Preferences of Pro-Service Elementary Teachers 691

The scale on the larger wheel could represent the chords of the oldprogression and then the scale of the new progression would be onthe smaller wheel. Line up the symbol of the old key (on the largedisc) with the symbol of the new key (on the small disc). Now allthe chords used in the old key will line up with the chords to beused in the new key.Try one. Change "Old Folks at Home" in the key of F to the

key of A. The old progression is F, C7, F, B13, F, C7. Match Fon the large disc with A on the small disc. See fig. 4. C on thelarge disc lines up with E on the small disc, and Bb on the largedisc lines up with D on the small disc, therefore C will be replacedby E and B6 will be replaced by D. The new progression is A, E7,A, D, A, E7. What would happen to a chord progression if we useda multiplication table instead of an addition table?

Change in the Cognitive Preferences of Pre-ServiceElementary Teachers

R. K. Atwood and V. M. RogersUniversity of Kentucky

Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Recent developments in elementary science curricula represent amovement toward inquiry-oriented instruction.l Shifting the primaryemphasis from information storage to fundamental processes andhigher cognitive levels of thought and learning, appears to presentfew problems for children but considerable difficulty for teachersconditioned by conventional instructional patterns.2

Little attention has been given to teacher education strategies forpreparing teachers with a cognitive style consistent with the objectivesof the new curricula or with the evaluation of such strategies. Assumingthat a shift in cognitive style from memory of factual informationtoward the application and questioning of information is desirable,the question of whether a teacher education program or some compo-nent of a program produces a measurable shift appears important.In attacking this question the following hypotheses were tested forstudents enrolled in a pre-service elementary teacher education pro-gram, including an inquiry-oriented science and social science methodscourse.

692 School Science and Mathematics

1. The mean application cognitive preference score as measured by the CPE-IItest will be significantly greater (.05 level) at the end of the semester.

2. The mean memory cognitive preference score as measured by the CPE-II testwill be significantly less (.05 level) at the end of the semester.

3. The mean questioning cognitive preference score as measured by the CPE-IItest will be significantly greater (.05 level) at the end of the semester.

PROCEDURE

The Cognitive Preference Examination-11(CPE-II) was administeredat the beginning and end of the fall and spring semesters to Universityof Kentucky students enrolled in a pre-service elementary educationprogram, including a science and social science methods course. Thefour-credit methods course utilized the processes identified in Science,A Process Approach3 as organizers. Representative concrete activitiesfrom Science, A Process Approach, ESS and SCIS formed the coreof the science component. The social science activities were similarin nature to the science activities and included simulation and gaming.Loosely structured to moderately structured activities were includedfor illustrative purposes, and all examinations were open-book, whichmeans no simple recall items were employed in evaluation.The CPE-II (Appendix A) is a three option examination with item

content drawn from science, social science, and closely related areas.The information presented in the stem of each test item is followedby three numbered statements related to the information in the stem.The examinee is asked to read the stem and three options and thenselect the option he prefers or finds most satisfying. One of thethree options represents a preference for memory or recall of informa-tion; a second option represents a preference for the application ofinformation or ideas; a third option represents a preference forquestioning or challenging of information or ideas. He is told thatall options contain correct information. The twenty-seven functioningitems yield ipsative scores for each of three cognitive preferences,application (A), memory (M) and questioning (Q). Test-retest reliabilitycoefficients of .77 for A, .70 for M and .74 for Q have been obtained.4The subjects, juniors and seniors who are thought to be typical

of those in elementary education programs of comparable institutions,had a mean G.P.A. of 2.7 and a mean ACT score (combined Z availablefor 89 of the Ss) of 44.2. The Ss, enrolled in numerous course patterns,had previously completed introductory education courses in socialand philosophical studies and human development.

Pre and post means were determined for the preferences (memory,application and questioning) and one-tailed t-tests were utilized tocompare the means.

Preferences of Pro-Service Elementary Teachers 693

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

A summary of the results may be seen in Table I. These dataare for the fall and spring semester groups combined. The significantlydecreased memory mean is accompanied by a significantly increasedapplication mean. The direction of change for the questioning meanis as expected, but is not significant at the .05 level. Hypotheses1 and 2 are accepted and hypothesis 3 is not accepted.

TABLE I: SUMMARY OF RESULTS (N = 201)

Pre PostCognitive _________________________________ "t"Preference Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. Probability

A11.013.3811.693.830.00450M8.553.047.592.760.00001Q7.433.247.723.910.13584

The primary limitation of this study is the broad treatment specifi-cation, which is basically a semester of coursework in a teachereducation program that included a science and social science methodscourse. The chief value of the results lies in the knowledge thatthe cognitive style of students who are completing a program inelementary education can be changed in a semester interval and thischange can be measured. The relative effectiveness of well-definedinstructional strategies, curriculum materials, and/or courses inchanging cognitive preferences should be the subject of future inves-tigations.

REFERENCES

1. HAWKINS, DAVID, "Messing About In Science," Science and Children, 2, February1965.

2. ROWE, MARY B., "Science, Silence, and Sanctions," Science and Children, 6, March1969.

3. Science, A Process Approach, Purposes-Accomplishments, Expectations, AAASMiscellaneous Publication 67-12, Commission on Science Education, AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. 1968.

4. ATWOOD, RONALD K., "Development of a Cognitive Preference Examination UtilizingGeneral Science and Social Science Content," Journal of Research in ScienceTeaching, VIII, 273-275, 1971.

(Appendix A, containing theCognitive Preference Test follows)

694School Science and Mathematics

Appendix ACognitive Preference Examination�II

byRonald K. Atwood

Department of Curriculum and InstructionUniversity of KentuckyLexington, Kentucky

40506

DIRECTIONS: In this test a statement or other piece of information is followedby three numbered choices. Each choice provides correct informationor a reasonable opinion. There is no one "right" answer. After readingthe introductory information and all three choices you are to selectthe choice you prefer or like best and blacken the correspondingspace on your answer sheet with a pencil. Select only one choicefor each question and do not omit any question. Remember to readall three choices carefully before making a selection. Each numberedchoice refers back to the given statement�not to another numberedchoice.

NOTICES: 1) Be sure your name is written on the answer sheet in the proper space.2) Please do not make any marks on this test booklet.

1. Atomic theory considers matter to be made of fundamental units called atoms.1. Over one hundred different atoms, each with a unique set of properties, have

been identified.2. Protons and electrons might be considered more fundamental than atoms.3. An atomic model is highly useful in the study of matter.

2. The quantity of an item produced is determined by the demand for it.1. The weakness of the generalization is indicated by existing surpluses.2. A successful manufacturer must be sensitive to customer needs.3. "Supply and demand" is studied by economists.

3. A historian interprets past events for mankind.1. The lessons of the past influence our decisions for the future.2. The personal biases of the historian limits the usefulness of his work for decision

making.3. A historian’s interpretation may be based on an analysis of any documents.

4. All stars are thought to be gigantic nuclear reactors. A

1. The sun is the star nearest the earth.2. The sun and other stars provide heat and light for the earth and other planets.3. There are differences among stars.

5. All objects absorb and radiate energy.1. Dark colored objects absorb heat very readily.2. Generalizations of this type should be made with caution, since they are often

disproven.3. Objects, including our bodies, would quickly become over-heated if they did

not radiate energy.6. One might think of a smile as an outward indication of inward happiness.

1. Fewer muscles are required to smile than to frown.2. A smiling child is an appealing sight.3. A smiling subject has become spmewhat traditional for photographs.

7. Beautiful flowers have been a source of inspiration to man for centuries.1. Famous poetry has been written about flowers.2. Large new hybrid varieties are continually being developed.3. Allergies produced by flowering plants are less than inspiring.

Preferences of Pro-Service Elementary Teachers 695

8. In the public’s interest massive extermination efforts have often been directedtoward a particular pesky insect.1. Since World War II malaria has been controlled in the United States by spraying

mosquitoes.2. The adverse effects of insecticides have generally not been balanced against

the advantages of using them.3. Though controversial, DDT remains one of the most effective insecticides

available to man.9. The rate water evaporates is affected by how much moisture is already present

in the air.1. The amount of moisture in the air relative to how much it could hold, under

a given set of conditions, is called relative humidity.2. Other variables, such as temperature and wind speed, should also be considered.3. This explains why perspiration evaporates so slowly in humid weather.

10. When a nuclear reaction occurs, a huge amount of energy may be released.1. Many nuclear reactions, such as one which causes a watch dial to glow, do

not appear to produce huge amounts of energy.2. The reacting materials lose mass which is changed to energy.3. In the future nuclear devices may provide a means of rapid excavation for

lakes and canals.11. It is often taught that light travels in a straight line.

1. This information is helpful in explaining angles of reflection from a mirror.2. It should be noted that light does bend around corners to some extent.3. The laser represents one of the most exciting contemporary developments in

optics.12. Through the years newspapers have played a major role for citizens desiring to

keep well-informed.1. Recognizing the importance of newspapers, many people read two or more

each day.2. Newspapers often appear more interested in selling a point of view than presenting

news.3. The Associated Press has a chain of correspondents that extends into most

areas of the entire world.13. The density of an object can be used to predict whether it will sink or float

in water.1. The density of water is approximately one gram per milliliter; the density of

most wood is less.2. The shape of an object can be more important than its density in making sink

or float predictions.3. On the basis of a density greater than one gram per milliliter, a ball of aluminum

is predicted to sink in water.14. The advantages to one’s health of staying slim receive considerable promotion

in our society.1. Dietary foods have become a multi-million dollar industry.2. Over-weight persons have a higher rate of heart disease, diabetes and other

illnesses.3. It’s unfortunate that the hazards of crash diets and diet pills do not receive

comparable publicity.15. X-rays serve man in many ways.

1. X-rays have a greater penetrating power than light rays.2. X-rays are shorter than light rays.3. X-rays can be stopped conveniently with lead shielding.

16. Cities under the sea are now being forecast.1. The psychological desirability of such a move has not received the attention

that feasibility has received.2. In laboratory tests small mammals have been able to breathe underwater by

using special equipment.3. The realization of such cities could reduce growing population pressures.

696 School Science and Mathematics

17. Any regularly recurring event may be used as a timing device.1. Thus "clocks" can be made that utilize such things as dripping water, falling

sand and swinging pendula.2. The event may be naturally occurring, or it may be produced by man.3. Differences in reliability and practicability make the use of just any regularly

recurring event unlikely.18. "Checks and balances" are built into the United States Government.

1. Power is shared by Congress, the Supreme Court and the President.2. Measures approved by Congress may be vetoed by the President or declared

unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.3. In a short-termed situation the checks can be inadequate to provide a balance

of power.19. It has been predicted that supersonic transport planes will provide the next major

surge in commercial aviation.1. These predictions, which tend to ignore the damage that may result from sonic

booms, could be unrealistic.2. Aircraft manufacturers are developing supersonic passenger planes with capaci-

ties of about 500 persons.3. Transportation of passengers by air has increased rapidly during recent years,

while travel by rail has steadily declined.20. Classes of students have common personality traits.

1. A study of these common traits can help a teacher understand his class.2. The study of classes of students is often the focal point when considering

group dynamics.3. While some groups are very much alike, many differ markedly.

21. Electricity is a very versatile form of energy.1. Electricity is a "stream" of electrons.2. Electricity if often measured in kilowatt hours.3. Many different fuels power generators to produce electricity.

22. Sound is produced by a vibration; the rate of vibration determines the pitch ofa sound.1. It should be noted that some vibrations produce no sound, and that these have

no pitch.2. The human ear can generally hear vibrations in the range of 50-18,000 vibrations

per second.3. With this knowledge man can construct an instrument to produce any pitch

desired.23. Geography focuses on man’s interaction with his environment.

1. Such a broad and general statement provides limited useful information.2. The findings of geographers help man adjust to his surroundings.3. Methods of interacting with nature are affected by technology.

24. Variation in the structure of snowflakes appears endless; it has been said thatno two snowflakes are alike.1. Considering the number of snowflakes that have fallen, it’s hard to believe

no two have been alike.2. The lacey-appearing patterns may be viewed under moderate magnification.3. This rich array of patterns could provide ideas for fabric prints and other

commercial uses.25. As the human population has increased, populations of many other organisms

have diminished.1. The wholesale slaughter of animals, such as the buffalo and elephant, has occurred

repeatedly.2. This problem has united conservationists in their efforts.3. The inferred cause-effect relationship is likely not valid for some diminishing

populations.26. Carbohydrates are often called energy foods.

1. All sweet and starchy foods, which includes much of what we eat, arecarbohydrates.

Preferences of Pre-Service Elementary Teachers 697

2. Some athletes eat simple sugars during breaks in athletic contests for quickenergy.

3. Fats yield more than twice the energy of carbohydrates for a given weight.27. A good education is considered a "must" by contemporary society.

1. The relationship between academic grades in college and future earning poweris very weak.

2. The federal government has sharply increased financial support for education.3. Many persons are staunch supporters of formal education themselves, even

though they did not go far in school.28. The story of life is found in rocks of the earth’s crust.

1. Sedimentary rocks like limestone provide an excellent source of fossils andare easily obtained in many areas.

2. The story of life may go wellbeyond the earth’s crust, even to other planets.3. Fossil records enable scientists to infer earlier climatic changes that have affected

life.29. One of the most fruitful areas of study in the biological sciences involves

interrelationships among populations of organisms, soil, water, sunlight, and air.1. The difficulty in identifying all of the pertinent variables in this type of study

limits its validity.2. Studies in this area are useful in predicting how the supply of one organism

affects others.3. In defining a population, the location and time of observation should be identified

rather specifically.30. Medical science has produced a pill for just about everything.

1. Dinesses of many origins have been controlled in some cases�virtually eliminatedin others.

2. The development of new drugs by medical science requires large quantitiesof money and research time.

3. Drug abuse, cancer, and mental illness continue largely unchecked to discountthe generalization.

KEY FOR COGNITIVE PREFERENCE EXAMINATION�II

Application, AMemory, MQuestioning, Q

Item1.2.3.4.5.6.OptiononeMQAMMOptiontwoQAQAQ Distractor ItemOptionthreeAMMQAItem7.8.9.10.11.12.OptiononeAAMQAAOptiontwoMQQMQQOptionthreeQMAAMMItem13.14.15.16.17.18.OptiononeMAQAMOption twoQM Distractor Item MMAOptionthreeAQAQQItem19.20.21.22.23.24.OptiononeQAQQQOptiontwoAM Distractor Item MAMOptionthreeMQAMAItem25.26.27.28.29.30.OptiononeMMQMQAOptiontwoAAAQAMOptionthreeQQMAMQ