer demands andthe organization’s strategy. Based on that analysis, an improvement projectis then initiated. Through a rigorous methodology, a project teamdetermines customer needs (DEFINE) and gathers information on thecurrent (as-is) process performance (MEASURE). This examination revealsissues and problems in the existing process. In ANALYZE, root causes of theissues or problems are identified and confirmed with data. Once the causeshave been established, solutions are developed and implemented(IMPROVE), followed by actions to ensure that the improved process isstandardized and resulting gains are maintained (CONTROL) (see figure 13).


DMADV

The basic methodology consists of the following five steps:

Define design or process goals that are consistent with customerdemands and the organization's strategy.Measure and identify characteristics that are critical to quality andprocess capabilities.Analyze to develop and design or process alternatives to select thebest alternative.Design details, optimize the design or process, and plan for design orprocess verification.Verify the design or process, set up pilot runs, and ultimatelyimplement the process.

Figure 14. DMADV

In DEFINE, the purpose and scope of the project are established. InMEASURE, customer data are translated into critical-to-qualitycharacteristics (i.e., design measurements) that the design must meet.Next, the project team generates and evaluates innovative concepts todetermine the one that will best meet the design requirements (ANALYZE).High-level designs are then developed and tested (DESIGN). At this point,the design that has tested best is verified against the design requirementsand validated against the intended use (VERIFY). Finally, the new design istransitioned to the process owners for rollout, implementation, and control,completing the DMADV methodology (see figure 14).

The difficulty of Six Sigma is that it was designed for manufacturingprocesses. The biggest variance in the service delivery arena is related tothe nonstandard behaviors of people. The concepts can be effectivelyapplied to facilities management, however, because every service is processdriven. Leaders should guide the process to help resisters to change andshould adopt new methodologies that remove non-value-added work. Toprovide Six Sigma service, an organization must be proficient at managingexisting processes, committed to process improvement, and willing to adoptnew processes.


Kaizen

Kaizen (Japanese for "improvement") is a Japanese philosophy that focuseson continuous improvement throughout all aspects of life. When applied tothe workplace, kaizen activities continually improve all functions of abusiness, from maintenance to management and from the chief executiveofficer to the front-line workers. By improving standardized activities andprocesses, kaizen aims to eliminate waste. Kaizen was first implemented inseveral Japanese businesses, including Toyota, during the country'srecovery after World War II, and has since spread to businesses throughoutthe world.

Kaizen is a daily activity, the purpose of which goes beyond simpleproductivity improvement. It is a process that, when done correctly,humanizes the workplace, eliminates overly hard work, and teaches peoplehow to perform experiments on their work using the scientific method. Withthis philosophy, people learn to spot and eliminate waste in businessprocesses.

To be most effective, kaizen must operate with three principles in place:

Consider the process, and the results, so that actions to achieve effectsare discovered.Think systemically about the whole process to avoid creating problemselsewhere in the process.Take a learning, nonjudgmental, nonblaming approach to thereexamination of the assumptions that resulted in the current process.

Although kaizen usually delivers small continuous improvements, theculture of continual aligned incremental improvements and standardizationyields large results in the form of compound productivity or processimprovement. Hence, the English usage of kaizen can be "continuousimprovement."

Business Process Improvement

Business Process Improvement (BPI) is a systematic approach to help anorganization optimize its underlying processes to achieve more efficientresults. Most BPI techniques were developed and refined for manufacturing,although many of the core principles and methodologies can be successfullyadapted to work in the service-based environment.

Similar to other improvement methodologies, BPI works by:

Defining the organization's strategic goals and purposes: Who are we,what do we do, and why do we do it?Determining the organization's customers (or stakeholders): Who dowe serve?Aligning the business processes to realize the organization's goals: Howdo we do it better?

Although BPI has similarities and uses many of the same tools as the other


methodologies, the goal of BPI is a radical change in the performance of anorganization, rather than a series of incremental changes (compared withTQM or kaizen). Hammer and Champy stated that the process was meantnot to impose trivial changes, such as 10 percent improvements or 20percent cost reductions, but was to be revolutionary.

Employees Working Together

Creating project teams is an important dimension of change management. Asingle person can make a significant difference in an organization. But rarelydoes a single person have enough knowledge or experience to understandeverything that goes on in a process. Major gains in quality and productivitycan be achieved through the use of teams. Pooling the skills, talents,knowledge, and perspectives of various individuals invariably producesbetter results than individual investment. With proper training, teams oftencan tackle complex and complicated problems with long-lasting and effectiveresults. Besides the pooling of individual skills, the team also providesmutual support between team members. The synergistic energy created byan effective team can produce results that far exceed the original vision.

Therefore, it is important to understand where project teams fit into theoverall quality effort and how to use them properly. Active involvement andhigh visibility of project teams can determine the success or failure of anyquality effort. To ensure the team’s success, it is critical to consider certainaspects. The team needs to have a clear and precise mission. Leaders mustmeet regularly with the team to help the team stay focused, providenecessary resources, or tear down organizational cultural roadblocks. Theteam members need to understand how to blend teamwork and scientificmethods. The team needs to be empowered to think outside of thetraditional hierarchical boundaries. The team needs to understand thatmaking improvements is not easy; patience and persistence are a necessity.Team members also need to understand team dynamics.

It is important that the leaders and the teams not get discouraged if duringthe middle of a three- to five-year plan they have not noticed immediateresults. Too often an organization loses sight of where it intends to go andmakes radical changes in mid-cycle. Patience and persistence are necessaryvirtues of any effective leader or quality improvement team. The ordinaryproject team is complicated. Team members must work out personaldifferences, find strengths on which to build, balance commitments, andlearn how to improve. When a team runs smoothly, members canconcentrate on the primary goal of improving a process. In contrast, a teamthat fails to build relationships will waste time on struggles for control andendless discussions that lead nowhere.

Knowing what to expect as the team progresses will enable leaders toanticipate and address difficulties. Leaders can help avoid many disruptionsand be better prepared for those that cannot be avoided. On the surface, itwould seem that managing the team efforts is simply related to improvingthe process. If, indeed, these were the team’s only concerns, progresswould be easy. When people form into groups, however, something seems


to get in the way of efficient progress. Team members bring in manypersonal aspects, including conflicting emotions like excitement and anxietyabout being on the team, loyalty to their divisions or departments orprevious processes, and nervousness about what they have to offer or theirrole on the team. If left unattended, these personal aspects can inhibit theteam's effectiveness.

As the team members gradually learn to cope with the emotional and grouppressures they face, the team goes through fairly predictable stages:forming, storming, norming, and performing. More experienced teams andteam members will progress though these steps rather quickly. Lessexperienced teams may take longer to progress through these steps, andthe leader must reinforce that these steps are to be expected.

During the forming stage, members cautiously explore the boundaries ofacceptable group behavior. This is a stage of transition from individual tomember status. Because there is so much going on to distract members’focus in the beginning, little that concerns the specific goal is accomplished.This stage is perfectly normal, and leaders must allow time for the team toform.

Storming is probably the most difficult stage for the team. They begin torealize that the task is different, and more difficult than first imagined, somembers can become testy, defensive, blameful, or overzealous. Impatientabout the lack of progress, but still too underdeveloped as a team to knowmuch about decision making or the scientific method, members can argueabout just what actions the team should take. Team members try to relysolely on their personal and professional experience, resisting any need forcollaboration. During this stage, team members may have little energy tospend on the task at hand; however, with guidance, they will begin tounderstand one another.

During the norming stage, members begin to reconcile competing loyaltiesand responsibilities. They begin to accept the team, team ground rules, theirroles on the team, the individuality of other team members, and theindividual qualifications that each member brings to the team. Emotionalconflict is reduced as previous individual competitiveness is replaced withgroup cooperation. As team members begin to work out their differences,they now have more time and energy to focus on the primary goal. At thispoint, the team is able to start making significant progress.

During the performing stage, the team has resolved its many relationshipsand expectations. The team can start performing—that is, diagnosing andsolving problems—and actually can have an impact on implementingchanges. At this point, team members have discovered and accepted othermembers' strengths and weaknesses and have discovered how they cancontribute. Members begin to develop insights into personal and groupprocesses, and they are better able to identify productive process changes.The leader will know when the team has reached this point because theteam now is able to accomplish significant progress.


Understanding this normal pattern for maturing groups will keep the leadersfrom overreacting to normal problems and setting unrealistic expectationsthat only add to frustration. Many team efforts have failed because theleaders did not recognize this normal and necessary process. Teams havebeen dismantled because leaders were not seeing immediate results or wereexperiencing their own frustration with the process. It is often said thatgroup decisions are far more effective than individual decisions, so leadersmust allow the group to mature before the team concept can achieve its fullpotential. Abandoning a team approach to process improvement often canhave far more detrimental effects than not having started the team in thefirst place. Abandoning a team during the maturity process can disillusionemployees, squelch initiative, and create an atmosphere of distrust in theleadership.

Leaders must recognize that teams have a normal roller-coaster ofemotional highs and lows. With every step forward, the future looks brightand team members are optimistic. No matter how well a team workstogether, however, progress is never smooth. As progress swings fromforward to stalled, and then from stalled to backward, the mood of the teamwill swing as well. The positive feelings of hopefulness and optimism maylast for a while, but they usually change to boredom and impatience as theproject gets under way and the team realizes how much remains on theroad to success. The elation that results from certain stages of the processoften can change to despair if the team does not understand these highsand lows of team dynamics. For example, often the initial data collectionand analysis process uncovers mistakes in data collection procedures, andthe team has to go back and do it again.

At this point, the leaders need to provide encouragement. Improving eachstep of the change process is part of the process. If the data collection teamdetermines that the process for gathering the data is flawed, the teamneeds to understand that this is a success. The flaw in the data-gatheringprocess was not known until the data were gathered and analyzed. Thisstep has pointed to a part of the process that needs to be improved todevelop more meaningful measurement factors. Had the initial data notindicated a problem with the collection process, the problem would neverhave been uncovered—that is, the team cannot adjust something it is notaware of. The team occasionally will need the leader to reinforce thisconcept to respark the team’s emotional state.

The maturity pattern and emotional state of each team is different.Guidance leaders need to understand and accept that changes in attitude,just like growth stages, are normal. The leaders and the teams mustdevelop patience and persistence. Too many process improvement effortshave been abandoned in mid-cycle because these concepts were not fullyunderstood. Abandoning a change process, just like abandoning a team, inmid-cycle can create disillusionment, squelch initiative, and create anatmosphere of distrust. Once employees reach this state of mind, it isdifficult to encourage them to participate in another change initiative.Deming notes that lack of constancy is one of several deadly diseases thatwill stand in the way of any effective quality transformation effort.


will stand in the way of any effective quality transformation effort.

Tools for Making Team Decisions

Anyone who has any experience working with teams will appreciate thedifficulty in developing creative ways to approach a task. It is sometimeseven more difficult to select only one or two items to focus on from all ofthe available options. Three of the most common techniques used by teamsto ease this effort are brainstorming, multivoting, and the nominal grouptechnique.

Brainstorming is one of the easiest and most enjoyable ways to generate alist of ideas. A successful brainstorming process allows people to be ascreative as possible and does not restrict their ideas in any way. Thisfree-form approach can generate excitement in the group, equalizeinvolvement, and result in original solutions to problems. The team needs todiscuss the ground rules before starting the brainstorming process. Typicalguidelines include the following: (1) there are no silly ideas, (2) thinkoutside the box, (3) hitchhiking on someone else’s idea is perfectlyacceptable, (4) no discounting of ideas, and (5) no discussion of ideas(there is plenty of time for that at the next stage). It is not uncommon forideas that may seem totally unorthodox when first suggested to be the bestsolutions in the long run.

Multivoting, also known as Pareto voting, is an effective method of reducinga number of ideas to the most important or popular. This is accomplishedthrough a series of votes; each cutting the list in half. Even an extensive listof 30 to 50 items can be reduced to a workable number in four to five votes.Multivoting often follows a brainstorming session to identify the few itemsworthy of immediate attention. The process involves generating a list ofideas. If two or more items seem to be related, they should be combined,but only if the group agrees. Once all related items have been combined,renumber the items if necessary. The team then begins the voting process.

The nominal group technique (NGT) is a more structured approach thanbrainstorming and multivoting to narrow down a list of options. Thisapproach is called “nominal” because during the session the group does notengage in the usual amount of interaction typical of a real team. NGT is aneffective tool when there are highly controversial issues or when the team isstuck in disagreement. The first step is formalized brainstorming, but thisstep is conducted in silence, with each member writing down their ownideas. When everyone is done, a facilitator goes around the table and allowseach member to read aloud one idea off their list. Each idea is added to aflip chart. Discussion continues around the table until everyone hascompleted their list (or until a previously agreed-on time has expired). Onceall of the ideas are listed, the facilitator asks if there are any questionsabout any of the listed ideas. This process is designed to allow the group toclarify and understand ideas on the list. Once this step is completed, thefacilitator assists with combining similar ideas, but only with agreementfrom the originator of the idea. The next step is similar to multivoting, butagain is more formalized and conducted by silent voting. Depending on the


number of items to choose from, each member is allowed to select their topfour to eight choices. These choices are then ranked in priority order. Onceall members have voted, the votes are collected and tallied. The results ofthe tally will produce a Pareto-like chart that ranks the group's results. Thegroup can then discuss the results. If there is agreement, then the processis complete and the group can decide what to do next. If there is continueddisagreement, the group can focus on investigating the top two or threeitems that received the highest scores.

It is important that team members understand the concept of consensusbuilding. Consensus building is the process of finding a proposal acceptableto enough of the members that all can support it; no member opposes it.Consensus building is not a majority vote. Consensus building requirestime; active participation by all team members; skills in communication,listening, conflict resolution, and discussion facilitation; creative thinking;and open-mindedness. To reach consensus, the team must allow eachmember to participate equally, and this may require several rounds ofdiscussion and solution modification. Not all decisions require consensus,and it is probably impossible to have such agreement in any group, so theteam should agree in advance as to when to push for consensus. Whenconsensus building is required, the three techniques—brainstorming,multivoting, and NTG—can be effective structured ways to reach consensus.

Basic Steps in Using the Scientific Method to Solve Problems

When teams are formed to assist with the change management process,they need to be aware of basic strategies of the scientific approach toproblem solving. These steps include: understanding the process, collectingmeaningful data, identifying root causes of problems, developingappropriate solutions, and making effective changes.

The first step in any team process improvement effort is to understand theprocess. The team should understand how it operates, who is involved withwhat steps, what it is supposed to accomplish, who the customers are, andwhat the customers expect. Discussing these issues generally will help theteam come to a common understanding of the process and its goal, identifyany inconsistencies, and highlight any glaring problems. With thisknowledge, the team will almost always be able to develop betterprocedures. Many mistakes or errors are related to the process, and theseerrors can be eliminated by making simple changes to a process. The teamshould take time to evaluate where the most common mistakes occur. Theteam can identify procedures that are less error prone by asking suchquestions as: Would changing the order of the steps prevent mistakes?Would changing a form prevent mistakes? Would using a checklist preventmistakes? Or, would providing clear instructions that are graphicallyillustrated and prominently displayed prevent mistakes? The team shoulddiscuss whether changes in the work environment would be beneficial, suchas changing the work layout or using a device that checks the completion ofa procedure. The team should take time to be creative and think of entirelynew procedures that are less error prone.


Collecting meaningful data may be one of the most important strategiesteams will use. Collecting unreliable data or developing poor collectionmethods can lead teams in the wrong direction, bring teams to the wrongconclusion, or fail to bring about the desired results. Collecting too muchdata can lead to analysis paralysis. Therefore, teams should take time todiscuss why they are collecting data, what data will be the mostmeaningful, how the measured data will improve the process, and whatprocess is the most effective for collecting the data. Meaningful data mustbe both consistent and stable. Data are consistent if two people whomeasure the same thing get essentially the same results. Data areconsidered stable when the results do not show signs of variation due tospecial causes. Ignoring these two concepts usually leads to wasted effort.

Identifying the root cause of problems is essential for developingpermanent solutions to problems. Sometimes it is easy to tell when aproblem is first observed, but it is hard to know when it first occurs. Atother times, employees may think a particular problem happens all thetime, when in fact the specific cause of the problem is isolated. Jumping toconclusions without identifying the root cause of problems often leads towasted time and resources. The team should spend time discussing thedefinition of the problem and studying the cause of the problem. The teammay invite other people who have specific knowledge of the process toprovide input. The more time spent understanding the cause and effect ofthe problem, the better the team will be at identifying the root cause.Statistical methods often are useful in this step of the improvement process.

The crux of the scientific method is to develop solutions that really solve theproblem. The only way to truly solve problems is to eliminate their causes.To develop effective solutions, the team may need to investigate variousalternative solutions. The team should avoid jumping to conclusions,because it is common for people to assume they know the cause of theproblem and the solution before they even start the process. All hunchesmust be supported by data, or they are not data-based decisions. There isvalue in having a “gut” feeling; however, if the gut feeling evolved based onerroneous data, it can lead to erroneous conclusions. In that case,meaningful and lasting solutions generally will not be developed. If thehunch turns out to be correct and is supported by data, the team invariablylearns something about the process. More often, the best solution turns outto be something different than what was originally anticipated. The teamshould be patient and collect data on a variety of alternative strategies, andit should avoid simply charging ahead with what appears to be the bestsolution. Once special causes of variance are eliminated and the processbecomes closer to statistical control, the team can discuss how it mightmake fundamental changes to the process to tighten the variance.

After the team has identified the root cause of a problem and an effectivesolution, the next step is to implement the change. This may sound easy;however, the organization’s culture often can be the biggest roadblock tomaking effective change. The team should make certain to include theorganization’s leadership in the plan, and identify the major sequence ofevents that are required to implement that plan. The team should look


events that are required to implement that plan. The team should lookahead, anticipate resources and training if necessary, discuss the bestmethod to communicate and sell the proposed changes, and think aboutwhat to do if problems arise.

By this time, the team should have a solid understanding of the process andshould have eliminated the sources of problems from the process. Beforebringing the project to an end, the team should develop a plan to makecontinuous improvement—a constant, never-ending part of the process.This may include keeping records up-to-date, monitoring key performanceindicators (KPIs), and benchmarking.

Identifying Trends

It is well known that it is difficult to manage something that cannot bemeasured. So how does the change leader identify current trends or areasthat need improvement? What is available to help the leaders answerquestions such as: Are we making adequate investments in ourinfrastructures to remain competitive? Are we making adequate investmentsin our resources to sustain excellence? Are we providing quality service? Arewe providing an environment that creates employee satisfaction? Are weaddressing the changes that drive actual or perceived performanceexcellence? Are we effectively utilizing available technologies? Are wechanging with the times and doing so fast enough to keep pace?

Various aspects of the facilities management organization can be measuredto provide feedback to the change leader. Some of the relevant measuresand indicators include facilities inspections and audits, financial andexpenditure reports, operating costs, staffing ratios, and utility data. Otherpertinent measurements include process KPIs, such as work orderutilization, planned versus unplanned labor hours, schedule compliance, PMversus breakdown labor hours, storeroom turnover, and percentage of workorder backlog.

One way to stay current is to remain active, listen, and network. Activeinvolvement with national and regional professional organizations, such asAPPA, and attendance at education forums can provide valuable trendinformation. Participation in the APPA Thought Leader Series can provideinvaluable insight into current and emerging trends. Networking with peersprovides information on what others are doing, or how they are doing it.Reading trade journals, such as the Facilities Manager, or publications, suchas Educational Facilities and the Impact of Technology, Expectations andCompetition, an APPA Thought Leaders Series publication that includes thetop 10 critical facilities issues, can provide information on current andprogressive industry changes.

More formal tools are available to the change manager as well. TheBalanced Scorecard (BSC) is a tool that can be used to measure progress invarious key areas and to ensure that change efforts align with the


organization's strategic plan. Measurements using KPIs and benchmarks canprovide both internal and external assessment of progress and status.

Balanced Scorecard

An organization's strategic goals should provide the key direction for anychange management effort. This alignment can be brought about byintegrating programs like the BSC into the change initiative. For example,when deploying BPI or Six Sigma, projects can be identified on the basis ofhow they fit into the organization's BSC agenda.

The BSC is a performance planning and measurement framework designedto execute and monitor the organizational strategy by using a combinationof financial and nonfinancial measures. It is designed to translate vision andstrategy into objectives and measures across four balanced perspectives:financial, customers, internal business process, and learning and growth. Itprovides a framework ensuring that the strategy is translated into acoherent set of performance measures.

The BSC complements financial measures with operational measures oncustomer satisfaction, internal processes, and the organization's innovationand learning activities. It allows management to look at the organizationfrom various perspectives such as the following:

How is the department viewed by its customers?What must the department do to excel?Can the department continue to improve, change, and create value toremain effective?Is the department effectively utilizing its resources?

Implementing BSCs typically includes four processes:

Translating the vision into operational goalsCommunicating the vision and linking it to individual performanceBusiness planningProviding feedback and learning, and adjusting the strategy accordingly

These four stages should be representative of the organization's sharedvision. Ultimately, these measures should help to communicate theorganization's strategies and goals, motivate actions, and provide guidanceand feedback for their attainment. Thus, for an organization to reap the fullpotential of the BSC process, it must first define its mission, determinemajor departmental objectives, and select strategic initiatives. The entireBSC design and implementation process easily can take up to two years ormore, so it is critical for the organization's leaders to remain patient andpersistent. Utilizing effective change management skills will help to guidethe process.

Grouping performance measures into general categories (perspectives) canaid in the gathering and selection of appropriate performance measures forthe enterprise. Four general perspectives have been proposed by the BSC:

Financial perspective


Financial perspectiveCustomer perspectiveInternal process perspectiveLearning and growth perspective

The financial perspective examines whether the organization'simplementation and execution of its strategy are contributing to bottom-lineimprovement. This perspective can be used to evaluate the ability of theorganization to manage its operations and costs.

The customer perspective defines the value that the organization willapply to satisfy customers. The measures that are selected for the customerperspective should measure the value that is delivered to the customer,which may involve time, quality, performance and service, and cost.Fast-changing customer needs underscore the importance of aligningbusiness processes to achieve higher customer satisfaction. It is imperativein any change initiative that the “voice of the customer” be heard, andfactored in, when reviewing or redesigning any process.

The internal process perspective is concerned with the processes thatcreate and deliver value to the customer. It focuses on all the activities andkey processes required for the organization to excel at providing the valueexpected by the customers both productively and efficiently. These caninclude both short-term and long-term objectives as well as incorporatinginnovative process development to stimulate improvement. This perspectivemeasures internal processes for functions, such as operations management(improving asset utilization, supply chain management, etc.), customermanagement (expanding and deepening relations), innovation (newproducts or services), regulatory (effective control and compliance), andsocial (establishing good relations with the external stakeholders).

The learning and growth perspective is the foundation required forsustaining an organizational change culture. It focuses on the intangibleassets of an organization that are required to support the value-creatingprocesses. The learning and growth perspective is concerned with the jobs(human capital), the systems (information capital), and the climate(organization capital) of the enterprise.

Christopher K. Ahoy suggested adding two additional perspectives:information technology and knowledge management.

The information technology perspective is concerned with the allaspects of managing and processing information in an organization. Itincludes hardware and software, and internal and external applications.

The knowledge management perspective is concerned with howeveryone in the organization collects, disseminates, and analyzes pertinentdata, information, and knowledge in a timely fashion for the benefit of theorganization as a whole.

It is important for the organization to understand that these variousperspectives are not independent of each other. Performance drivers in one


perspective may affect outcomes in other perspectives.

An effective BSC can be the catalyst for stimulating and sustainingcontinuous improvement. It can serve as the starting point for anorganization-wide performance improvement system that pinpoints eachdivision's key contributions to the overall strategy. When used effectively,the BSC provides the framework for an organization to change its cultureand the way it goes about doing business systematically and fundamentally.

Benchmarking and Key Performance Indicators

Change management tools place emphasis on measurable results.Accordingly, benchmarks and KPIs assume an important role in any changeinitiative. Depending on the life cycle of the process in question,benchmarks may be internal from within the organization, external fromcompeting or noncompeting organizations, or dictated by the seniormanagement of the organization as an aspirational target. KPIs are financialand nonfinancial metrics used to help an organization define and measureprogress toward organizational goals.

Benchmarking

The key to organizational survival is to stay current by actively seeking andimplementing best practices, both internal and external to the organization.Benchmarking can contribute directly toward this effort. Benchmarking is aprocess in which organizations evaluate various aspects of their processesin relation to best practice. This process allows organizations to developplans on how to adopt such best practices. Used effectively, benchmarkingcan help organizations pursue continuous improvement by allowing them tocontinually challenge their practices.

Benchmarking can help set realistic goals and strategic targets, while alsocreating a sense of urgency. It can help increase sensitivity toward thechanges in the expectations or industry practices. Benchmarking differsfrom comparative cost studies, because comparative cost studies tend tomeasure against averages, not best practice.

There are various kinds of benchmarking. Some of the most common onesinclude process benchmarking, performance benchmarking, and strategicbenchmarking. In process benchmarking, the focus is on improving processcapability, effectiveness, efficiency, or cost to enhance the final output.Performance benchmarking emphasizes the competitive position of anorganization within its own industry, with a focus on metrics such as cost orquality. Strategic benchmarking seeks to identify the approaches that makehigh-performing organizations successful. This form of benchmarking is themost advanced and may require considerable resources and time, yet mostbreakthrough ideas come from this effort.

Benchmarking can be accomplished internally or industry-wide. Internalbenchmarking is the most basic level of benchmarking, and it analyzes theareas that are most successful within the organization with the goal of


establishing similar factors in other internal processes. Industrybenchmarking can be accomplished on an individual basis or in collaborationwith other organizations.

One challenge that benchmarking presents to the change leader is toprepare the organization for the fact that others may perform better. It iscritical to communicate the message that because other organizations maybe superior in some processes, it is not a negative reflection on theorganization's ability, knowledge, or dedication. To improve, even anorganization that is performing well must be able to come to terms with thefact that it will need to emulate best practices.

Key Performance Indicators

KPIs frequently are tied to an organization's strategy (as exemplifiedthrough techniques such as the BSC). They are used to measure theperformance or progress of various steps in work processes. The keyelements to be considered when identifying KPIs are as follows:

Have a predefined business process.Have clear goals or performance requirements for the process.Have a quantitative or qualitative measurement of the results andcomparison with set goals.Investigate variances and adjust processes or resources to achieve thedesired goals.

When identifying KPIs, the acronym SMART is often applied. KPIs need tobe:

SpecificMeasurableAchievableResult-oriented or RelevantTime-bound

The typical off-the-shelf computer maintenance management systems(CMMS) come with more than 200 standard reports under the broadheading of asset management. Although these technologies have becometremendous tools to manage work, provide information for decision making,and measure performance, they need to be carefully managed. The BSCapproach can be used to determine what outcomes need to measured andrelevant KPIs. For example, each perspective of the BSC may include suchKPIs as:

Financial: facilities condition index (FCI), facility operating index (FOI),and facility renewal index (FRI)Processes: preventive maintenance (PM) versus breakdownmaintenance and system reliabilityEmployee: training and productivityCustomer: response time and qualitative impressions of facilities byvarious stakeholders


APPA Facilities Performance Indicators

The APPA Facilities Performance Indicators (FPIs) survey is an annualcollection and reporting of data (KPIs), creating a baseline for performanceevaluation across education facilities. The FPI survey and resulting FPIreports take a comprehensive look at facilities' operating costs, staffinglevels and expenses, building and space costs and usage, strategic financialmeasures, and much more to provide a benchmark by which relatedinstitutions can compare, contrast, measure, and elevate their facilities'performance.

The FPI report can depict statistics in three views: statistical reports, barcharts, and dashboard dials. The information is organized around eight mainfacilities functions: administration, construction/architecture andengineering, custodial services, energy/utilities, landscaping/groundskeeping, maintenance/trades, public safety, and other functions. Detailedreports are available for key indicators in areas such as the following:

General Data: covers statistics that provides a broad profile of theparticipating institutionsOperating Costs Report: covers basic statistics on daily facilitiesoperationsStrategic Financial Measures Report: covers key financial indicatorssuch as the Facility Operating Current Replacement Value (CRV) Index,the Facility Operating Gross Square Foot (GSF) Index, the FacilityOperating Gross Institutional Expenditures (GIE) Index, the CapitalRenewal Index, the Facilities Condition Index, and the CapitalRenewal/Deferred Maintenance/Renovation/Modernization Needs IndexBuilding and Space Report: explores statistics on these topics; theseratios provide essential information on characteristics of educationalfacilitiesPersonnel Data and Costs Report: looks at trends in salary levels,staffing of full-time equivalent (FTE) positions by position plus ratios,and measures that can be used for staffing and analysis of personnelcostsInternal Processes Report: measures important, select facilitiesbusiness processesEvaluations Report: displays the institution's four performanceself-evaluations in the survey and the results of their campus-basedcustomer and employee satisfaction surveys; includes statistics ontraining and positions filled by internal candidates

The dashboard feature (see figure 15) is a flexible tool for setting goals atvarious levels within an organization and organizing dashboards into BSCperspectives. The dashboards overlay an institution's measurement scoresonto dials with visual comparisons to overall averages. Goals can beinserted to show the future desired performance positions.


Figure 15. Sample APPA FPI Dashboard

The FPI report is an essential tool that can be used to achieve organizationalexcellence through continuous improvement. The FPI survey and reportenable the facilities professional to assess an organization's financialperformance, the effectiveness of its primary processes, the readiness of itsemployees to embrace the challenges of the future, and its ability to delightcustomers. The FPI report enhances the facilities professional's ability todevelop and analyze solid information supporting organizational planning,reporting, operating, and change efforts.

Assessment Programs

A number of assessment programs are designed specifically for the facilitiesmanagement organization to guide the change process. Three specific onesare the (1) APPA Facilities Management Evaluation Program, (2) ReliabilityManagement Group, and (3) Sightlines.

Facilities Management Evaluation Program

The APPA Facilities Management Evaluation Program (FMEP) represents aleadership tool designed to serve organizations looking for a proven andsuccessful approach to performance management and improvement. JackHug, Past APPA President, states, “It is made to order for the facilitiesmanagement profession.”

The FMEP takes a system approach that includes seven section criteria and57 subsections that are all part of a system that must be integrated tooptimize organizational performance. The seven FMEP sections areLeadership, Strategic and Operational Planning, Customer Focus,Information and Analysis, Development and Management of HumanResources, Process Management, and Performance Results.

Patterned after the Baldrige National Quality Program Criteria forPerformance Excellence, the FMEP criteria provide a framework for


continuous improvement. The criteria are designed to help facilitymanagement organizations use a comprehensive and integrated approach toorganizational performance management, and provide a profile of strengthsand opportunities for improvement.

It is important to recognize that the work required to prepare for the FMEPis not an individual task. The best method is to involve a team or teams ofpeople who have an interest in better understanding and using the FMEPcriteria as a template for improving the organization. A team should consistof three to five members who represent employees from different levelsthroughout the organization.

The team composition will vary depending on the particular criteriacategory. Large facilities organizations may have multiple teams, eachevaluating different FMEP criteria. Smaller institutions may have only asingle team to assess all seven FMEP criteria categories.

The benefit of going through an FMEP is that the leadership of a facilitiesorganization is required to review current practices. The process allows theorganization to identify and make appropriate adjustment andimprovements to overall effectiveness and efficiency. The result is anorganization that improves quality and productivity, and ultimately providesimproved customer service.

Reliability Management Group

The Reliability Management Group (RMG) offers a framework to guide theorganization's change process. The work management process consists ofsix steps on what the organization refers to as “The Wheel.” The Wheel isRMG's graphic view of good reliability management. The sections of TheWheel are the Pain Zone, the Productivity Zone, Joint Prioritization, DailySchedule Compliance, Collect and Utilize Data, the Proactivity Zone,Problem Solving, and Work Culture.

The Pain Zone is emergency work that is the most expensive type ofmaintenance. The Productivity Zone is where productivity is created byplanning and scheduling work. Joint Prioritization is teamwork betweendepartments such as Operations, Maintenance, Engineering, and Materialsthat together decide the order in which work should be accomplished. DailySchedule Compliance is the most important measure in maintenancebecause it identifies both equipment reliability and work process reliability.Collect and Utilize Data is a critical step in the improvement process. TheProactivity Zone consists of various technologies or procedures that identifywork early to skip the Pain Zone. Some of the most common processesinclude preventative maintenance (PM), predictive maintenance (PDM),condition-based maintenance (CBM), reliability-centered maintenance(RCM), and total productive maintenance (TPM). Problem Solving consists ofwork documentation, work measurement, and work analysis. Work Culturesurrounds and affects every part of the entire process. The RMG Wheelcorrelates directly with the Deming Cycle of PDCA.


RMG's Reliability Grid is a detailed, comprehensive framework for assessingthe Reliability Process. The grid parallels the work management process and“The Wheel.” The grid has 88 cells and 491 criteria that comprehensivelydescribe the characteristics of a low-cost, reliable work managementprocess. The grid is a useful tool that brings objectivity and order to an oftensubjective and chaotic process. If used to its full potential, the grid leads toa thorough understanding of the work management process and theorganization's work culture. This can be a useful tool to guide the changeprocess by defining what is, what can be, and how to get there.

Sightlines

Sightlines also uses a process that follows the PDCA cycle. Sightlines statesthat its goal is to enable colleges and university business officers andfacilities leaders to manage the physical assets of a campus with the sameanalytical rigor with which they manage their financial assets. Sightlines hascreated a proprietary process to measure and monitor the performance ofphysical assets on college and university campuses to guide the changeprocess. The firm refers to the process as the Return on Physical Assets(ROPA). The ROPA process was developed to illustrate the interrelationshipsamong four key aspects of facilities management: asset reinvestment,annual stewardship, operating effectiveness, and customer service. Usingthe Sightlines measurement approach, an organization can transform datainto action items. They transform data on 170 indicators into information byapplying a QVQ (Quantify, Verify, Qualify) process. This information istransformed into knowledge by applying the ROPA model along withbenchmarking to illustrate trends and opportunities. The knowledge gainedfrom the ROPA model is then integrated with institutional long-rangeprogram and financial planning to identify action items. The Sightlinesmodel can provide independent validation of organizational strengths andweaknesses and can discover the root causes for under-performing areas.

Sustaining Change

One of the biggest challenges in the change process is to sustain a changeof culture. For an organization to adopt a change culture, it must ceaseseeing change as a transitory practice; change must become the norm. In asustained change culture, people no longer label the process as “change,”which comes with all the of normal resistance inertia related to change.Unless this label is dropped, change will be perceived as a passing diversionfrom the normal practices, or management's program du jour. Developing achange culture will be successful only when people's actions are altered,when new behaviors produce group benefits for a prolonged period of time,and when people begin to make a connection between their altered behaviorand performance improvement. Lou Gerstner, commenting on histransformation of IBM, states, “What you can do is create the conditions fortransformation. You can provide incentives. You can define the marketplacerealities and goals. But then you have to trust. In fact, in the end,


realities and goals. But then you have to trust. In fact, in the end,management doesn't change culture. Management invites the workforceitself to change the culture.”

Lasting change starts with planting a seed early on in the process. Thecumulative effect of nurturing that seed as it grows will determine whetherchange becomes rooted into the organization's culture. Sustained change isnot something that happens once change has been implemented.

Planting and nurturing the change seed may involve organizational changes.Change will likely involve redesigning the roles people play in theorganization. Behaviors and attitudes are formed by the context of roles,responsibilities, and relationships. Change may require that theorganization's structure be redesigned. Who plays key positions in theprocess can have a strong signaling effect. Individuals most willing to adoptchange should be put into lead roles, either formally or informally. Manyindividuals who are not in formal leadership roles can be effectively utilizedto lead change processes. Change may require that resources be realignedto emphasize the goal.

Reward systems must be redesigned as well. Rewards must include publicrecognition of behaviors that are consistent with the desired change. Thisboth reinforces the desired behaviors and sends a strong message toothers. Who gets the praise and recognition? Who gets promoted and why?Is team effort really a value? Is initiative recognized and appreciated? Theseare all important questions that must be reinforced throughout the changeprocess. One of the most powerful messages is for leaders to reinforce whatthey truly care about.

Change leaders must take an active, visible role in the change process.Active participation, support for organizational redesign, resource allocation,and effective reward programs all indicate the level of credible commitment.People need to see deeds and actions. Simply communicating the desiredgoals will not have a lasting effect.

Change leaders must demonstrate a high level of interest in measurement.This includes performance measurements, benchmarking, attitude surveys,focus groups, and individual interviews. A balanced measurement programmust track short-term and long-term performance indicators, as well asinternal and external perspectives of stakeholders. These indicators will helpassess whether the organization is doing the right things in the right ways.

Take time to celebrate. Change efforts may take many years to becomefully integrated into the organizational culture. This can test the patience ofinternal and external stakeholders and can increase the likelihood ofskepticism. There is often no better motivator than celebrating frequentsuccesses. It can keep hopes alive and rejuvenate those who have investedextra effort. Celebrating success can enhance the credibility of the program.It is important during the celebrations not to declare victory too soon. Whileit is good to celebrate short-term wins, the long-term success is the higher,overarching goal. The goal is to win the war, not the battle. The possibility


of regression to prechange practices has a strong pull.

Continuous refining and retuning of the process must become a culturalnorm. The outcomes of change initiatives are not always fully anticipated. Insome cases, there are totally unanticipated outcomes. In turn, conditionsthat presented the need for change are constantly changing. It is importantfor the change leader to communicate and reaffirm that these adjustmentsare consistent with the original initiative. Some change efforts may fail, buta failed change effort may provide far more information than anunproductive success. For example, people sometimes can learn moreabout math by learning from their mistakes. It is up to the leaders to makesense of what is going on and to retell the story so that it is consistent withthe desired values and core principles.

Successful change leaders actively look for ways to obtain clear performanceimprovement, establish goals, determine milestones, achieve the statedobjectives, and reward the people involved. Continued achievement,celebration, and communication will encourage teams to continue with theeffort required to make long-lasting improvements and to develop anorganization that is built to change.

To sustain an organization that effectively develops a change culture,department leaders must accept and embrace a concept that APPA PastPresident Charlie Jenkins eloquently expressed: “Change management is ajourney similar to climbing a mountain that has no summit: you just have tolearn to love climbing!”

Change Management Case Study

After successfully implementing a new work order management system, theUniversity of Colorado at Boulder Facilities Management Departmentproceeded with the next step. This step involved reviewing theorganizational practices to promote effective asset management, improvecustomer service, and capture opportunities for improvement.

To accomplish this goal, Facilities Management developed an OperationsSteering Committee (see figure 16) that guides a number ofsubcommittees: a Work Order Process Review Team, a ShopPlanning/Scheduling Team, a Customer Service Team, an InventoryManagement Team, a Preventative Maintenance Team, and a ReportingTeam. Each subcommittee is composed of cross-sectional employees whocoordinate their given charge. The Steering Committee discusses the unit'smission and vision, monitors subcommittee progress, assists with removingbarriers identified by the subcommittees, determines priorities, andcoordinates to align the subcommittee interactions since all team missionsoverlap.

Facilities Operations uses a modified Balanced Scorecard, referred to as thePrograms of Emphasis. The five strategies in the Programs of Emphasis are


as follows:

Improve Campus Appearance and FunctionalityCreate a Customer Service-Driven CultureCreate an Inviting and Invigorating Work EnvironmentFocus on Process, Performance, and Productivity ImprovementFocus on Responsible Fiscal Management

The Steering Committee ensures that the subcommittee efforts align withthese objectives.

The Work Order Process Review Team is charged with reviewing the entirework order process from the initial service request to the final servicedelivery, work order closure, and customer contact. This process is thefoundation for the facilities operations change process and requirescoordination with all the other teams. The process requires information onthe work order, such as who made the request, who was assigned, whatmaterials are needed, status of the request, and work order metrics. Theteam developed a detailed flowchart to view the various steps in theprocess. The team recognized that the work order management process wasactually a system made up of numerous processes. The team divided thesystem into various processes to focus on specific stages without becomingoverwhelmed. Work order management requires training internal serviceproviders on how to complete accurate work order status, work ordermetrics, and timely entry. To keep customers posted on progress and toissue timely billing, it is necessary for the service providers to provideaccurate daily time cards and work order status. Future analysis for metricssuch as percentage of labor hours spent on various priority codes, workerproductivity, and percentage of work dedicated to various activity codes isonly as accurate as the information from the service providers.

The Shop Planning/Scheduling Team focuses on how work is planned andscheduled. The goal is to plan service requests to notify customers of theservice delivery time and date. Customers often feel that their request fellinto the void, or that they have to shut down their processes for the servicerequest to be completed. Knowing the workload and available resourcesallows for better planning and improved service delivery. The process alsoorganizes work order requests and reduces the work order backlog. Plannerschedulers also review the work orders for metric accuracy and work ordernotes required to inform customers of service status or actions. This teamreviews concepts such as a centralized work control center versus adistributed system. Currently, the system utilizes a distributed concept inwhich the planner schedulers reside in the respective shops.

The Customer Service Team focuses on contact with the customer. Theteam reviewed the work process flowchart and inserted key customercontact points. Processes were developed and are being refined to keepcustomers informed on the status of their request. Customers areencouraged to enter their request electronically though the facility's Website. This allows customers to track the status of their service request atkey steps, such as schedule date, parts or materials on order, work


completion, and work order closure. Customers are encouraged to completea service satisfaction survey upon completion of the service request. TheCustomer Service Team also meets with smaller customer focus groups.With the input from this interaction, the team is able to advise the SteeringCommittee on process changes that may be needed to meet and anticipatechanging customer needs and expectations.

The Inventory Management Team focuses on the optimal management ofthe working capital necessary to maintain the warehouse inventory. Thisteam coordinated with suppliers to improve optimal material delivery andreduce the on-campus storage requirements. Materials such as filters andcustodial products are bulky, so improving the delivery schedule reducesthe need for on-campus storage space. Coordinating with various suppliersto standardize materials reduces the need to have multiple contracts andallows for the development of partner relationships that continue to look forimprovement opportunities. The team focuses on metrics, such as theoptimal reorder point, to improve stock turnover times to optimize the needfor working capital. The team worked on reducing unaccounted-forinventory that over time built up in the shops, and plans to address suchissues as the optimal level of bench stock and traveling inventory thatresides in various service vehicles. The team worked on improving theelectronic catalog to help service providers identify and order necessaryparts to reduce the "counter" time. Nonstock items are coordinated throughand acquired by material handlers to improve the shop productivity levels.

The Preventive Maintenance (PM) Team focuses on creating a proactivemaintenance approach to maintenance. It was clear from the beginning thatthis process would require a significant business process improvementapproach as opposed to incremental improvements. As a result, there was amajor reorganization of the Trades Shops to create a PM Shop that focusedonly on PM activities. The PM Shop receives no customer-driven servicerequests, but proactively plans and schedules PM activities. The PM Teamworked on identifying and labeling all of the major equipment, and identifiedservice tasks and service frequencies. This information was entered into thework order management system. Parts and materials lists were developedand attached to the work orders so that parts delivery could be anticipatedand ready once the work is scheduled. The PM Team identified level 1 PMtasks (such as filter changes, coil cleaning, lubrication, and changing fanand motor belts) and level 2 PM tasks (such as chiller tube, fire hydrantmaintenance, storm line cleaning, and steam trap maintenance) to identifyand assign tasks to the appropriate resources. Within the first three years,reductions in breakdown maintenance were already evident.

The Reporting Team initially worked independently to gather the informationneeded to participate in the APPA FPI Survey. A consulting firm wascontacted to assist with the data analysis, in conjunction with use of theAPPA FPI webinars. To provide consistency, the team worked on describingthe various action codes or work types (PM, Breakdown, Repairs,Inspections, etc.) that were going to be used. Once that task wasaccomplished, the team started working on short-term KPIs to help shopsassess their progress and develop short-term wins. This required working


assess their progress and develop short-term wins. This required workingwith the Work Process Team to identify key measurement points. The KPIsbeing monitored include shop productivity (billable hours verses totalavailable hours), monthly hours spent per shop by action code, PM workorders opened and closed, and total number of work orders opened andclosed. The data provided by the prior code report indicated that more than95 percent of the requested work could be performed within 3 to 15 daysafter the service request was issued. This supports the concept that thework could be adequately planned and scheduled.

The Reporting Team is gathering information necessary to benchmarkagainst peers and assess the effectiveness of the allocated resources. Thevarious APPA staffing guideline manuals for maintenance, custodial, andgrounds are used to determine existing staffing levels and to requestfunding for new facilities. As the various pieces of measured informationcome together, the team will be able to provide a comprehensive report tothe administration on the state of the department and the institution relatedto asset management.

Because the change initiative is envisioned to be a continuous effort, theSteering Committee has had to discuss the concepts of patience andpersistence. This team, like any other team, experienced the various stagesthat teams go through during the change process. Knowing these stageshelps the Steering Committee stay focused, even during the down part ofthe roller-coaster ride. There has been some anticipated resistance tochange, but by embracing the concepts of patience and persistence, therehave been noticeable improvements. Customers have commented that theynotice a difference, and more employees are joining the effort. Changingthe culture of the organization to be more proactive and customer focusedhas been a journey, with its challenges and rewards, and by stayingcommitted, the department will be able to be proud of its accomplishments.


Figure 16. Change Management Case Study Diagram

ReferencesAdams, Cary W., Praveen Gupta, and Charles E. Wilson. 2003. Six Sigma Deployment. Burlington, MA:

Butterworth-Heinemann.Ahoy, Christopher K. 2007. Leadership in Educational Facilities Administration. Alexandria, VA: APPA. APPA. 2007. Creating a Service Culture: Making the Customer Connection. Alexandria, VA.Baldrige National Quality Program. 2008. “Criteria for Performance Excellence.” Gaithersburg, MD.Booth, Nate. 1997. Strategies for Fast-Changing Times: The Art of Using Change to Your Advantage. Rocklin,

CA: Prima Publishing.Breyfogle, Forrest W, III. 1999. Implementing Six Sigma: Smarter Solutions Using Statistical Methods. New

York: John Wiley & Sons.Bridges, William. 1991. Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Publishing Group.Collins, Jim. 2001. Good to Great. New York: Harper Business. Covey, Stephen R. 1989. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. New York: Simon and Schuster.Covey, Stephen R. 1999. Living the 7 Habits. New York: Simon and Schuster.Deming, W. Edwards. 1986. Out of the Crisis. Cambridge, MA: MIT. Gerson, Richard F. 1998. Beyond Customer Service. Boston: Thompson Learning.Gerstner, Louis V., Jr. 2002. Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance: Inside IBM’s Historic Turnaround. New York:

HarperCollins Publishers.


Hammer, Michael, and James Champy. 1993. Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for BusinessRevolution. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

Hug, Jack. July/August 2006. “Getting Started with the Facilities Management Evaluation Program.” FacilitiesManager 22, no. 4: 45–50.

Kaplan, Robert S., and David P. Norton. 1996. The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action.Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Keller, Paul A. 2001. Six Sigma Deployment: A Guide for Implementing Six Sigma in Your Organization.Tucson, AZ: Quality Publishing.

Kotter, John P. 1996. Leading Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Kouzes, James M., and Barry Z. Posner. July/August 2008. “It's Not Just the Leader's Vision.” Facilities

Manager 24, no. 4: 22–23.LaMarsh, J., and R. Potts. 2004. Master Change, Maximize Success. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.Leban, Bill, and Romuald Stone. 2008. Managing Organizational Change. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.McAlary, Chuck K. May/June 2001. “Cultural Change and a Balanced Scorecard: Does Your Organization

Measure Up?” Facilities Manager 17, no. 3: 39–43.Palmer, Ian, Richard Dunford, and Gib Akin. 2009. Managing Organizational Change: A Multiple Perspectives

Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.Padesky, Jay. February 2006. “Part 1: A Corporate Scorecard: Tracking KPIs Across Multiple Plants and

Business Units.” Maintenance Technology.

Padesky, Jay. March 2006. “Tracking KPIs Across Multiple Plants and Business Units.” MaintenanceTechnology.

Pyzdek, Thomas. 2003. The Six Sigma Handbook: A Complete Guide for Green Belts, Black Belts, andManagers at All Levels. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Qayoumi, Mohammad H. 2000. Benchmarking and Organizational Change. Alexandria, VA: APPA.Scherkenbach, William W. 1988. The Deming Route to Quality and Productivity: Road Maps and Roadblocks.

Washington, DC: CEEP Press Books.Scholtes, Peter R. 1988. The Team Handbook: How to Use Teams to Improve Quality. Madison, WI: Joiner

Associates, Inc. Scott, Cynthia D., and Dennis T. Jaffe. 2006. Change Management. Boston: Thompson Learning. Sightlines Promotional Material, www.Sightlines.com. Madison, CT.Smith, Glenn R. July/August 2006. “Covey, Deming, Senge: Dealing with Radical and Uncertain Change.”

Facilities Manager 22, no. 4:37–42.Stephens, Michael. December 1997. “Reinventing the Wheel.” Maintenance Technology.Walton, Mary. 1986. The Deming Management Method. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company. Whittaker, James P., P.E. September/October 2005. “Facility Asset Management: Asset Management

Performance Measures.” Facilities Manager 21, no. 5:62–63.


http://www.Sightlines.com

Documents

Change Management - APPAbokcms1.appa.org/pdfs/58-04072012.pdf · Change Management Summary Introduction We have all heard the adage that the only thing constant is change. Not only