C H A P T S R l ------- { V

15G

Agrarian Baslst

Agricu lture has been the r redominent sector o f

the economy o f the s te te of Jrr^nu end Keshmir in general

end the Keshmir province* in particu lar* As in the rest

o f Indie, agricu lture has been the mein occupation of the2people o f Kashmir. In view o f the lim ited resource

endowments in other f ie ld s , agricu ltu re continued t > be

the major source o f in c >rae end employment to the bulk o f 3

i t s population* The harsh physical end c lim atic conditions

o f the v a lle y hindered, to a large extent the growth >f

agricu ltu re in some j arts o f the province. Further, the

extremely smell s ize of holdings end absence o f fu rther

scope fo r extension of cu ltiva tion mec’e i t im perative thet

l a The Valley o f Kashmir, situated in the north of the sub-continent, embraces a te r r ito r y which is by end le rc e mountelnous and the area o f lend xmder cu ltiva tion hes always been very smell due to i t s ceo-physicel position*

2* A, Koul, qp* c i t . F* XXVII, "(Rev* toy P. K. Bengal).

3* Owing to the lim ited scope o f industries end tradein the pest end underdeveloped transport, agricu ltu re engaged 91% o f the population, M* A* S tein , Kelahan*s Rai atarenqlni. S, V II, p. 9* 3eo also 3. ,4. Koul op* c it * p. 21; Hence the rural population predominated over the urban* ven in 1971 of 138,123 3q* kms* of i t s to ta l area on the Indian side o f the c ea se - fire lin e , 137,818 sq* kms* were rura l and only 305. 4 sq* kms* urban* Census o f India. 1971, p. 21. A. Koul, op* c i t . p* XVII, ( Rev. by P. Bemzai) *

157

agricu ltu re should be organised in such e manner

thet the lim ited lend wes able t o y ie ld the mrximum,

through the judicious application o f the c>v?ilrble

technology adapted to lo c r l conditions* Relienoe on

agricu ltu re elone wes, from time to time, one o f the

mein causes o f the general d is tress o f the people. Hardly

did e decede peas by when the v a lle y wes not f peed with

a femine. Che p o l i t ic a l upheavals m?de matters no less5

worse end hrrmful •

The economy o f the s te te wes based on egricu ltu re

wnidh formed the bpek-bone o f the s t r te income. Nonetheless,

the e lien ru3ers never showed eny in te res t in i t s

improvement. But when agricu ltu re fe l le d due to floods

end droughts, these ru lers texed other industries® in

order to re ise s u ffic ie n t revenue to mtet the requirements

o f pey to th e ir s ta f f end to provide fo r the necessaries,7comforts end luxuries of the royel fem ily .

4, rechno-Economic 3urvev o f JStK, p. 16,

5, 5, N. Koul, op, C it , pp, 21-22,

6, Even those who were enoeged in these industries depended on ecricu ltu re fo r th e ir food and rew m eterie ls, Hence they too su ffered both d ir e c t ly end in d ire c t ly from time to tim e.

7, s, y. Koul, op, c i t . p, 21.

158

Kashmir is e s sen tia lly an agricu ltu ra l s te te

even today end i t s economic struct ure Is very d if fe r e n t

fr^m that o f an in du str ia l s ta te . In Kashmir the ~tain

source o f production has been land. The f e r t i l i t y o f

lend, the ploughing animals, implements *nd the agricu l­

tu ra l conditions varying from region to region and te h s il

to te h s i l , have always had th e ir share in determining

the agricu ltu ra l production and thereby the condition o f

egrarian l i f e .

Land, agricu ltu re and the process o f agricu ltu ra l

operations together constituted the agrarian basis of

the soc ia l structure o f Kashmir, In ev itab ly more or less

d e ta iled study o f the fo llow ing aspects in th is connection

is not merely re le v en t but most im per^tive*-

I.and — c la s s ific a t io n and Organization,

F e r t i l iz e r s end Manuring,

Agricu ltu ra l Operations,

Implements or Agricu ltu ra l Technology,

Ir r ig a t io n System

Y ie ld — Food crops end other products.

F inancial &s ec t.

Land;

The va lle y o f Kashmir, owing to i t s natural

r iv e r system possessed a large aree o f a llu v ia l land.

159

gwhich wes of two kinds — the old e l lu v ie l or the

lend o f the high perts above the benks o f the Jhelum9

r iv e r which extended es fa r es the kerewes. I t wes less

f e f t i l e but with good cere end proper ir r ig a t io n , i t

y ie ld ed exce llen t dry crops. ?he cu lt iva tio n here dep ended

mostly on tim ely re in s . Hie second kind or the new a llu v ia l

wes found In the beys end deltas o f the mountain r iv e rs .

I t wes rich lend o f g reet f e r t i l i t y , renewed end enriched

every ypar with s i l t o f mountein streems. Lawrence,10observes , " upto the present, in sp ite o f the le x

system o f fo res t conservancy, the s i l t o f the mount ein

streems is rich end o f dark colour?

The e l lu v ie l nature of the lend o f Kashmir has

been g eo lo g ic e lly c la s s if ie d under the fo llow ing cetegoriess-

6. Irar e r ie l G ezetteer of Indie. V o l. XV, 1908; p. 110.Lewrence." V e lie v , p. 319. F . Younghusband, ojp. c i t .p. 205f J. L. K. J e le l i , op. c i t . p. 2.

9. Kerewa wes a kind of lend in the lower approacheso f the mount ein s where they sloped down, the mountains protrude in fe n - lik e p ro jection with f l e t arid tops, devoid o f tre e s . They were pierced by mountain torren ts end seemed with ravines. They were mostly vegetab le growing. Lewrence, Vs l le v . r . 17.

10* Ib id ., p. 319. Imperial Gezetceer o f Indie. V o l.,XV, p. 110.

11. Hr. Lydekker's geo log ice lb c le s a if ic e t io n o f lend is in descending order* end i t was applicab le to the en tire Kashmir t e r r ito r y . Lawrence, V e lie v , p .44.

rv / •

1 b (J

P r e -h is to r ic a llu v ia l system

T e rtia ry system

Sanskar system

The Pen jel System end

Metamorphic system.

The p re -h is to r ic e l lu v ie l lend was in fe r io r end,

th ere fo re , suited fo r dry crops, wherees, te r t ia r y wes

hot end required much ir r ig a tio n * This type of lend wes

found in Beromulle d is t r ic t . Then ceme the Z-anskar system

which wes found in 2?nskar (e F ron tier a ree ). Th is

cetecory o f Irtvi wes herd end sandy which with b e tte r

ir r ig a t io n end more sunshine gave exce llen t crops, Next

to th is wes the Penjal system, found in the t e r r it o r y of

P ir Penjal d is t r ic t . I t wbs of greet f e r t i l i t y end y ie lded

good crops es wes the cese with the new a llu v ia l lend,

already referred to above. As fa r es the metemerrhic land

wes concerned, i t was of various degrees of f e r t i l i t y

owing to d jfferen ces in sub-terreneen heat, pressure end

chemical agency. I t wes excep tiona lly suited fo r the12cu ltiva tion of maize end wheet.

12* Ibic1,, See e lso 3. N. Koul, or, c i t , pp. 31*32,

161

Locel C le ss ific e tlo n of Lendl

In Kpshmir i t wes rare to heer anythinc about

the o r ic ln e l s o il, because the Kashmiris considered no

crop worthy o f atten tion rere rice# fo r which they

obtained eri a r t i f i c ia l l y prepared s o i l with ir r ig a t io n end13manuring • Generally, the types o f lend r^ciqnized toy

the cu ltiva to rs were gurtu, Bahil, Sek il end dezanlend#

which received due consideration end required pecu liar14treatment when under r ic e -c u lt iv e t io n •

1, Curtu Lend:

I t contained e large proportion of c lay and held

water in the yeers o f scanty r e in fe l l , end wes sa fest fo r

r ic e . But with I t s a l l advantages, i t suffered from the

troub le o f caking through heavy r e in fe l l , end the out-15turn o f r ic e wes very poor • rhe fo llow in g sub-divisions

o f th is type o f lend are e lso noticeab le*-

13. Lawrence, V a liev , p. 319

14. Ittr eri a l Gaz e t t eer o f Indie. V o l. XV, p. HO#

15. Ib id ., see e ls o Lawrence, V a liev , p. 319.S. N. Koul, op. c i t . p. 32.

1G2

i# Sur zemin— the derk black s o i l wes the16most, f e r t i l e •

i i . t‘he red ^urtu s o i l— This s o i l wes deep end

porous. I t was reddish in colour l ik e th et16afound in the Indo-Gengetic p le in • I f was

the sa fest lend when the r a in fa ll was scanty

end too much o f water wes harmful to t h e crop17grown on th is lend. I t wes the next best » end

i i i . "he ye llow bu ff s o i l— th is type o f lend wes18the worst o f e l l •

2. Bahll Lendt

The Behil lend or sem i-e llu v ie l s o i l wes less

porous but rich loemy with greet naturel strength, rhere

wes elweys danger of over-menurinc by whidi the s o i l grew

strong end led to the fa ilu re o f crop th^t ran to le e f end19resulted in Rei e celem ity.

16. J. L. K, J^ le li# op. c i t . pp. 6-7.

16ft S. K. Koul, op. c i t . j.. 32.

1®*. Itnrerlel Gezetceer of Indie* V ol. XV, p. 111.

IB. Lawrence, Veliev* p. 321.

19. "R ei" is e sort o f b ligh t thet e ffe c ts the standingcrops through cold , over-manuring or w er-heeting p a rticu la r ly during August end Sejtenb r when the night, i f not cool, coupled with the heet o f the day e ffe c ts the crop with the re su lt thet the grain (seed) does not develop end the outturn is n etu re lly very poor end the t f s t e o f r ic e i t s e l f in s ip id . J.L. K. J e le l i , op. c i t . pp. 9-10 ( f . n . )

I p o1 b»3

I t wes a lig h t loam with a sandy sub-soil which

with su ffic ien t ir r ig a t io n y ie ld ed e good crop, otherwise20i t wps best fo r dry crop . ?he outturn o f rice in th is

21type o f lend wes always large In good reins •

Dazenlao lend or burnt lend was c h ie fly found in

the low -ly ing areas and near the swamps and sometimes in22the hicjhair v i l la g e s also • Phis land was hot and feverish

as i t s nai.ie implies and did not requ ire prolonged ir r ig a t io n .

The rapid growth o f r ich plant on th is land was the

grea test danger but a carefu l cu lt iva tio n y ie lded a

heavy crop on i t otherwise a cu lt iv a to r had to harvest 23only crass • A p ecu lia r ity o f th is s o il was that the

24ir r ig a t io n water turned red in colour •

In addition to these categories the Kashmiris

had a lso recognized some minor types o f s o il mentioned

as unders-

3* Sekil Lands

20. Im rerla l Gazetteer o f India* V ol. XV, p. 110.

21. Lawrence, V a liev , p. 320, S. N. Koul, op. c i t . p. 32.

22. Im rerla l Gazetteer o f Indie* V o l. XV, p. 110.

23. S. N. Koul, op. c i t , p. 32,

24. Lawrence, Valiev* p. 320.

164

i . Nembal lend or swamps — I t wes found neer

the banks o f the r iv e r Jhelum end in the

v ic in it y o f the Wuler lake* Owing to being

peaty and rich , i t y ie lded enormous crops of26repeseed end meize in the ye^rs of f e i r

reins. Phis lend wes unsuited fo r r ic e 27cu ltiva tion end requi ret! no tnenure.

23i i . fend Lend — p. lend on the slope o f the

mountains and reclaimed from th e fo re s ts with

en unfortunate feature th et i t lo s t i t s p r is t in e

strength e fte r from s ix to ten yeers o f

cu lt iva tio n .29i i i * Zebelzemin This typo o f lend used to come

in to existence a fte r a particu la r land wes

injured by percolation from ir r ic e te d f ie ld s .30iv . Kherzamin— I t was a sour s o i l which sometimes

occurred in the midst o f most f e r t i l e ereas end

did not hold ir r ig a t io n weter.

25

25. Im rerie l Gazetteer o f Indie* V ol. XV, p. HO.

26. !'here wes e p ecu lier custom ettrched to th is type o flend ps the stendinc weeds end the stubble >f theprevious yeer*s crop were burnt every y err b e fo re thec wnraence'nent o f the freoh ploughing. Lpwrenoe*V a liev , p. 320.

27. 3. n. Koul# op. c i t . p. 32.

28. Im perlel Gazette -r of Indie. V o l. XV# p.ii<?

?9. Lawrence, Veliev* p. 321.

30, Ib id ., see el3o J.L. K. J a le l i , op. c i t . pp. 8—-9.

1B5

v , Lento Lend — - In th is type o f lend Generally

springs were found end i t was not f i t fo r eny kind of cu ltiva tion ,

32v i , Tresh— Land — This d iv is io n o f lend e l so

did not hold ir r ig a t io n water,33v i i , Ront lend— I t was a lend with a s t i f f , bed

clay which often caked,34v i i i , Sfoeth lend — I t consti :uted stony, pebbly

end sandy s o i l by the mountein r iv e rs ,

ix , Tets lend— Phis kinc^f lend wes rendered too

werm by the presence of le roe stones end was

elweys l ie b le to "ReiJ36x, Karewa Lend — I t was curious p leteeu end

formed so str ik in g an ob ject in Kashmir <1 7 -fcii-nJ in

scenery, It j jnoct

in colour from a lig h t yellow ish to red-hued

s o il end to the derk 3 o ll , I t wes not brought

under ir r ic e t io n and wes e a s ily distinguished

31. Lawrence, V a lley . p. 321.

32. J, L« K,p. 321

J e le l i , or. c i t . p. 8. Lewrence, V p llev

33. Ib id ,,

34, Ib id .,

35, Ib id .,

36, Lewrence V a liev . p. 320, Accordinc to g eo log is t.kerewas of the v e lle y ere lacustrine deposits, Fhey are mostly found in the south-west, north-erst, south­east end north-west of the v e l le y . J . L. K. J e le l i , op, c i t , p, 8, ( f , n . )

ly/the "curta lend". I t ra ried

16G

from the p le in of the r iv e r e l lu v ie l in the

summer which in ve rts wes densely covered

with r ic e crops. I t genera lly consisted o f37lo*ny c lay or loem •

In short rs recserd3 coraperetive f e r t i l i t y “ the

a llu v ia l land stood firs t# the mountcin slopes and the

reclaimed lend on the edges of the 3wen$s with rich

ir c m ic met te r w?s the second, the old e l lu v ie l lrnd# th ird38end the karewe lend fourth .

-'he s o il of the Frontier r rovinee wrs e l l rocky.

There wes no e l lu v ie l lend o f eny importance anywhere end39hence th is province w«s very d e fic ie n t in agricu ltu re .

In addition to e l l these celTegories >f lend leke s o i l

( e r t i f i c i e l lend) wes most productive in the v r l le y * ?

Cultivated, Uncultjvpted end Non-Cultlveblei• .

i'he lend Settlement of 1883 not only se ttled the

problems l ik e c o lle c t io n of revenue, f ix e t io n o f term and

allotment o f lend but i t e lso worked fo r the increese o f

the crea o f lend from non-cu ltiveb le to uncultivated r-nd

then to cu ltivab le by making i t s e l lo t le n ts to 1endless

37. Lcwrence, V a liev , pp. 45-46, ern5 320*

38. J.L.K . J e le l i , op. c i t . pp. 8— 9.

39. S. N. Koul# op. c i t . p. 34.

40* For deta iled explanation p leese see J*u1>re#

ag ricu ltu r is ts . I t was tinder the Commissi oner ship

of «■•*. R. Lawrence the t the survey works were undertaken

fo r the f i r s t time which is evident from the fa c t that 4111, 95, 555 acres o f lend were surveyed under him end th is

survey wes confined to the lim it o f cu lt iva tio n , hs fa r

es the areas under fo re s ts were concerned th is survey had42excluded these together with the sides of the mountains ,

however# the boundaries of v i l l^ e e s situated on the slopes

o f the mountains were determined by the lim its o f

cu lt iv a tio n . The v i l le g e s situated in some d isten t nook

o f % mountfin end separated from the p la in by a long

stretch of cu lturab le mountain land were genera lly43neglected end these stretches were not included in the

41. t'his included the en tire vr.Tley of Kashmir srve the arers under lakes, h i l ls , such es the T rk h t- i- Suleimen and the £hak Tung— but included e l l cu ltiva ted end cu lturable areas in the side va lle y s leading from the mein v a lle y . Lawrence, V e lie v . p. 239.

42. An attempt has been made in this work to providethe eree broucht under the fo re s ts from time to time e fte r 1900 A.D.fUose !>ce,?p#

43. For instance the v r l le y o f Curais situ«?ted et distance o f 40 m iles from the mein V a lley o f Keshnir contributed 6,054 acres of cu ltiva ted or cu lturable land to the t o ta l of 11,95,555 acres and the area between these two t e r r i t o r ie s , invo lving mountain sides, fo re s ts end long and in terven ing tra c ts , was not counted. Ib id .,

1GB

s u rv e y work o f Lew ren ce . " '.e jor P o r t io n of I rn d in

t h e v e l le y v/fs returned es not pve i l f b . l e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n

44b e e ? u se o f i t s swrmf-y n a tu r e • i b ^ e v e r , th c r f - w rs €

n r t u r e l r n th o f e x c e l l e n t c .re a in g f o r th<=- c r t t l e o f tV-.o

v i l l a g e s * round these swesnps. yt only t h i s but fchcv.;e

s o - c f l l e e w e s t e - l e n d s a l s o y i e l d e d e l r , r g e r.-nounc o f fo o a

t o t h e p e o p le who l i v e d in t h e i r v i c i n i t y v/nidh w ere45

c o n s id e r e d r s e u x i l i pries o f c u l t i v p t i on .

46"h e f o l l o w in g t r b l e mpy h e lp us t o u n d e rs ten d

th e y 03j t j on o f l f jnd# un der t h e s b o v e -n e n t j one?* c e t e c o r i e s * »

CLASSirjatfio^ 01 mr.M

■,,e»2r r r tKhes

v<rzeret/npntnec?

•ezerrtK fnrrj i 'o ic l

Acres / cres f - c ro s A c re s

/rer by v i l l r t e p r p e r s 399,945 408,036 383, 574 1, 195,555

’ - e t eree crorped durinc? th e y r r r 169,496 152,529 170,092 49 2, 117

Culturrblc w e s t e other then fa llow 87,729 91,423 73, 208 257 ,360

Curr ent f e l l ows 7, 233 1 4 ,0 5 6 12 ,720 34 ,0 09

Mot e v e i le b le f o r c u l t iv a t io n non- c u l t i v r b le 134,487 1 5 0 ,02 8 127,554 412,069

44 . L’hese 1; nds. i f drrinod , coulr hr v<j been 'ee v e i l r b l e f o r c u l t i v a t i o n , f l e e r on a or two d ry y e fx s * I b i d . ,

45. F o r i» d e t . f i le d account o f t h e s e r.ro-.-'ucts f i e f s s e e SU P r e y p . 5 ~ -°6 «

46, i b i s t e b l e i s b e sed on th e s tc~ t .is t . ic f l f i r m .res fu rn i s h e d by 'w. r . Lawrence, t-nd A* ■ i in i s t r fit j v e k e r o yt3 o f th e y e * r s 1 8 ) 0 , 9 1 . 9 2 . 9 3 m d 13-14.

109

The assessment work o f Lawrence proved e lec,rcy

o f h is Commissionership end rece ived every atten tion from

h is successors. As in 1904-05 the settlement, operations

were in progress in s ix te h s ils o f the Kashmir province

comprising 2084 v i l ie g e s , end in the seme yerr 8815 acres47

o f weste lend were t©ken up fo r cu ltiva tion • In the*

yeer 1911-15 there wess a gene re 1 increase in cu ltiva ted

area in the province end the fro n t ie r d is t r ic t of Ladakh es48there wes an increase o f 5404 acres o f lend in Kashmir

49end 158 acres in C i lg i t .

The? years 1920-23 were important in the h is to ry o f

the lend development es these witnessed e very considerable

progress in the assessment work end the assessment reports

47. Annuel Adm inistrative Rer ort o f JSiK Stete fo r 1904-05 p. 4* rhe j:rec tic e of granting je g ir s which hed been ebolisht'd by v.. B. Lawrence was reteined, but one in d i g i t wezaret v i z . , the Puniel je g ir (w ith an area o f38 kenels end 18 merles enjoyed as muafi by the la te ja c ird er ) wes resumed. Besides some smell assignments were reported to have been made in the Ladakh te h s il, but the d e te ils o f the a lienation were not furnished by the revenue au thorities . Ib id ., p. l l .

48. Annuel Adm lnistretlve Report o f JfrK fo r , 1914-15, p .11.

49. In the reported aree o f G i lg i t 224 ecres o f 1rnd, which had been ly in g fe llo w fo r the le s t f i v e (5) yeers,wes et the same time recorded egein es "ben jer"( weste-1end), as a resu lt, there wes e net decrease in the cu ltiva ted ©res which amounted to ebout 66 acres. lb id .#

o f most o f the te h s lls were completed end submitted50to the government , Despite e l l these measures the lend

both cu ltiva ted end cu ltureb le amounted to 6*8 percent51 52in 1921 , 2031,801 acres end 2039206 ecres in 1925 .

Coming over to the fo res ts which e lso involved a le rce

aree o f lend and formed the basis o f the econ vny o f the

s te te e f t e r the agricu lture, mein atten tion was paid

to i t in order to increese i t s area by wey of p lanting

more and more trees ©n more end more eree which resu lted

in the vest expansion o f the fo re s ts . In 1104-05 the to ta l

ares o f the s te te fo res ts was increased by 199 sq. m iles

i . e . from 2764 to 2963 sq. m iles out o f th is ares 2315 sq,

m iles were demarcated, 254 sq. m iles were i e r t i e l l y

demarcated end 394 sq. miles were undermaroeted. I t was

during th is yeer that en area o f 162 sq. miles with 5.8 miles

50. I t wes during th is sp e ll o f ti-ne that the assessment report o f Awantipora and Shehr-i-Khes were submitted. The measurement work in the Anantneq Wezeret wes e lso completed by means of si e c la l a ttes ta tion . Further more, the survey figu res of Kulcam te h s il were advaced and assessment s ta t is t ic s were tret: a red. The report ">f Uttarmachhipor a wes e lso submitted. Annual Adminis­t r a t iv e Rerort of J&K State fo r 1920-2&y r . 5 '

51. Census of India. 1921. p. 33.

5?- Q e n s u s „ . 2 t I 9! ! , pp. 22-23.

o f bound ry wes surveyed • A fte r e decade has passed

( i . e . 1911-15) th to ta l fo res t area surveyed during54the yeer wes 1149475 acres with a boundry of 3218

m iles and 59 chains, end there was an increase o f 1155

sq. m iles in the area under charge o f the fo res t def ertmerit.

Hence the to ta l area surveyed upto th et time was 7,99#77255acres with a boundry lin e o f 3175 m iles and 50 cheins •

So the development o f the land wes cm increase and i t

stood on the top o f the mejor industries o f the v a l le y and

was the mainstay o f the s ta te 's economy.

Again in the year 1924-25 the growth of area under

fo re s ts marked a tremendous increase as the area under

fo res ts was 9546.5 sq. m iles o f which 9312.5 sq. m iles were

demarcated, 78.sq. m iles p a r t ia l ly demarcated end 156 sq.56m iles undemeroated . So i t oould be observed from the above

figu res end ie c ts that t'f ere was a fo u r- fo ld increase in

the f i r s t quarter o f the present century i . e . from 1900-

1925 in the area covered by the fo re s ts o f the s ta te , and

171

53

53. Annual Adm inistrative Retort o f J&K Stete fo r 1904-05, p. 4.

5«* gnng|l Adm inistrative Report o f J&K sta te fo r 1915-16,

55. Annual Adm inistrative Rerort o f J&K s te te fo r 1914-15, pp. 52-53.

56* I t was also expected that there would be an Increaseo f 47.5 sq. m iles a fte r s e t t l in g e l l the pending cases with the fo res t department. Annuel Adm inistrative Rerort o f J&K S tete fo r 1924-2$, p. 24.

the cu ltiva ted lend was witnessing a remarkable

expansion due to the growth o f population as a consequence

even those lend and stretches which were considered non-

cu ltiva b le were brought under the bead of cu ltiva ted and57cu ltiva b le •

Pressure on Landi

Land d is tr ibu tion in Kashmir wes h igh ly d e fe c t iv e

end there were wide d isp a r it ie s in the di scribution o f

lend in sp ite of c e i l in g o f the Land Settlement o f Lawrence,

as the absentee landlordism was s t i l l in existence, and

even the surplus land was not proj e r ly d istribu ted among

the landless and small farmers who were actual t i l l e r s o f

land.

Like other states o f the country Jermmi end Kashmir,

too su ffered from excessive burden o f population on lend.

As a consequence# m ajority o f farmers drew th e ir liv e lih oo d

from very smell agricu ltu ra l hold ings. I t w i l l be seen that

in most of the d is t r ic t s o f the s te te the population had

overgrown the resources. Ladakh su ffered from the greatest

57. Here i t is to be pointed out that the c la s s if ic a t io n of the land upto 1953 provided no separate data fo r land put to non-egricu ltural uses# barren and unculureble land, pastures, lend under trees* cu ltu reb le waste, permanent end current fa llow * Gupta and Singh, op. c i t . p. 102 ( f « n . ) «

173

pressure on lend, I t had cnly 0.2 percent o f i t s t o ta l58aree under cu ltiva tion in 1921 . Th is explains the la rge

exodus every year in th e w inter o f the inhabitants o f

Skerdu and K ero il, (th e two t eh s i Is o f Ladakh i l v i where

conditions were at th e ir worst) t o Simla and other

neighbouring states o f India in search o f employment* Many59Kashmiris a lso migrated to the p la ins # in search o f labour

at the commencement o f the w inter when the egri cu ltu ra l

season was slack, Chey returned home as soon as the spring

set in , rhe high density o f south Kashmir is however#

m isleading as i t a lso Included the population o f the

Srineger c ity whidh was not agricu ltu ra l.

* re r t from the above-mentioned regu lar p eriod ic

emigration a large number o f a g r icu ltu ris ts even from the

Jammu province worked in the sta te fo res ts or cm the works

o f construction and other odd jobs in the s te te t e r r i t o r ie s60as w e ll as in the contiguous area o f India . This working

fo rce which represented the surplus o f the lo ca l agricu l­

tu ra l requirements, though only fo r a few months in the year,

wee evidence o f the fa c t thpt agricu ltu re had overgrown

i t s resources,

58. Census o f India* 1921, p , 33,

59. For d e ta ils p lease see ictPra* pp. See

60. Census o f India- 1921* pp. 28, 163,

174

One way to reduce the pressure on land wes the

augmentation o f the food production by extending ir r ig a t io n

fa c i l i t ie s # improving the methods o f cu ltiva tion and sc on,

because u ltim ately i t i s the quantity o f the food produce

end not the to ta l and bare area that merely counts* But as

in th e s ta te the cu lt iva b le aree i t s e l f was very smell,

scope fo r increase in the food production was lim ited*

Und<ir these circumstances the only solu tion fo r the release

o f the pressure from land appeared to l i e in the d ivers ion

o f s ta te economy in to the f r u it fu l channels sudh as, trade,

commerce and industries*

F e r t i l i z e r and Manure*

The Kashmiri cu ltiva to rs were not acquainted with

the use o f bone or lime or ammonium sulphate or other

chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , nor were such s c ie n t i f ic measures

within th e ir resc*/*. So they were not to be blamed fo r the

in s u ffic ien t manuring as they spared no pains in manuring

th e ir f ie ld s to th e extent they could*

<1* I t is said that before the time of Sultan Zeinu’ l - Abidin, paddy f ie ld s were seldom treated with any kind o f manure, A rasn ne>ned Helmet Canal, who is s t i l l respected by the farmers, was the f i r s t to introduce the use o f manures in paddy cu lt iva tio n and h ie success brought about a sort o f revo lu tion in r ic e cu ltiva tion in the va lley * As the average y ie ld from one kharwer o f lend rose from 25*40 kharwars o f paddy to 40*60 kherwars* w* ioorcro ft, M3. EUR.0 265. p. 80 ( f * n . )

175

C attle Dune as a manure!

Unlike the a g ricu ltu ris ts in th e res t o f India#

Kashmiri t i l l e r s made b e tte r use o f a l l the dung whether

o f sheep, c a t t le or horses dropped in the winter# when1

the animals were penned inside the houses, This dung was

reserved fo r agricu ltu re, while th e summer dung was dried

up and used as fu e l* The ashes o f the burnt fu e l were62also used as a manure •

Green Manure;

The cu ltiva to rs o f Kashmir have long rea lized63the importance o f manuring tu r f c lod . These clods were

cut from the sides o f the water courses and cerr ied to

the f ie ld s . They were. considered as a more e ffe c tu a l64renovator o f r ic e f ie ld s than the farmyard manure , The

p ra ctice >f green manuring was popular but i t s app lication

was d e fe c t iv e fo r , i t was applied when the f ie ld s were loose

62, Im reria l Geaetteer o f Indie. V o lf XV. p. H I ,See also Lawrence, V e liev , p , 321, The strongest o f the farmyard manure wes th at o f poultry and was reserved fo r onions,

63, G, r , Vigne, Travel s, Vol, I , p, 309, I t wes naturally produced by the streams which cerr ied s i l t from the mountains to the f ie ld s whidi contained lime, a source o f manure,

64, Lawrence, Vel ie v , p, 321,

176

and more por-oMs. However, a ca re fu l u t i l iz a t io n o f i t

wes very p ro iita b le , A dressing o f dads strengthened a65f ie ld fo r three years .

There was no prejud ice against night s o i l being

used as manure* I t s value was thoroughly understood and

near Srinagar and the ls rg e r v i l la g e s and towns the g**rden

cu ltiva tio n was exce llen t end the only manure used wes

poudrotte or n ig h t-so il mixed with the dust o f the c ity66a lle y s end puverised by the action o f the sun •

fitopjag.IC -f Iw & A M m k i

Gypeum was fo r the f i r s t time used as a f e r t i l i s e r

in peddy f ie ld s during 1925. The resu lts obtained during the

f i r s t year showed that gypsum as manure gsve superior

resu lts t o farmyard manures* alone. Farmyard manure mixed

with gypsum proved to be the best combination. But i t was

not y e t certa in whether the resu lts were due to the addition

o f sulphur element to the s o i l or the lim ing e f fe c t o f

65, Im rerie l Gazetteer o f India* V ol. XV, p. 111.

66. Ib id .* See a lso Lawrence, V a liev - p. 322.

177

gypsum. The government agricu ltu ra l Chemist (panjab)

and the in du stria l chemist o f Kashmir were asked fo r

anelys is . Further the then D irector Agricu lture was asked67to t r y the experiments with bone meal a lso as a manure •

Agricu ltu ra l operations were ca re fu lly timed so68

as to f e l l within a certa in period be fo re or e.fter "Neuro*?69I f the period exceeded, the fa ilu r e of crop wes certa in •

The circumstances that intered with punctuality in ploughing

end sowing, the absence of the ir r ig a t io n weter e t the

right, time a lso caused crop fa ilu re . During the spring

season there wes great excitement among the v illa g e r s i f

water wes stopped by some natural ceuse# lik e la te melting

o f sn w or other reasons# l ik e greediness of some p riv ile ged

person, who defied the lo c ? l o f f i c ia l s end took more then

h is d u e share of water* moreover, the cu lt iva to r who was

often aeised fo r forced labour could not j 1 ough or sow et70the proper time •

67, Annuel Adm inistrative Report o f JfrK state, fo r 1925,p . 37. ........ ........ ' '..........................

68, I t haa been trea ted es the spring dey o f the Musalman* s end the *mezan* or cornrjencernent o f euturnn. G. T . Vigne, T ravels . Vol, 1# p. 312,

69, Lawrence, V a liev , p. 325.

70, IntEerfal Gazetteer of I ndia. V o l. XV, p , 113.

178

In Kashmir the system o f cu lt iva tio n wes known

as "E k fa s l i^ i The agricu ltu ra l operations in the v a lle y ,

being d iffe ren t from what was fa llow ed in other j a rts of 72the country # need sane mention here. /Agricultural

operations in Ksshmir began from the month o f Merch, when

ploughing and manuring fo r r ic e , maize and other autumn

crops commenced. By about Apri1 end Mey the nursery beds

fo r r ic e were reedy end the transplantation was over by

the end of June, wheat and berley sown previously were already

harvested by then. Local v a r ie t ie s o f wheat were harvested,

even as la te as f i r s t week o f July# together with llnsetid-

crop. in August end September# cotton picking commenced.

In September end October meize# r ic e and Tther autumn crops

were hervested end by November even the sa ffron flow ers

were picked up. With the beginning o f the w inter seeson the

ploughing fo r rice# marize and other autumn crops wes

m mm . w # * mm % mm « w # mmm % mm % mm # « » • * • • • » • ' * • • • • • • •

71. Under th is system land geve only one crop in a year with the exception o f the h igh ly cu ltiva ted garden lands# in the neighbourhood of Srinagar# and some other towns, which gave a nunfeer o f cros s in a year. In the euturm turnip were always grown in the r ic e nurseries# rape-seed wes a lso obtained alongwith the ripen ing r ic e . Lawrence, V a liev , p. 329.

72. The agricu ltu re year o f the country (In d ia ) started from 1st o£ {Tune, while o f Jammu from ISth o f August which was s im ila r t o the contiguous areas o f the Pan jab .

179

completed wheir I t was alreedy snow • During the severe

w inter threshing of rice# maize and other autumn crops was

done. Sheep end c a t t le and other l i v e stock were properly

efter^f

Prom the above statement i t becomes c lea r that the

la id remained under snow fo r 4 t o 5 months when no

cu lt iv a tio n wes poss ib le . As a resu lt , r ic e wes the main

k h erif crop, because o f the scarc ity o f time end lew of

nature. Hence the *rabi* crops alone were grown in the75

land whichves kept fa llo w during the 'k h er if* season •

Only such crops were sown in th is season whose germinetion

took p lace before the snowfall and the plants started

growing a fte r snow melted in March. Thus the ' r e b i ' crops

which took 4 to 5 months to mature in other : arts o f the

country took 6 to 7 months in Kashmir*

In sp ite o f the b en e fit of the reration o f crops, the

peasants Generally preferred the cu lt iva tio n of r ic e and

allowed the lend to remain fa llow , due to the d e fic ien cy

o f ir r ig a t io n . Further more, the small quantities o f

commercial crops grown in Kashmir afforded l i t t l e scope

fo r egro-based industries .

7 3

73. Lawrence, Valley* p. 326.

74. Hesen, Tarlkh-1-Kashmir, V o l. I , pp. 62-69. See also Lawrence. V a lley , pp. 326-336.

7 5 . I b i d . ,

180

Implements or Agricu ltu ra l Technologyi

Improved sg r icu ltu re l technology constitu te one

of the basic to o ls fo r cu lt iva tio n o f various crops on

s c ie n t i f ic lin es besides seeds# fe r t i l is e r s # p iant-

p ro tection etc* But the agricu ltu ra l technology of Kashmir76

was ordinary aid p rim itive and the v a lle y o f Kashmir#

because o f i t s physical character remained by and large#

a loo f from the rest o f the world including India* Phis

seclusion o f the v a l le y accounted fo r the d iffe ren ce in

the l i f e s ty le of Kasimir with that in other j a rts . The

system of lend cu ltiva tion and the implements used in

agricu ltu re were somewhat d if fe r e n t from those in use 77elsewhere * The plough used was very prim itive# made o f

mulberry# apple# * poahi * and walnut wood and the plough-78share was tipped with iron • Ploughing wes carried on with

79a p a ir o f oxen # who were t ie d with a p iece o f rope to

the beam of plough. I t was the most Important Instrument#

76* F. Younghusband, op. c i t . p. 205. 5. M. Koul, op. c it* p. 37*

77. Ib id ., The implements used in other parts o f Ind iawere being improved in keeping with the fresh demends o f time*

78* There were two types ~>f plough-share, f i r s t was theiron tipped, the other was o f wood alone end was a lso smaller in s iz e . The la t te r was used in the th ird stage of ploughing work.

79* Lewrence# Val le y , p. 325. G. T , Vigne# Travels# V ol. I# pp. 304-309*

1 8 1

used fo r preraring s o i l fo r sowing. I t l e f t some80 81 clods unbroken fo r whioh a wooden hammer and e log

were used. A wicker basket fo r carrying menure t o the

f ie ld s during ploughing aid sowing times wes also used,82 83 84Shovel , reke , hoe and s ick le were used at the time

o f harvesting end in cu tting gross and vegetables*85Threshing wes done with a wooden lo g or a b ig stone j The

husking o f paddy was done by husking me chines®** in few87areas and in the res t o f the v a lle y , the mortar and

80, There were two types o f these hammers, one with broad fre e end the other with narrow one.

81, I t wes gen era lly used at the fourth ?nd f in e l s ta te or a fte r th ird ploughing was over. I t was used as a r o l le r fo r le v e ll in g the f ie ld s by breaking any clod that might have reraeined thei^e e a r l ie r . The log was ebout s ix fe e t long end th re « fe e t in g ir th . I t was driven by bullocks or a bu llock ,

82, h kind o f spede with a broad blade s lic h t ly hollowed fo r throwing earth, grain e tc .

83, An implement with teeth used fo r dressing the s o i l in gardens end fo r gathering l ig h t substances,

84, An instrument fo r cutting up weeds end loosening the earth.

85, 5. N, Koul, op, c i t , p. 37,

86, The s te te had only s ix husking machines (g indra ) worked by water. This was a le rg e wooden akle to which in the middle two large encurved wooden erms were a ffix ed nearly opposite each other. This was being constantly worked by f a l l o f water d irected through an open pipe over a wooden wheel and these two arms in turn rose to s tr ik e to husk sh a ll. Dairy of an Inspec­tion Tour to G l lc l t . 1893, pp. 5-8,

87, A strong vesse l in which substanoes were pounded.I t wes made o f herd wood or stone with e concave grip in the middle*

1 8 2

ggp es tle wAre genera lly In vise* Fanning was done by

a rectangular c lo th end the cha ffin g by a trepesoid 89winnover ( shup). In the operation o f a l l these implements

the lo ca l peasant required no tra in in g es he natura lly

learn t i t from h is e lders*

In the la te r period same new implements were

introduced by the Agricu lture Dev ertment but they had not90become popular y e t , as these were co s tly end the poor

peasant o f the v a lle y was not able t o purchase them.

The above account r e f le c ts the nature of the

agrarian economy of the v a lle y which wes not developed

enough during the period o f our study,

I g r lh .e t .io n S y s te m s

Ir r ig a t io n has been in p ractice in the sta te since

ancient times. The consciousness regarding Ir r ig a t io n as

a means to achieve an e f fe c t iv e break through in the

development of agricu ltu re is r e fle c te d in the w i l l and

eagerness with which some measures to improve ir r ig a t io n

88, An Instrument fo r pounding substances in e mortar*I t was made o f wood*

89* S» S# Koul, op* c lt * p« 3*7*

90* Ib id ., i’he new implements were karl:>skar plough,spring tinned harrow, horse-hoe, American s e e -d r i11 and American hand-hoe* the government i ’nported some trac to rs also* Ib id *, p, 38*

183

were taken in the pest • No doubt* the V e lley o f

Kashmir abounds in natural water courses, but the heavy

and untimely r e in fe l l qu ite o ften caused floods, which

appear t o h«we convinced the fo re ign ers (t r a v e lle r s ) o f92the abundance o f ir r ig a t io n • While going through the

sources one comes t o the conclusion that the system presented

no less d i f f ic u l t y in cerrying out the normal agricu ltu re,

water was abundant in few areas. Though there were water

canals but they could not feed the en tire land o f the

v a lle y , as is evident from the fa c t that the v i l la g e s o f

Vihu paragana were situated et s g ree t distance from the

mein water channels l ik e Romshi, Doodganga end Kanchi-khul,

which fed a large portion o f the land.

In 1891 Kanchi-khul wes u tte r ly broken end no

arrangement wes made fo r providing ir r ig a t io n to the93areas covered by the khul . Sane was the cese with wular

X lleqe . As e resu lt, the l iv e s o f the peasants th ere became

91. Gupta St Singh, op. c i t . p. 68.

92. Census o f Ind ie, 1941. V ol. XXII, pp. 319-21.

93. A. N. Reina, Geography o f Jammu and Kashmir. pp. 69—70*

184

in secure • In Kandi I l la q a s i r r ig a t io n wes d i f f i c u l t

except in case o f small w ater channels tfcken along the

h i l l * s id e s 9.

94

therefore# regu la tio n o f the water-supply f o r the

purpose o f I r r ig a t io n by b u ild in g dams# d ive rs ion s and

canals was v e ry necessary. Let us examine a l l th is c lo s e ly

t o see whet, a c tu a lly was done in th is resp ect* -

1* Hi11-Streams and Khulai

Besides the tw in rivers# th e h i 11-streams# which

were fed by snow# formed a grea t source o f water supply fo r

i r r ig a t io n . During normal snow fa ll the water passed qu ick ly96from one v i l la g e t o another . The c u lt iv a to r s used to

97construct temporary w e irs o r p ro je c t in g snags at convenient

94* W. R. Lawrence# Assessment P e ro r t o f v i l la g e Vjhu.p . 1. I t was in th is respect th a t A. Wingate remarked# " I propose t o reserve t o the Darbar a l l r ig h ts in respect o f water because in Kashmir nothing i s so important or stands so much in need of c on tro l o r o rgan iza tion . There i s usua lly abundance o f water but th e t a i l v i l la g e s # unless ve ry strong in men and so ab le t o send up a con tl gent t o f ig h t f o r i t , cannot get i t and much water runs t o waste and much ir r ig a b le lend i s d ry . A. Wingate. P re lim inary Report o f Settlem ent <fr>eretlon in Kashmir end Jammu. l888« p . 65

95. Lawrence# G asetteer (P ro v in c ia l S er ies )# p. 45

96. Lawrence# V a lie v , p . 323.

97. These w eirs were made o f wooden stakes and stones with grass and w illow -brenches tw is ted in between th e stakes. The beat grass f o r th is purpose was the "F ik e l" . Im peria l g a ze tte e r o f Ind ia, V o l. XV# p . 112.

185p o in t s of th e se stream s* Th e re b y w e te r wes te k e n o f f

t o th e main chann els w hich passed in t o th e n e tw o rk o f

s m a ll ducts# Lower down th e h i l l , where th e stream s f lo w98g e n t ly , th e c u l t i v a t o r s c o n s tru c te d dams • A l l th e

v i l l a g e r s were o b lig e d t o lo o k a f t e r th e c o n s tru c t io n end

r e p a i r o f th e w eirs*

11. S p rin g — I r r i g a t i o n !

A n o th e r im p o rta n t so u rce o f i r r i g a t i o n was o b ta in e d 99

from sp rin g s * Some o f th e se s u p p lie d e x c e lle n t i r r i g a t i o n *

H ow ever, th e s e s u ffe re d from two draw backs, f i r s t , i t was

alwey® c o ld , s e c o n d ly , i t d id n o t c a r r y w ith i t t h e

f e r t i l i z i n g s i l t b ro u g h t down by th e stream s fro m m o untains,

in s te a d i t c o n ta in e d a scum w hich was c o n s id e re d bad f o r

r ic e * ? 0

u i * H a l l .

I r r i g a t i o n th ro u g h th e w e lls wes a n o th e r source*

A lth o u g h w e te r was e a s i l y found from 70 t o 100 f e e t below

th e s u rfe c e , y e t th e re were few w e l ls as th e p e a sa n t had

h a r d ly any money t o spend i n d ig g in g w e lls * I n some areas

98* Law rence, G a z e tte e r* (P r o v i n c i a l S e r ie s ) , p . 49*Census o f In d ia * 1911, p p , 1 2 .1 3 , and Census o f In d ia .1921, p . 11* Im p e r ia l G a z e tte e r o f In d ia * V o l . XV, p . 112. Lawrence* V a lle y * p* 321.

9 9 . SaxxHRBB, VmZtwxx p . S 2*. s . N . K o u l, op. c l t . p . 40*Im p e r ia l G a z e tte e r o f In d ia * XV, p . H 2 . Law rence,V a lie v * P* 324*

100* Law rence, V a lie v * p* 324*

1 . 8 6

temporary w e lls were dug t o p rovide water t o the

main channels, which were o ften taken over the edges

o f karewe lands whid i was e d i f f i c u l t process o f i r r ig a t in g

land3,0* I t was a lso known as l i f t - i r r i g a t i o n and ex is ted

in Srinagar a lso fo r garden c u lt iv a t io n . I t was sim ple and

inexpensive# requ ired an earthen p Jt and a le v e r (dhen k li) •102I t was more su ita b le than the Persian wheel •

i v . Canal Ir r ig a t io n *

Upto the end o f 19th century canal ir r ig a t io n was

• Is o n e g l ig ib le and d e fe c t iv e 10? R ive r Jhelum which was

o f g rea t importance t o the V a lle y , a lso d id not g iv e any

p roo f o f ex ten s ive i r r ig a t io n . But during the re ign o f

Maharaja Partep Singh, a tten tion was paid towards th e

i r r ig a t io n f a c i l i t i e s . I t was in 1901 th a t a regu la r

i r r ig a t io n d iv is io n o f the P u b lic Works Department was

101. E. F. Knight, D larv o f a Pedestra ln in Cashmere and T ibet* p . 42.

102. Im peria l G azetteer o f Ind ia . V o l. XV, p. 112*Various Trades in Kashmir, Add, o r 1708* G. T . Vigne* t r a v e ls , V o l. 11, p . l ip .

103. I t i s ev iden t from the fo llo w in g statement o f M oorcroft who observed in 1823 th at some o f the cansls were choked with s i l t and were out o f o rder.W. M oorcroft, HS.EUR.P 286. p . 21.

18 7

established, and the canals lik e Martand, Lai Kuhl,

Dandi and Naindi were constructed. But actua lly i t was

an extension end re-construction o f the Zaminderl 104

Kuhls , b u ilt by the lo ca l peasants, as th e ir take o f f

was s t i l l d e fec tiv e and d is tr ibu tion inadequate*0.

So i t is c le a r that there wes uncertainty and

sometimes in su ffic ien cy In the natural resources of

ir r ig a t io n too . To quote E. F. Knight, "No rains having

fa l le n as yet, the springs end r iv e rs were e l l d ry*°® i

The normal ir r ig a t io n required fo r cu lt iva tio n wes almost

and often abnormal and untimely w h ic h proved most dangerous

and damaging to agricu ltu re. The excessive rains brought

floods in the a llu v ia l parts and la te harvest in the

a llu v ia l pieatucax in jured by prolonged moisture or ea rly107snow end uncertain r a in fa l l .

104. These kuhls Ir r ig a ted land between Jhelum andi t s tr ib u ta r ie s . The Vi ah ar r iv e r . Census, o f India ■ 1941, p. 23.

105. Ib id .,

106. A. Neve. Th irty Years in Kashmir, p. 30.

107. In 1890 the heavy snowfall prevented the usual area o f land from cu ltiva tion , which was fo llow ed by heavy rains and peasants pos ition deteriora ted to e great extent. Annual Adm inistrative R etort of J & K State, fo r 1890-91. p p . 66-67.

188

I t w i l l not be out o f p lace to mention here108that the o f f ic e o f the Mlrab wes a lso revived with

certa in m odifications to eleminate the grievances o f

the lower v i l la g e s ca lled "Pal Ab" against the v i l la g e

of h igher e leva tion known es "Sar Ab* which were cherged109o f consuming the whole o f water o f feed ing canals •

Though the system o f d is tr ib u tion was rough end simple#

i t had the advantage that quaftrels between v i l la g e s re re ly

arose, which were o ften witnessed previously1. 0

Productionsi

The agro-based economy o f Kashmir province depended

mostly on the out-turn o f lend in the form o f food s tu ffs ,

(both commercial and non-commercial), H orticu ltu re, Forest

products and lake products. Though the products were few#

but important. Some o f the Important ceres ls produced in

Kashmir were as under*-

108. This o f f ic e seems t c have been in existence during the Mughal period. The o f f i c ia l was responsible fo r the construction and maintenance o f canals and co lle c t io n o f water ra tes . But afterwards due to the misrule these o f f ic e r s d id not rece ive th e ir pay end they became corrupt end th e ir o f f ic e as w e ll es the canals f e l l in to disuse.3. N. Koul, op. c l t . p. 40. Lawrence, V a lie v , p. 324.

109. Ibid.#

110. Ibid.#

189

1. R lce i

R ice, being th e s tap le food o f the Kashm iris***

had rece ived much a tten tion end iimportance s ince ancient 112tim es • I t accounted f o r 3/4 o f th e t o t a l c u lt iv a b le

113 114area • There were (94) n inety fou r v a r ie t ie s o f r ic e in

th e whole v a l le y end among these "Chogul" was the b es t.

Among other v a r ie t ie s were th e Larhvol. Muahkabud 11 and

Koai1! 5

Although the average y ie ld o f the unhusked r ic e116in Kashmir was on ly 17 maunds per acre * an y ie ld o f

11740 maunds on good land was by no means uncommon • There

111. J. !>• K. J e la ll# op. c i t . p. 45.

112. I t i s not unoften th a t re fe ren ces are found t o r ic e in e a r l ie r works on Kashmir# as R a ia teran c in i. 'T frrlkh-i-Raahidi and A ln -i-A k b a r i.

113. G. T. Vigne# T ra ve ls , V o l. I# p . 309.

114. Hesan# r grikh-i-Hasan. V o l. I# p . 185. Lawrence a lso supports th is statement and says about f i f t y th ree v a r ie t ie s o f r ic e were grown. These he found in one d is t r i c t a lone. Lawrence, V a lie v , p. 332. Anand Koul fu rth er corrobora tes . T h is "" observa ti on and s ta tes th a t th ere were as meny as 150 v a r ie t ie s medh having sp ec ia l q u a l i t ie s . A. Koul. op. c i t . p. X X V III,(R ev. by P. M. K. Bamsai).

115. Ib id . ,

116. Lawrence# V a lle y , p. 3 36. F. Younghusbend# Kashmir p . 200.

117. A Note on J&K S ta te , p. 28. East and West. Payers on Indian s te te s development* 1929* p. 200.

ISO

were two systems of i t s cu lt i v e t ion . First# r ic e was

sown in s nursery and then transplanted# secondly# i t

was sown broadcast• I t was sown e a r l ie r end required e

number o f waterings# end a lso a number o f weedings118in vo lv in g more labour • The p rio e o f a kharwar o f

unhusked r ic e was Rs. 1%# and the out-turn varied between

10 to 60 maunds par acre.

2m Maize

Next in inportence t o r ic e was maize# which mbs

W 119most£ grown on the uneven rugged h i l l slopes and reclaimed120swamps ( Narnbel) and lands at higher e leva tions # because

121i t needed no regu lar ir r ig a t io n . The Kashmiri cu lt iva to rs

did not l ik e i t aid attended but In d if fe re n t ly to the122maize f ie ld s • However# the GuJJars who applied heavy manure

118* E. F. Neve# Bevound P lr Pan 1 e l . pp. 59-60*A Handbook o f J&K State, pp. 22-23. Lawrence#V a liev , pp. S 3 1 - 3 A Note on J&K Stete. p. 28*

119. Ititoerlal Gazetteer o f India. V o l. XV# p. 116.

120. Lawrence# V a lie v , p. 336. S. N. Koul# op. c i t . p. 2 3.

121. In absence o f ra ins th is crop would wither away#s o i l end clim ate did not present much d i f f i c u l t y in i t s cu lt iva tio n . Only tim ely re in s could help inbumper produce o f th is crop. F. Younghusband# op. c it.#p. 200.

122. Assessment Reports, o f 3 r l Partapslnqh pore. 1920# p .20* o f Awantlpora. 19^0. p. 20. o f Anantnao. 19 22. p. 26.o f Handwara. 1922. p. 34 .

1 91

grew i t ebundently es i t formed t h e i r main d i e t . The

s ta lk end le a v e 3 o f th e p la n t were consumed by t b e i r123c a t t l e • The average production p e r kharwer o f len d was

12424 kharwars o f m aize *

i& SS& l

Kashmir d id not be long t o th e wheat grow ing re g io n s125o f th e s u b c o n t in e n t • I t wes looked down upon by th e

Kashm iris es a food , but was m ain ly goown f o r b a k e r ie s fa

Kashm iris were fond o f ta k in g b a k e r 's bread a longw lth th e 126s e l t t e a • C erta in s p e c i f i c areas were reserved fo r wheet

127c u lt iv a t io n # and th es e lands were n e ith e r manured, nor

weeded and req u ired no i r r ig a t io n . The average produce p e r128acre was 7 maunds .

123. A. Koul, op. c i t . p . XXIX (Reb. by P. N. K. Bam sai).

124. Hasan, op. c i t . V o l. I# p . 185. A kharwar o f s h a ll would mean 16 t r e k s i . e . one t r e k was o f 5 s ee rs and th re e chhataks. As a u n it o f land* a kharwar o f lend was equal t o 32 kanals o r 4 e c re s . Lawrence# V a l ie v . pp. 242—43# 37. See a lso A. W ingate, Assessment Report quoted by G aze ttee r o f Kashmir and Ladakh p .65

125. F . Younghusbend, op. c i t . p . 201. R. 1>. 3 ingh .#In d ia and R eg ion a l Geography# Varanasi# 1971# pp. 347-61.

126. Lawrence# V a lle y - p . 342# See a ls o A. KquI# op. c i t . , p . XXVII (R e * , by P . N. K. Bam zai).

1 2 f. I t s c u lt iv a t io n in Kashmir was m ostly con fin ed t o Drchenpore and Khaurpora parganas# Mehan S ingh,

p * 2<>4.

128. Lawrence, V a l ie v , p . 342.

192

I t was grown in e l l p a rts o f th e Kashmir t e r r i t o r i e s

on th e lends which w ere dependent on r a in s f o r m oistu re a t129an e le v a t io n o f 15000 f e e t • However* in th e v i l l a g e s

s itu a te d e t an e le v a t io n o f 7000 fe e t * a p e c u lia r ty p e o f130t h is crop known as "g r im " o r T ib e ta n b a r le y was grown

which was an im portant food* s ta p le f o r th e p eop le l i v in g

t h e r e * H The average produce p er a cre o f land was132maunds o f b a r le y and about 4 maunds o f "g r im " • I t s p r ic e

133v a r ie d from 2 3 s e e r t o two maunds a rupee s

M i l l e t (B s lra )

I t wea a lso grown as a food* s ta p le in Kashmir on134

th e low h i l l s b o rd e r in g on th e p la in s • I t a s t a lk was used

as a fo d d e r when dry* but c a t t l e were sometl~nes fe d on th e135young crops as i t s tood ; As a fo od i t was troub lesom e as

129. G a ze ttee r o f Kcahinlr and Ledek. p . 61.

130. The d i f fe r e n c e between th e o rd in a ry b a r le y and "grim " i s th e t the l a t t e r I s l ik e wheat w h ile th e o rd in ary b a r le y has c h a f f . D. C. Sharme* op. c i t . p . 127.

131. Mehan Singh* op. c i t . f . 133* See a ls o Lawrence* V e l ie v . P . 3 41.

132. Lawrence* V a l ie v , p . 341.

133* G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir and Ladak. p . 61.

134. F . Younghusband, op. c i t . p . 201.

*35 . G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir and Ladak, p . 62

133

i t to ok v e r y long tim e t o oook end wes ve ry herd . The

a verage production p e r acre wea about 4% meunda. I t waa

o f two v a r ie t i e s red and w h ite and wes husked l i k e r i c e

in . » o r t « 13!

Buck-Wheat ( Trowtoa) »

Buckwheat was th e most u se fu l p la n t grown in th e137h i l l y areas r e q u ir in g le a s i r r ig a t i o n • I t had tw o kinds#

sweet tronfoa w ith w h ite p in k ish flow ers# o fte n grown as e

s u b s t itu te f o r r i c e where w ater wes not fo rthcom ing end

th e o th e r v a r ie t y was c e l le d b i t t e r trornba w ith y e l lo w

fo lo w e rs . The average product ion p e r acre o f len d wes 4J5

maunda^f

Amaranth (Gcnhar) *

The most b e a u t i fu l and m u lt i-co lo u red crop waa

sown in rows in th e co tton f i e l d s o r on th e b o rd ers o f th e

m aize p lo t s . I t a ls o requ ired no i r r ig a t io n or manuring.

With t im e ly re in s a la r g e ou t-tu rn was h a rves ted . I t a lso

136. Lawrence# V a lie v - p . 338. See a la o S. N. Koul# op. c i t . p . 2 3.

137* Im p er ia l G a ze tte e r o f In d ia . V o l . XV# p . 117.lit g e n e ra lly formed th e on ly food o f th e p eop le in h igh e r areas# who cooked i t in th e form o f p o rr id ge * I t was e ls o con s id ered as a good food f o r horsda snd f o r p o u ltry *

138. Lawrence# V a lie v - p . 338.

194

p rov id ed an a lk a lin e substance from i t s s ta lk ash

which was used by th e washermen and th e v i l l a g e r s as 139a soap . The average ou t-tu rn p e r kharwar o f land was

10 kharwars o f c rop **?

*1BBSml.LteJI*

Kanani was an ex trem ely u se fu l product sown during

th e y ea rs when th e re used t o be s c a r c ity o f w e te r f o r r i c e 141c u l t iv a t io n • Z t wes a d ry crop and req u ired much labour

and w eeding. There w ere two v a r i e t i e s — sm e lle r o f red

c o lo u r , p re fe r r e d as a food and la r g e r one o f w h ile c o lo u r .142The average outturn was 4% maunds t o an acre • China o r

"P in g " was another k ind resem bling Kanani. but such crops

were denounced by th e Kashm iris f o r one reeson or th e

o th e r .

In Ladakh th e crops m ain ly co n s lted **^ o f bearded

and b ea rd less b a r le y , lu cern e , p ees , wheet, buckwheat,

tu rn ip , mume, prangos and many o th e r p e c u lia r crop s n yt

known t o th e v a l l e y .

139. F . Younghusband, op. c i t . p . 202. S. N. Koul, op. c i t . ,p . 23. See a ls o Im peria l G a ze ttee r o f In d ia . V o l . XV,p . 117.

140. Lawrence, V a lie v , p . 338. I t s minute g re ln s were f i r s t parched and then grounded and eaten w ith m ilk o r w a ter. I t was g e n e ra lly consumed by th e Hindus on th e days o f f a s t and on f e s t i v e occas ion s .

141. Im p er ia l G a ze ttee r o f In d ia . V o l. XV, p . 117.

342, Lawrence, V e l ie v , p . 338.

143* G a ze tte e r o f Kashmir and Ladak, p . 62.

195

144The v a l le y produced alm ost a l l Kinds o f p u lses

(D a l*a ) lik e# Moona. Mesh# Moth# Mesur# Ralmash* Bogle#

and pees# end th e len d meant f o r them requ ired no w eed ing,,

no manuring end not even i r r ig a t i o n , fh e b est o f th e pu lses

wes th e Moona but th es e were not es im portant es green 145v e g e ta b le s . The average p rodu ction o f th e p lu se crop

146v a r ie d from 2% t o 3 maunds p e r acre •

Besides th e above mentioned crops# Kashmir a ls o

produced a le r g e q u a n tity o f cash crops and w ater products#

l i k e cotton# tobecco# hops# o il-s e ed s# s a ffr o n end 8 g rea t

v a r ie t y o f w ater products# d iacussed hereunder*

Gottorn

I t wes grown a l l o v e r th e v a l l e y on kerwss and

a ls o in low ly ing# i r r ig a b le lands# though in sm all q u a n tity

end wes grown when th e lands req u ired r e s t from r ic e * I t

144. Pu lses were grown c o -e x te n s lv e ly w ith eny o th e r crop in c lu d in g paddy end maize# beceuse t h e i r r o o ts ran deep in to th e s o i l . Lewrenoe# Va lley# pp. 338-39#F. Younghusband# op. c i t * p . 20i *

145* Hasan# op. c i t * V o l, I# p . 186* I t i s e v id e n t fromth e fa c t th a t th e consumption o f p u lses in th e v a l le y was not as much as in o th er p a r ts o f Indie# even th e Pan jab is d id not regard th e Kashmiri d a l (p u ls e s ) in a fa vou ra b le l i g h t . Im p eria l G ese tte e r o f Indjgu V o l. XV# p . 118.

146. A Handbook o f J&K S ta te , p . 24* A Note on J&K State# p . 28. S. N. Koul# op. c i t . p* 2 3. Lawrence# V a lle y . p . 339.

196

was not on ly meent f o r th e f i b r e used f o r home--

manufactured cocton c lo th * but a ls o f o r e x c e l le n t147c a t t l e food • The dom estic p rodu ction wes not s u f f i c ie n t

148t o meet he lo c a l demand th e average production p e r149acre was about 3% maunds .

Tebacco wes c u lt iv a te d in meny p e r ts of th e v e l l e y .

The b es t q u a l i t y "B rew ari" wes produced in th e nichbourhood 150o f S rin agar • I t waa m ostly in th e hands o f th e

151gardener c le 3 s , I t requ ired v e ry r ic h s o i l and was

i r r ig a t e d by th e p>t end le v e r system* The o th er v a r ie t y

wes th e t o f c h i l e s i • I t wes exported t o Ledakh,

«2£21

Hop c u lt iv a t io n was a la t e developm ent cm e x p e r l-152m entel b a s is end were m ain ly grown in sopur • Phe hop

garden o f Dobgem y ie ld e d a hendsome retu rn o f hops and

147, Im p er ia l G ea e ttee r o f In d ie . V o l. XV, p., 119, F,Younghusbend, op. c i t , p , 202. Lawrence, V a l i e v .p . 341.

148, w. Moor c r o f t . T ra v e ls , } e r t I I I , p , 360,

149, 3. N, Koul, op, c i t , p , 25,

150, Tabecco produced in KemreJ wes h ig h ly texed f o r th e reason th e t e i t h e r i t wes l ik e d by th e p eo p le o r i t s p roduction was h igh e r then th e t in th e r e s t o f th e v e l l e y , & W ingate, R eport, p , 64,

151, G eae tteer o f Kashmir end Ladek. p , 52, F. Younghusbend, ‘dip, c i t , p , 202, I t was a ls o c u lt iv a te d in Suru V a lle y ,

L ^ *^^152, During th e re ig n o f M eheraje R enb ir Singh, hopa were\t<u Hco, in troduced in Kashmir by M ejor Montegomery as en

experim ent which succeeded. In 1884 en area o f 120 acres y ie ld e d 600 maunds. Annuel A d m in is tra tiv e R e ro rt L p , 172, F , Younghusband, op", c i t , p . 203,'

137

in c reased p r o f i t s con s id erab ly w ith g rea t advantage

t o th e economy o f th e v a l l e y . In 1900-01 th e t o t a l produce153

was 25000 Lbs* which fe tch ed fts, 21000 t o th e s t e t e income*

In 1925-26 i t wes 13 ,2 i6 Lbs end th e s te t e d e r iv e d Rs*15414736 from i t s c u lt iv a t io n •

Opiums

I t wes c u lt iv a te d during K h arif season, when

len d wes under snow* I t s d r ied capsu les were used In th e155manufacture o f some m edicines • The c u lt iv a to r s were

req u ired t o s e l l th e whole o f t h e i r crop t o th e s ta te

government who issued i t t o th e l ic e n s e e s on payment o f

th e co s t p r ic e p lu s th e e x c is e du ty .

O i l— Seeds»

The o l1 -seed s were la r g e ly grown in Kashmir156 and

th e p r in c ip a l o i l - s e e d s inc luded T lla oa lix . TarugtS e rsh a f)157

end Sand11 which came under th e heed o f rape. The f i r s t

153, Annual A d m in is tra tiv e R ero rt o f J&K s te te . 1901 ,p .l62 .

154, I b id . , 1925-26, p . 169.

155, Lawrence, V a lie v , p . 346.

156, 311-seeds were v e r y in p orta n t t o th e Kashm iris beceuse t r a d i t i o n a l l y th ey p r e fe r r e d o i l t o ghee.I t was ex tra c ted both f o r l o c e l consumption and f o r ex p o rt.

157, I t s outturn wes 4 kharwers an a cre . F. Younghusband,op. c i t . p . 202,

198

v a r ie t y wes used f o r p repa rin g v e g e ta b le s whereas

th e o th e r two v a r i e t i e s were consid ered best f o r l ig h t in g158purposes • Besides these# le r g e q u a n t it ie s o f l in s e e d

15were e ls o produced which too was used f o r ea t in g purpose •

T i l was a ve ry common crop# which needed a r ic h s o i l end

was t o b e c a r e fu l ly looked e f t e r then anyother o i ls e e d

p le n ts . I t was sweet end wes va lu ed es an o in tm ent1?0

a f t e r making minor changes i t was used es a perfum ery1®.

Moreover# o i l wes e x tra c ted from th e walnuts end a p r ic o ts162whose rem aining o i l - c e k e served es a fod d er f o r c a t t l e •

158. A. W ingete, R eport, p . 64.

159. I t y w e about 1% t o 2 meunds p e r a cre . F .Younchu abend, op. c i t . p . 202.

160. Th is typ e o f o i l wes produced in s u f f ic ie n t q u a n t it ie s and i t formed raw -m ateria l f o r a perfum ery in d u s try . The ou t-pu t p e r a cre o flend was 1% meunds. Im p er ia l G a ze ttee r o f In d ia - V o l. XV, p . 119.

161. M oorcro ft says " th is o i l has such q u a l i t i e s as can f a i r l y e n t i t l e i t t o be in trodu ced in Europe and i f d iv e s te d o f i t s mucilage# i t m ight perhaps compete w ith th e o i l o f o l i v e s " .

162. S. N. Koul# op. c i t . p . 24.

199

• M f - O U .Saffron***'* has been end I s th e monopoly o f

Kashmir from tim e immemorial. I t was famous fo r i t s

bouquet and was in g rea t request as a condiment and as a164pigm ent f o r th e fo reh ead marks o f th e Hindus Pnd as a

165m ed icine . I t wes c u lt iv a te d on th e karewas o f Porapora166end th e a d jo in in g v i l l a g e s • Th ere were th re e v a r i e t i e s

s o la r es i t s q u a l i t y was concerned i . e . s h e h l-a e ffro n —

th e f i r s t q u a lit y waa obta ined from th e upper stigm a top

w ith orange-red co lou r , Monora— th e second q u a l i t y was

o f lon g w h ite bese o f th e stigme# but was in f e r i o r t o th e

f i r s t , Leoha th e th ir d and la s t q u a lit y wes ob ta in ed

from th e flo w e rs d r ie d in th e sun# dipped in to w a ter and

163. Kalhene e ls o t e s t i f i e s t o i t s n a tu ra l growth in Kashmir# M. A. Stein# R a la te ra n o ln l. BK, I# p . 42

164. Lawrence# V e l ie v , p . 342. Im p e r ia l G a ze ttee r o f In d ia .V o l. XV, p . 120.

165. A. Koul, op. c i t . p . XXX# (R ev . by P .N .K . B an za i).

166. Im p eria l G a ze tte e r o f In d ia - V o l. XV, p . 121.For seed purposes a p a r t ic u la r espect o f s lo p in gground was requ ired# which wes d iv id ed in t o f i v e f e e t square beds b e in g surrounded by a s ix inch deep d rin age channel and s a ffr o n bu lbs p lan ted on th ese beds were a t a depth o f on ly fo u r in ches from th o su rfa ce . The s a ffro n f i e l d s remained under arop f o r about ten yea rs du rin g which p e r io d th e number o f corns was doubled. These lands were dependent on ra in s a lone. A f t e r s a ffro n c u lt iv a t io n th e land was l e f t fa l lo w o r prepared f o r th e c u lt iv a t io n o f wheet and m aize*

200

beaten by s t ic k s a f t e r long procedure , C om nerc ie lly

s a ffr o n wes the most im portant c rop . In form er days th e

s a ffr o n c u lt iv a t io n wes a la rg e source o f revenue t o th e168s te te ,

1 6 7

Leke S o i l end P rodu cts !

169The lakes o f Kashmir e re numerous, end may be

d iv id e d in to tho>e in th e v e l l e y i t s e l f end th o?e upon th e170mountains surrounding i t . Here we e re not t o d e e l w ith

th e h is to r y o f th e l e l s s but we have t o determ ine t h e i r

economist im portance end f o r t h is purpo e we la y s tr e s s

on th e main lak es l , e , Del lake , Manasbel lek e . An char lek e

end Wuler le k e . In th ese lakes two typ es o f a r t i f i c i a l

167, Lawrence, V a lle y , p . 344, A N ote on th e J&K S ta te . p , 29,

168, There were 10,000 t o 12,000 b ighas o f lend covered w ith s a ffro n , w h ich ,. . . . a ffo rd ed a p rosp ect th a t hed enchanted th ose who were most d i f f i c u l t t o p le e s e , Abul F a z l, A ln - l-A k b a r l. pp, 89-90,452 and 535, I t wes la r g e ly exp orted t o C en tra l A s ia ,T ib e t end B r it is h In d ia , Ladakh end th e Pen jeb e ls e im ported t h i s fcs in la r g e q u a n tity , A Cunningham, op, c i t , p , 247,

169, In th e d e s c r ip t io n o f lak es o f Kashmir, V iane exp la in s th a t th e word Dal i s ap p lied t o e le k e in th e p le in s . Sag i s th e term fo r e morass and Naa ( l i t e r a r y a "serpen t* ') i s used es e name f o r th e mountain le k e o r fou n ta in s , whose depth and c lea rn ess e n t i t l e them t o be considered es f i t t i n g abodes o f some one o f th e innumerable d i v in i t i e s o f th e Hindu pantheon. G, r . V inge, T r a v e ls , p ,C, E. Bates, op. c i t . p . 12,

170, A l i s t o f such lakes has been appended at Appendix NO* V I,

s o i l were c rea ted by th e p eop le l i v in g n earer

th es e la k es . The f i r s t typ e ves known as "Radii" o r

f l o a t in g gardens* and th e second as " Derrib".

"Radh" o r F lo a t in g Gardensi

These gardens were made by r a f t and reeds in

whicft ea rth end weeds were p laced la y e r upon la y e r t i l l172I t became strong enough t o bear s u f f i c ie n t w eigh t • I t

was fa s ten ed w ith fo u r stout# P o le s and could be e a s i ly

removed f o r th e conven ience o f th e owners, Mud and weeds

o f th e lake were used as manure and e x c e lle n t v e g e ta b le s173grew on such a r t i f i c i a l s o i l . th ese l i t t l e heaps were

174prepared in th e b eg in n in g o f th e Baisakb a t in t e r v a ls

o f one pace* end th e produce la s te d f o r f i v e months. In

w in te r noth ing was grown on th ese heaps. Dal la k e wes famous175f o r such f l o a t in g gardens . I t c o n s t itu ted r ic h s o i l and

201

1 7 1

171. One more ty p e o f s o i l was found in th e la k es o f Kashmir known as D a li, but i t was not o f a r t i f i c i a l natu re. I t was n a tu ra l land and was as good as Dexnb i t arew a l l £rot>s. G a ze tte e r o f Keshmir and Ladek . p . 788. The area under s r t l J i o l e i s o i l in Dai l r k e a lone wes about 1890 acres in 1899. Lawrence* V a lie v , p . 20.

172. Mehan Singh* ra r lk h - l-K a la n . f f . 83-84* See a ls o Lawrence* V e l ie v , p . 344.

173. W. M oorcroft* MS. EURD. 265. p . 68.

174. G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir a id Ladak . p . 788.

175. Accord ing t o W.R.Lawrence* "The f lo a t in g gardens o f Del la k e which resem ble th e "chjnampas" o f o ld M exico and th e whole c u l t iv a t io n and v e g e ta t io n o f th e la k e i s f u l l o f in t e r e s t end o f g r e e t im portance t o th e c i t y p e o p le . Lewrence* V a l ie v . p . 344. See a l s o Im p er ia l G a ze tte e r o f In d ia .V o l. XV| p . 121*

202

and possessed ample m oistu re whioh i s e v id en t from th e

fa c t thr-t a p lan t b o re as many e s t h i r t y t o n in e ty end176sometimes even one hundred f r u i t s o f f u l l f i z e o f

e x c e l le n t q u a lit y w ith a su rp r is in g abundance o f177v e g e ta b le produce • As f a r as th e Dal la k e was concerned

178i t produced in p a r ts singhara o r water-nuts# nudru

o r ro o ts o f lotus# n llop h a r and kamal-doda. The la k e a ls o

y ie ld e d g ress , n e r l and f lo a t in g leaves# koru# w ith e x c e l le n t179fo d d e r f o r horses and cows •

Derob I>ancl s

Next in im portance t o th e f l o a t in g gardens in

f e r t i l i t y were th e demb lands# which were formed a long th e

s id e s and sometlmas in th e m idd le o f th e lak e when th e

176* Among th ese fru its # melons# w ater-m elons end cucumbers may be mentioned*

177. Lawrence# V a lie v - p . 345, Im p er ia l G a ze ttee r o f In d ig - V o l. XV# p . 122,

178, I t was one among the most im portant w ater products o f g rea t economic va lu e in Kashmir and a la r g e sec tion o f p eop le l i v in g on th e banks o f th e lak es l iv e d on w ater nuts* In 1825 th e average p rodu ction o f w ater nuts was about 9620000 kharwars whioh fe tch ed Rs* 300000 a year* But during th e la t e r p e r iod o f th e Dogre ru le i t s p rodu ction decreased as p eop le turned t o a g r ic u ltu re Lawrence says " In th e y ea r 1893 when f lo o d s destroyed th e maize and o th er crops# p eop le turned t h e i r a tte n t io n t o th e singhara nuts'** During such y e e rs i t s produ ction wes p ro g re s s iv e o th erw ise in o rd in a ry years i t s production docs not exceed 100000 meunds. w* M oorcro ft( T ra v e l3- V o l. II# p . 350. Lawrence# V e l ie v - p . 355

179. G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir & Ladak- p * 788.

w ater we* •h a llo w * * °T h i» a r t i f i c i a l s o i l was r a is e d

by p la n t in g w illo w o r p o p la r sap l in g s in sm all squares.

The en c losu re was g ra d u a lly f i l l e d up w ith la k e weedsia i

end mud t i l l th e l e v e l was above th e f lo o d l e v e l •

Though th is was an expen sive beg inn ing , but once made, the

s o i l was e x t r a o r d in a r i ly r ic h end m ostly requ ired no

ir r ig a t io n * ® * The Radh s t r ip s were l i a b l e t o be d estroyed

by th e f lo o d s , w h ile th e Panto land , once ra is ed h igh

enough, was s a f e * Oh th e Demb e g re a t v a r ie t y o f crops

were ra is ed * Rapeseed, m aize, tob a cco , me lexis and o th e r

cu cu rb iteccae , p e te to e s , on ions, ra d ish es , tu rn ip s ,

e g g -p la n ts , w h ite-beens, peaches, a p p r io o ts and qu inces

f lo u r is h e d on t h is s o i l . The Oemb system was o f Im portance

as i t wes not con fin ed t o th e Dal la k e , but, a l l o v e r

Kashmir th e p eop le who l iv e d by th e g r e e t swamps had

con stru cted th e cu riou s ob long p a tch es*? *

180* Im peria l G azetteer o f Ind ia , v o l . xv, p . 122*L a l r ^ c S . Vai 1 ev. r>. 345> J a llr a (Is la n d ) Neupors wes famous fo r such kind o f s o i l*

181* I t s le v e l was gen era lly f i v e o r s ix f e e t above th ewater* sometimes stakes were d riven a l l aroundInstead o f p lan tin g tre e s * G azetteer o f Kashmir end Ladek p . 789* D* C* Sharme, op. c i t . p . 12.

182. Around th is land l i t t l e water channels ran from th e lake and in consequence th e moisture wes always present. In add ition to th is the waste o f th e Rag* c u lt iv a t io n was annually thrown on the Pemb land, vjhlch thereby got a l l th e manure heaps; Im peria l G azetteer o f Ind ia. V o l. XV, p . 122. G azetteero f Kashmir and Ladak p . 788.

183. G a ze ttee r o f Kashm ir and L a d e k , p. 788.

184. Lawrence, V a lle y , P« 345. Im peria l G azetteer Of In d ie . V o l. XV. p . 122.

204

Apart from th e sp lend id produce o f th e E sS l

and th e Dernb lands* th e c u lt iv a to r s o f D el-1 eke— th e185

M llM H E i P eo n ® # es th ey were c e l le d in Kashmir— hed

o th e r source o f fo od which th e la k e y ie ld e d them f r e e o f

lab ou r. The ainahara (w aternu ts ) a ffo rd e d en easy meal186which was not t o be d esp ired , The ex tra o rd in a ry p lan t*

th e "en n es leya h o rr id a" l o c a l l y c a l le d th e 1uwur— was

e l so com'non in some p a r ts o f th e la k e end gave a p leasen t187seed which was ea ten raw and parched • The Dumbh? w ith

i t s lon g stem end w h ite flow ers * p rov id ed as n ou rish in g

v e g e ta b le from th e f<£ner and en a g reea b le sh arba t( l iq u id )

from th e l e t t e r and then th e g lo r y o f the lake* Then canoes

th e lo tu s* (nilumbium speclosum) w ith i t s nob le p in k end

w h ite flow ers * th e form er y ie ld e d a sweet"nut end a worm

savoury v e g e ta b le in i t s l e a f . Stem were th e l a t t e r was

185, The Dal la k e was Inclu ded in vihat was known as th eT e h s i l which comprised 13 v i l l a g e s ,

Sacfriwere* Chasraeshehi, Darabagh* Esthel* Gupker* Habek Hamther* Lam, Nandpora* Neopure* wavapura# Nurbegh, Samarpura* and Z ith e r * Lawrence, V r l l e y p , 345, G a ze tte e r o f Kashmir and Ladefc :. pp, 787-88,

186, For d e t a i l s see ch ap ter on A g r ic u ltu ra l b a s is o f t h is th es is ,f.ir t .n S .

187, Lewrence* V a l le y , p , 345, I t s broad round l e a f l i e s on th e w ater ' l i k e th a t o f th e lo tu s* i t s upper su rf ece b e in g in no way remark able* w h ile on th e re v e rs e i t i s covered w ith numerous herd, sharp and hooked s p ic u le . G aze ttee r o f Kashmir and Ladak*.p . 787,

205

succu len t • But th e mo t u se fu l o f e l l products wes th e

p i t s , th e rush, from which th e m atting o f Kashmir was made

end i t a ls o gave a d e l ic io u s food , known es th e la k e swet^

meet. Which wes made from e powder c o l le c t e d from th e

young rushes in th e sp r in g end b o i le d in t o th e con s is ten cy189o f cheese. The ro o ts o f th e rush were ea ten •

F ish in g wes c a r r ie d on t o a g r e e t ex ten t by th e

in h a b ita n ts o f th e surrounding v i l le g e s , who p rese rved a

g r e e t d e e l o f th e produce o f th e n e ts f o r s a le , by sim ply

c u t t in g th e f is h open end d ry in g i t in th e sun, u sing v e ry190l i t t l e o r no s e l t • The v e r i e t i e s o f f i s h met w ith in

th ese lek es were sa id t o be th e » a t t a r cad, c h e r r l gad.

p lk u t c?ed. chash ced , krout ced. remail crd , an lur, t e t qed

das cad end a i l qed. A l l th ese f is h e s were ceught in t h e i r

seeson throughout the e n t ir e course o f th e Jhelum end th e191la k es o f Kashmir i . e . D e l-w u lrr, Anchar end ianasbal .

188. They were v e ry common end in f e c t th e le r v e s wereso numerous th e t in sane p ie c e s th ey formed verdan tcarpet over which th e w ater-hens end o th ers o f th esame genus s e cu re ly ran w ith ou t r is k o f b e in g immersed, ^ a a e tte e r o f Kashmir and L a d a k p. 787.

189. Lawrence, V a l ie v , p . 345. I t was o f g r e e t commercial va lu e , e s th e "fram e-si eve were con stru cted from one o f i t s v a r i e t i e s whioh wes used by th e paper makers from another k ind . Roof o f th e b o e ts were matted and from y e t another, th e flow ers# which resem bled co tton in textu re# were mixed up w ith th e m ortar and p le s te re d on th e s id e o f both# in o rder t o p reven t i t b e in g to o much so ftn ed by th e steam. G a ze ttee ro f Kashmir and Ladak h pp . 787 and 856.

190. The f is h are s e id t o r e t i r e t o th e lek es in th edepth o f w inter# whan th e r iv e r s e re at t h e i r lowest# Ib id .#

191. Ib id .# pp. 99# 787 end 856.

20G

During w in te r pnd eutumn th e le k e wes covered

w ith innumerable w ild fow l# however# th e gr6bes# moor

hens pnd b a ld -c o o ts were co n s tan tly found th ere* numerous

herons were d is t in gu ish ed e t t h e i r fa v o u r it e f is h in g

s ta tion s# whereas th e common k in g f is h e r wes found e t every

192co rn er o f th e la k e •

Concluding th e remarks on th e lek e products#

mention mey be made o f th e v e g e ta b le produce o f Kashmir

which were © Iso o f g rea t im portance and deserve a s p e c !e l

r e fe r e n c e . A la r g e v a r ie t y o f v e g e ta b le s wes grown in

v-ashmir. The more im portant were pumpkin# cucumber#

temato# turnip# "nudru"# kararosag (k n o l-k h o l) — th e

n a tio n a l v e g e ta b le o f Kashmir— c h i l l i# ecg p lan t# p a ta to #

Asparagus# w h ite beans# endire# le ttu ce# c e r ro t and

on io n *3. Moreover# th e v e g e ta b le o f cabbage ca u liflo w e r#

b ee t-ro o t# radish# artichoke# spinach# olery# leak#

la d y 's f in o e r and shubarb ©Iso w ere experim ented w ith195

and aoucht t o be crown in la rg e q u a n t it ie s •

192. G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir and L«dak #, pp. 789-89

193. E x ce llen t p a te to e s were m ostly grown on th e h i l l y s lop es o f T r e l end Naubug i l l e q a s . Lawrence, V e l ie v , p . 347.

194. Ib id .# p . 346.

195. A Handbook o f J&K State# p . 28.

H o r t ic u ltu re !

In a d d ition t o th e above mentioned food g ra in s

end cesh crops, a r e fe r e n c e la t o be made t o th e im portant

end w orld famous h o r t ic u ltu r e o f Kashmir. Kashmir— th e

coun try o f f r u i t s — had s in ce lon g been known f o r i t ,

Kashmir f r u i t s and grapes have o fte n been mentioned in th e

R a la ta ra n c in l o f Kelhane19? Among th e f r u i t s commonly

grown in Kashmir were apple, p eer, perch , plum, a p r ic o t ,

ch e rry , qu ince, pomegranate, ra sp b erry , gooseb erry ,

ntealon, water-m elon, walnuts, h a ze ln u ts , g ra in s o r v in e

end almonds1?7 The g rep e * formed an im portant item o f th e

economy o f Kashmir, A la rg e p o r t io n erf i t s produce wes

used fo r p reparin g w ines. In 1895 th e t o t a l p roau ction used198

fear th e sa id purpose vies 164 kharw eri, • In 1?02 th e

government, in o rd er t o deve lop th e h o r t ic u ltu r e o f Kashmir,

196, M. A, S te in , Kelhana 's R a la ta ra n g in i. V o l. I , p .42 Kashmir had been known f o r i t s f r u i t s s in ce tim e immemorial, th e p h ys ica l end c l im a t ic co n d it io n s o f th e s ta te w ere fr v o u r rb le f o r grow ing v e r io u s k inds o f tem perate end s u b -tro p ic a l f r u i t s ,

197, Walnuts, h a z e l n u - a and almonds were counted among dry f r u i t s end were o f g r e e t economic v a lu e , X iuas T h e ir produ ction wes l im ite d . The o th er f r u i t s , excep t g rap es , commanded v e ry l i t t l e or no p r ic e ,

198, Janvmi end Kashmir S ta te ,

in c luded such op era tion es estab lishm ent o f n u rs e r ie s ,199p la n ta t io n o f mulberry t r e e s , c u lt iv a t io n o f f r u i t t r e e s

in g en e ra l end many o th er schemes^0.

The department s ta rted fo u r n u rser ie s e t Th id

Bagh, Panjgem V erin a g and Naupura in Kashmir and im ported

f r u i t t r e e s from Europe were p lan ted on experim en ta l beds201f o r ex ten d in g th e f r u i t c u lt iv a t io n « In the b eg in n in g ,

t r e e s w ere d is t r ib u te d among the c u lt iv a to r s w ithou t any

payment, but la t e r on they were charged about 12 t o 25202p a ls e i e r t r e e , o f w hatever nature and kind th e t m ight be .

As e consequence, h o r t ic u ltu r e in th e v e l l e y made

tremendous p ro g res s . The p rogress was rem arkable a f t e r th e

estab lishm en t o f a separate departm ent* C ted it goes t o Mons

Ermens, Ex-Heed Gardener o f the P u b lic Parks in P a r is , L,

Bouley and A. Peycheud, who arranged th e orchards on

208

L199* I t , on th e one hand, gave a f r u i t m . and _____________and on th e o th e r i t su pp lied food fo r the silk -w orm s and con tr ib u ted t o the development o f th e S i lk in d u s try ,

200, A d m in is tra tiv e Report o f Jammu end Kashmir S ta te* f o r 1901-04, p , X X II,

201, Ib id . , p . 282,

202. A l e t t e r from t o ' yh ara la 24th O ct.,1907/ JK. P o l . N0» 236/1441 o f 1 9 ^ . During th e p e r io d from 1904 t o 192060,000 t o 75,000 t r e e s were d is tr ib u te d annually by the h o r t ic u ltu r e Dej ^rtm ent,

M. Peycheud, in p layn e. j f .P - - 749« In 1*) 24-25, 71,513 f r u i t t r e e s and 19731 m ulberry tre ed were Issued t o the c u lt iv a to r s . Annual A d m in ls t r a t iv R ecort o f J&K S ta te . 1924~2!>, p . 24,

p la n t in g , budding end g r a f t in g from European c o u n tr ie s •

The development end p rogress made by th is in d u s try— which

wes com p lete ly Agro—based—— cen be ree litseo from th e f^ c t

th a t th e va lu e o f exp ort o f f r u i t from Kashmir t o th e204

Penj eb in creased f r o m ’ s. 3# 49# 917 in 1905-06 t o <&*205

10#60#018 in 1920-21.

F o res t Production*

Next t o a g r ic u ltu re , fo r e s t s co n s t itu ted th e206 , , , ,

most im portant b a s is o f the s t e t e economy • A l l s lo p es

fe e in g north-wards were covered w ith dense fo re s ts#

com prising deodar# f i r # b lu e pine# ch il# e r b o r ic u ltu r e !

t irses • Sentonien# lee# kuth end o th e r p le n ts end f lo w e rs

whose e x tra c ts p rov id ed s-xne emount o f e s s e n t ia l drugs end

o i l s were a ls o c u lt iv a te d # Mention o f e few in p o r ten t

among th ese i s made hereunder*-

s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s e n d i n t r o d u c e d n e w s y s t e m s o f

. 2 0 3

203. JSrmens Mans was engrged by th e s ta te governmentf o r making w ines on le r g e - s c e le in Kashmir. W hile coming h ere he had brought w ith h im se lf s >me f r u i t t r e e s e lon gw ith some v in e cu tc in gs end implements in order t o s ta r t en a g r ic u ltu r e 1 farm here# which he p len ted e t Chesmashehi near Srinagar# le te r o n Bouley end Peychaud who were ex p erts in t h is f i e l d pushed i t fu r th e r eheed when j&eycheud founded th e

H o r t ic u ltu re Department o f Kashmir in 1?02. A. .1. Peychaud in Pa lvn e S .P« 749. See a ls o Annual A d m in is tre t lv e Report of J&K S ta te f o r 1901—04#. p . X I I I .

204. TreMte and Rep o rt o f J&K S te te . 1905-06, p . 25.

205. Ib id .# 1920-21. pp. 23-25.206. N early 58 percen t o f th e t o t s l aree in Keshmir

p rov in ce wes under fo re s ts# le r v in g e s id e th e area o f Ladek which hed l i t t l e v e g e te t io n . Techno- Economic Survey o f JfrK S ta te . NCAER. p . 9 .

Deodegx

I t wes th e most ve lu eto le end handsome t im b e r -

found fit en e le v a t io n o f 5000 t o 9000 fe e t# m ostly in

th e d i s t r i c t o f Kararej20? rbeae fo r e s t s were m ostly h e ld208

In J a g lr s . I t wes In g r e e t demend f o r b u ild in g boats#

r i l e bridges# m ortars (leans) end was e ls o exp o rted . I t209

was im pervious t o w eter end le s te d f o r c en tu r ie s •

S i l v e r F ir s t

I t wes e ls o du rab le and b e t t e r f o r making j o i s t s .210I t grew t o en enormous s iz e . I t wes found p t an

e le v a t io n o f 8000 t o 11000 f e e t and owing t o i t s h ig h e r

a lt i tu d e i t wes v e r y troublesom e t o ob ta in I t . I t

req u ired more labou r. I t was used a ls o as fu e l in211

Kashmir .

207. T h is in vo lved th e area o f u t t e r Mechchipur Tehall#th e v a l l e y o f Klshenganga r i v e r end o f th e Jhelumfrom Kohale t o Baramulla. Im p er ia l C a ze t te g r o f In d ia - V o l. XV# p . 129f Lawrence. Valle y # pp. 78-79. F. Younghusbend# op. c i t . p . 206.

208. W. lo o r c ro ft , MS.EUR.D 265- pp. 1-12# G. F. Vigne#Trave ls- V o l. II# p . 168.

209. Ib id .#

210. Lawrence# V a lie v - p . 80.

211. Im p eria l G aze tte e r o f In d ia - V o l. XV, p . 130

211

BJlW? FllMML

I t was found e t an e le v a t io n o f 6000 t o 10,000

f e e t end wes known es th e muse o f d eoder. I t was next in213

im portance t o deoder, but not as du rab le es deoder •

I t s tim b er wes f a i r l y s tron g end e a s i l y worked.

W L

I t wes r e r e ly found in Kashmir v e l l e y , however,

th e M ueefferebed eruk K o t l i fo r e s t s w ere f u l l o f i t . I t214

grew in th e low er a lt i tu d e s below th e p in e and deoder •

I t w«*s requ ired f o r me k in g p lenks end i t s bark p rov id ed

stronq ch e rco e l. I t e l so con ta ined r^ s in but th e seme wes 215not ex tra c ted becuese o f th e lea k o f proper t ra n s p o r t .

216The wood was used f o r to rch es end es a fu e l by th e

v i l l a g e r s .

212

212. I b id . , p . 129. I t s ch e rco e l wes h igh ly ve lu ed by th e go ldsm iths o f Kashmir end i t s w h ite r e s in wes used as a p as te on th e wounds wherees i t s b la ck re s in w es used by th e ferm ers on le g s end arms w h ile w orking in th e f i e ld s , es e p r o te c t io n aga inst th e herm ful w e te r in s e c ts . Lawrence, V e l ie v , p . 80.

213. Ib id . ,

814, Im peria l G a ze tte e r o f In d ie , V o l. XV, p . 1 29.

215. G aze ttee r o f Kashmir end Ladak, p . 38.

216. Geoyre F o re s te r , A Journey from Bengal t o EnglandThrough th e Northern F art o f In d ie end Kashmir.

I , P« 353.

A rb o r ic u ltu ra l T r e e s «

flmong th ese th e p ie c e o f p r id e end honour was217

th a t o f th e m agn ificen t "C h inar*, * A Royal t r e e . I t

was found everywhere in th e v a l l e y * I t s c h ie f c h a r a c t e r is t ic

wes th e m assiveness o f I t s fo l ia g e * I t s wood was b e a u t i fu l

end a t t r a c t iv e f o r th e d e c o ra t iv e fu rn itu re .

Besides, th e Chiner, th e m ulberry— e p ro te c te d

t r e e — in the in t e r e s t s o f S e r ic u ltu re , end th e walnut which

gave not on ly f r u i t but a ls o su pp lied va lu a b le tim b er far

th e w ood-carv ing, gun stocks, p loughs, sp inn ing w heels and

o th e r a r t ic le s o f fu rn itu re were a ls o p le n t i fu l* There218were o th er t r e e s l ik e w illo w end p o p la r , b irch (B urzs)

219end yew. A ld er and H asel, Elm and meny o th er v a r i e t i e s

used by th e p eop le in d i f f e r e n t trad es*

217* Chiner i s sa id t o have been in troduced by th eMughals* I t s age l im it i s considered by th e Kashm iris t o be 300 y e a rs . Lawrence found one b o led g ia n t ( Chiner) measured in Lolefe w ith a c ircu m fren ce o f 63 f e e t end 5 in d ie s at a h e igh t o f about 5 f e e t from th e ground. Lawrence, V a l le y , p* 82*

218* The w illo w grew a long th e r i v e r banks, mersh landsend on che awampy grounds o f Kashmir* I t wes o f g re e t economic va lu e as i t s le a v e s served as a fodder, i t s shoots were used f o r basket making end i t s wood was used f o r making sp orts goods* The p o p le r grew at an e le v a t io n o f 5000 t o 7500 f e e t * Though i t s tin toer was poor in q u a l i t y , i t was la r g e ly used art tisrfoer f o r h ou ae-bu ild in g by the poor peop le*

219* D* C* Sharma, op, c i t * pp. 156-58*

D r u o a a n d O t h e r M e d i c i n e ! R o o t s P r o d u c t s !

The fo r e s t s o f Kashmir e ls o produced e co n s id e ra b le

q u a n tity o f v a lu a b le drugs# m edicines end herbs which were

used in d ey -to -d ey l i f e *

Sfia£2Rimf.

Sen ton ien# "A rtem is ia* wes th e most im portant

and most c o s t ly o f e l l th e drugs. I t was abundantly found

in h igh e r fo r e s t s end dry reg ion s o f Gureiz# Astor# G ilg it# 250end Ladekh . The s t e t e re c e iv e d as. 2,5 lakhs from t h is

head annually es revenue.

m h L

Kuth (senssureajfteppe) or costu s ro o t was a va lu a b le

drug# found et en e le v e t io n o f 8000 t o 9000 f e e t . I t wes

c h ie f l y exported t o Chine end th e Red Sea re g io n through221Boifory and C a lcu tta • I t wes used t o p rese rv e c o s t ly

c lo th e s aga inst moth end in th e manufacture o f in cense

for tem p les.

Lees

I t wps du ring th e Dogre r u le the t th e e x is te n c e o f

n e tu re l la c on b la ck t r e e s was n o tic e d f o r th e f i r s t time#

but owing t o th e la ck of tra n sp o rt i t s c u l t iv a t io n could n>t

220. A B r ie f a 3 -a on J&K S ta te . 19 27# p . 22. A Note on J&K S ta te . 1928. p . 34.

221. G a ze ttee r o f Kashmir end Ledak. p* 53. Lawrence# V e l'ie v . p p . 77-78. Gooal Duph wes a lso used f o r making in cen se w ith th e m ixture o f c l e e r i f l e d b u tte r .

b e undertaken on s c i e n t i f i c b a s is . However, d u rin g th e

re ig n o f Maharaja P *r ta p Singh « p rop ose ! was made fo r th e

depu ta tion o f e fo r e s t o f f i c e r t o C en tra l p ro v in ce f o r222

a cq u ir in g t r a in in g in th e la c c u ltu re •

Among o th er crude drugs a few worthy o f mention

were podophyllum. B a lled one. Va lerian# D ia i t o l i s end

223Hyoseymus •

Besides th es e drugs, some products which were

used es dyes end tann ing m a te r ia l w ere e ls o found. Phese224

in c lu d ed th e r in d o r bark o f f r u i t s and o f some t r e e s •

Then th e re were some w ild v e g e ta b le s l i k e m orels (Kena225kagan l, v i o l e t f lo w e rs ( Nune-posh) .

F in a n c ia l Resources;

The moat abominable fe a tu re o f t h is a gra r ian

s t e t e wes th e hackneyed and unsound system o f fin a n c e end

revenue. Th is system wes run by a host o f o f f i c ia l s # whose

co rru p t p ra c t ic e s had not on ly brought t o th e r easants a

214

222. A Mote on J&K State* p . 35.

223. Ib id . , pp. 34-35.

224. Among th ese t r e e s re fe re n c e may be nsade t o deodar#spruce# ap rico t# bark# rin d o f pomegranate# mulberry and o th e r t r e e s . Lawrence# V a lley# p . 68.Handbook o f th e Jamnu end Kashmir sta te# p . 20.

2 2 5 # For fu r th e r d e t a i l s mention has a lread y been made in th e sub-chapter o f Fauna and F lo r e . ppJlM-£P

215

m orel d egen era tion , but i t a ls o had a more momentous

e f f e c t on th e ch a ra c te r end th e developm ent o f p eo p le226more then i t had bad in any o th e r n a t iv e s ta te •

Land revenue, which w as the main source o f Income

t o th e s ta te , had been in bad shape f o r a con s id erab le

p e r io d o f tim e, because o f corru p t o f f ic ia l-d o m * I t s ra te

v a r ie d from tim e t o tim e end r u le r t o ru le r which i s ev id en t

from th e fo l lo w in g . A ccord ing t o th e ancien t Hindus custom227th e s ta te cla im ed l/ 6 th o f th e produce o f land .

When Kashmir passed in t o th e hands o f th e Muslima,228in 14th century A,D*, th e s t a t e 's share o f th e produce i s

sa id t o heve been in a s ta te o f o s c i l l a t io n . But Shab M ir,

226, Lawrence, V e l ie v * p . 399, J e l a l i , op* c i t * p* 27*

227, The s ta te share seemsto heve in v a r ia b ly been recovered in kind from ancien t tim es* v«h ile commenting on a passage, S i r A* S te in says th a t "th e land revenueo f th e v a l l e y was c o l le c t e d in Hindu tim es as i t was q u ite r e c e n t ly f o r th e most in k in d . . * " Th is was used fo r th e s ta te s to res and th e g ra in s were so ld t o the c i t y popu la tion at f ix e d ra tes , A Stein# op* c i t * BK, V I21, 60,61* But we do not know whence th e p r a c t ic e o f recove r in g g ra in s in a d d it io n t o th e s t e t e share sprang up. The e a r ly ev id en ce in R a la te ra n o ln l i s found in th e w e ll known ed v ic e t o h is su b jec ts by k in g L a l i t e d i t y a (724-61 A .p . ) th e t “v e ry ca re should be t eken th e t th e re should not be l e f t w ith th e v i l l a g e r s some more food su p rly then requ ired f o r one y e a r 's consumption, nor more oxen than wanted f o r th e t i l l a g e of t h e i r f i e ld s # Becuese i f they should keep more w ea lth th ey would became in a s in g le y ea r v e ry fo rm id e lb Damiras and s tro n g enough t o n e g le c t th e commends o f th e k in g * . I'm S te in , op ,, c i t , BK, i n 347-48j Th is e x tra c t shows th a t in a d d it ion t o th e s t e t e shere o f fu r th e r demand was made on th e v i l l a g e r s , which l e f t them w ith th e requ ired quota ,

228, * t th e beg in n in g i t was not f ix e d . However, Lawrence s ta te s th e t th e revenue undir th e Su ltans was 1/2o f the produce, Lawrence, V a lie v , p , 402,

abo lish ed th e e x e c t lo n o f h is p redecessors by w r it te n

orders pnd f ix e d th e s ta te share a t 1/6 o f th e produce •

The advent o f th e Mughels w itnessed th e p eop le

o f Kashmir, in a d e p lo ra b le c o n d it io n . The lughals, in

o rd e r to improve t h e i r co n d ition , are sa id t o have reduced

th e land revenue from Jj t o 1/3. But w ith th e pessege o f

tim e , i t became apparent# th a t i t wes not p o s s ib le t o

m ain ta in th e i d l e c i t y popu la tion w ith th is c o l le c t io n

(made in k in d ), so i t was decreed th e t th e s t e t e share be230ra is ed t o th ree q u a rte rs o f th e produce o f th e land •

Due t o th e revenue assessment o f K azi A l l , i t wes reduced

t o % and th e revenue wes f ix e d e t 3s. 30 lakh o r 63050231kharwars and 11 t r e k s .

The estab lishm ent o f Pathan ru le brought w ith

i t co rru p tion , m isru le end h igh ta x a t io n . Ih e revenue

demand was ra is ed upto 60 lakhs o f rupees, which re s u lte d

in la ro e s c a le em igra tion s , th e c u l t iv a to r s l e f t t h e ir

bourses and lends and m igrated t o th e ne ighbouring s te te s ,

in le r g e numbers, fhe area under c u lt iv a t io n was reduced

218

2 2 9

229. J . C. Dutt, J o a e ra je 's R e la ta ra n o in l. V o l. 11 pp. 57-63. During Su ltan S ikander*s "re ign th e country wes in worse c o n d it io n , but Su ltan Zeinu ‘ 1- Ab id in once again worked f o r i t s p r o s p e r ity . Mohibbu' 1-Ha sen, Kashmir Under th e Su ltens- p . 214.H. S. J a r r e t t , Abul F a s lBs A ln - i-A k b g r l. p i 366.

230. H. 3. J a r r e t t , op. c i t . p . 366.

2 3 1 . I b i d . ,

2 1 7

from 1/12 t o 1/16 • Th is wes th e darkest p e r io d in

th e h is to r y o f Kashmir end th e country wes onoe ega in233th e p rop erty o f th e "Zulm ger" *

With th e advent o f th e S ikh ru le in 1819 A .i..

th e avenue changed. But th e immemorial t r a d i t io n o f

p ro p r ie to r y r ig h t o f th e lend v e s ted in th e k ing end th e

o f f i c i a l corrvqi’t io n continued as u su al. Grants o f lend

w ere g iv en ewey es j e g i r s end rewards t o th e d is tin gu ish ed i

se rd ers ( S ik h s ). Phe c u lt iv a te d area wes c la s s i f i e d in to

tw o heads*- Sar K h ish tl and Fa i K h is h t l» L'he f ormer was

th a t lend which wqts near th e c i t y from which 7/8th was

r e a l is e d es s t e t e sh ere . On th e la t e r , which wrs remote from

th e c i t y %ths wes r e a l iz e d es revenue demend. The t o t e l

revenue wes, however, about 26 lakhs o f rup es du rin g th e234Governorship o f Ghulem Mohiu*d-Din .

2 3 2

232. 3. N, Koul, op . c i t , p . i>8, J a l e l i , op. c i t . p . 32.

233. M oorcro ft, T ra v e ls in th e Himalayan p rov in ce e tc .V o l . I I . pp. 125-26.

234. The s t e t e a c tu a lly took $ % o f th e produce o f th e k h e r if crops end in a d d it io n 4 trak s per kherwar, end on account o f th e r ic e strew end th e v e g e te b le produce o f .he Sacser p lo t . sis. 1-9-0%. i’he Pat war i end Qanvmgo go t V * i t r e k p e r kherwar. I n f e r i o rv i l i e g e servan t a ls o go t som ething. Nazrenq wes le v ie d 4 tim es a y ea r end Tarobol about 2% wes taken on th e occas ion s o f m arriage. T ne Shakdar was e ls o t o be fe d by th e v i l l e g e r s . In a d d it ion t o e l l th is 3 t r e k s p e r kherwer were taken under th e Vieact o f e x tra cesses*

Coming down t o the la t e r tim es i . e . Dogra j e r io d

we fin d th e t th e same co n d it io n s p r e v a i le d upto 1857 when

t h e l a n d w f s a l l o t e d t o t h e kardars o r c o n t r a c t o r s . * e c h

k arder ves ted w ith la r g e powers wes en tru sted w ith e group

o f v i l l a g e s * These kardars worked under th e t e h s i ld e r s as

agen ts and c o l le c t o r s * "hey accom plished th e ir ta sk w ith

g re a t ru tb lessn ess . the o th er s ta te agents were known as235shekdars end sezaw ol $ when th e crops were thrashed , a

236r e g im e n t know n a s " ^ i z a m a t P e lt a n " m oved t o d i f f e r e n t

237v i l l a g e s in batches t o c o l l e c t th e len d revenue • T h is238system remained in op era tion upto 1860 , when th e

government share wes reduced t o a l i t t l e o ver Jj, but i t

brought in i t s t r a i l a number o f etouae end d id g r e a te r harm

not on ly t o th e c u lt iv a t o r s hut t o th e s ta te as w e ll , when

th e government in trodu ced sp ecu la tin g co n tra c to rs known as

‘•Chekleders'*, who robbed th e s ta te and th e c u l t iv a t o r s by239

making la r g e p r o f i t s • I f a v i l l a g e r f a i l e d t o pay th e

235. Lewrence, V a l ie v , p . 402. For d e t a i ls see ch ap ter on S oc ia l , pp.

236. In 1884 th e Nizaraat regim ent con s is ted o f 7429 meno f th ese fc)t a la r g e s e c t io n wes s ta tion ed in Kashmir.

237. Lawrence, V a lie v , p . 402. The s ta te took ^ th cm food g ra in s and 9/ l6 th on o i l seeds as revenue.

238. Ib id . ,

239. Ib id . , pp. 402—03. Im p eria l G a ze ttee r o f Jndla.V o l. XV, p . 138.

219

s t e t e demand, h is lend wes r e le g e te d t o th e heed emani*

T h is system continued t i l l 18732*®# when an attem pt wes

made t o in trodu ce a th ree— y e e r r y o tw e r i ( r a iy a tw e r i )241se ttlem en t* T h is wes e ls o known as "Assemiwer Khewet" #

which Bemzai c a l l s cash assessment# wheeeby th e s t e t e she re

was made peyab le in cash and kind both# but t h is scheme wes242

not i riflemen ted t i l l 1887 when a re g u la r se tt lem en t commenced*

T h is se ttlem en t was g r e e t ly Of posed by s e v e ra l o f f i c i a l s

end o th e r w e l l- to -d o s e c t io n s o f soc ie ty# f o r th e revenue

o f f i c i a l s p re fe r re d r e c e iv in g th e s t e t e share in kind#

e s p e c ia l ly In k lm ti crop which fe tc h ed them tw ic e th e amount

th ey hed assessed end c o lle c te d * T h is d i f fe r e n c e was

e x p ec te d ly pocketed by th e o f f i c i a l s * However# a few y ee rs

240* Lawrence# V a l ls r , p* 403* See e ls o J* L* K* J e la l i# op* c i t * pp* 38-39*

241* Under Assemiwer Khewat th e essessment was supposed t o have been an average o f th e c o l le c t io n s o f th e th ree (3 ) p re v iou s yea rs*

242* P* N. k* Bemzai# A H is to ry o f Kashmir* p . 689*

220

a f t e r w ingpte, who bed been en tru sted w ith th e work243o f se ttlem en t, i t was taken up by w. R. Lawrence , and

th e f i r s t regu la r se ttlem en t was com pleted in 1893 in244th e r e e l sense o f th e term , by which th e s t e t e demand

wes f ix e d fo r ten y ea rs in 1898* I t wes re v is ed and

b rou # »t t o a com pletion in 1905, The in c id en ce o f revenue

v a r ie d from about 10 annas t o 12 rupees r e r a cre , end

rep resen ted an a l l round r e t e o f about 30% o f th e groaa245 produce •

The fo l lo w in g ta b le shows th e revenue d e r ived

from land end o th er agencies in Kashmir,

243. Lawrence, V a lie v * p . 403.

244. Ib id . , p . 452. Im p eria l G a a e ttee r o f In d ia . P ro v in c ia l S e r ie s . J & K S te te , p . 76.

245. f . Younghusband, op. c i t . pp. 192-93. Im re r le l Gezet ;e e r o f In d ia* V o l. XV, p . 139. For th e f i r s t y ea r (1889) o f th e s e tt lem en t, th e demand wes f ix e d at 360000 kharwers in kind whichwas reduced in 1893 t o 300000 kharwers, Lawrence, V a lle y , pp. 442-43.

221

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222

I t has been po in ted out by many w r it e r s on th e

su b jec t th e t n ea r ly e v e ry th in g in th e v e l l e y wes taxed ,

end th e usuel method wes t o make s t e t e monopoly eech

product v i a . , s ilk # se ffron # c h o b - i-k o t , v io le t s # va r io u s

kinds o f fo r e s t products# hemp# tobbeco , w ater-nu ts end

paper. Even th e p r o s t itu te s and g ra v e -d ig c e rs were te x ed .

The r ig h t t o l e g a l i s e m arriage was farmed ou t. Henoe

Lawrence has r ig h t ly remarked th e t "n e a r ly e v e ry th in g seve246a i r end w ater wes brought under ta x e t io n .

But w ith th e access ion o f Mahere ja Partep Singh

a new system o f ta x a t io n wes adopted under which a la r g e247

nu'ttoer o f ta xes were abo lish ed and th e Government wes

l e f t w ith fo res ts# S ericu ltu re# g ra c in g fe e o r p astu re

ta x e s <*nd e x c is e end customs as main source o f income. The

above ta b le may h e lp us in understanding how th es e departments

con tr ib u ted end what th ey con tr ib u ted t o th e s t a t e revenue.

In so fa r es th e land revenu e was concerned i t

was having a crowning p o s it io n among th e revenue he^ds o f

th e v e l l e y * s economy. I t con tr ib u ted n e a r ly 65 p e rcen t o f

246. Lawrence# V a l ie v , p . 417*

247. A nunfcer o f ta x e s such a s P M lN a s r e t , , RftyfMBAZer-Nakhea, Mau-Sakht th e Dermarth cess ,

tem p ie -cess , m arriage tax# Makammadan. education cess , duty on v e g e te b le s e t c . w e re a b o l is h ^ . Bennet Colemen# Ind ian P r in ces and t h « Crow. 1912, p . 78

223

th e t o t a l revenue. But c r e d it goes t o w ingete who la id

th e foundation o f r e g u la r cash assessments in th e s ta te

which were reshaped end renovated by w. F . Lawrence upto

1892-93. The lend revenue in Ksshmlr p rov in ce in creased040

about 35 t o 40 p e rcen t. From 1895-96 t o 1925-26 •

Another im porten t source o f revenue t o th e s t e t e

was fo r e s t s . I t was on ly by th e p rop er re g u la t io n o f th e

fo r e s t s th a t the s t a t e ra is ed a handsome revenue from th e

Kashmir v e l l e y . B roed ly speaking, tb e fo r e s t s o f th e v a l le y

con tr ib u ted 66 p ercen t o f th e t o t e l revenue o f th e s ta te249o f Jammu end Kashmir . The revenue from t h is f i e l d

In creased from te. 2,42,346 in 1890-91 t o xs. 44,05,660 in

1925-26.

S e r ic u ltu re , one o f th e famous in d u s tr ie s o f

Kashmir wes e ls o o f g rea t economic v a lu e , thouch i t fe tch ed

e l i t t l e amount o f revenue! in th e beg in n in g but when th e

s ta te government p a id a tten t io n t o i t , i t f lo u r is h e d in no

tim e and secured th ir d p la c e among th e sources o f s ta te

revenue. From 1890-91 t o 1925-26 i t s revenue In creased from

1,49,855 t o 26,88,258 r e s p e c t iv e ly .^ ®

248. I t i s obvious from th e g iv en chart .

249. A d m in is tra tiv e Report o f th e Jammu , nc Kashmir S te te . 1890-91. 1900 Jammu S rin eoa r A rch ives -

250. I b id . , f o r 1890-91 end 1925-26.

Greasing e l so formed en inqportent source o f Income t o

th e s t a te . I t wes known es Z er-l-dh eu cen ( t e x on sh eph erds ).

In th e b eg in n in g i t wes r e a l iz e d annu elly but in 1506 i t wes

eb o li shed end th e demand was f ix e d es p e r se ttlem en t term s 251o f th e len d • From 1895-96 t o 1925-26 th e revenue from t h is

source ro se from Rs. 1,37,327 t o 3,49,279 r e s p e c t iv e ly .

Excise Outvi

lAider t h is head f e l l th e duty le v ie d on th e in te rn a l

t r r d e o f l iq u o rs and o th e r in to x ic a n ts . Though in Kashmir th e

manufacture o f wine end brandy was not looked upon w ith fa vou r

by th e p u b lic , th e con tractor s were su pp lied w ith th e l iq u o rs from252the s ta te w ine d i s t i l l e r y . In stead o f m anufacturing w ines,

they c u lt iv a te d o th er in to x ic a n ts l i k e ch errs end opium. These

drungs were annually so ld by auction t o th e c o n tre c to rs . There

wes no r e s t r ic t io n on t h e i r c u lt iv a t io n . These item s were so ld

open ly in shops. A sum o f rupee one was charged es du ty on252a

every se e r o f d ie ra s in c lu d in g Yarkend i ch rres . Thus i t i s

c le e r th e t th e s te te government d e r iv ed i t s e x c is e revenue

e n t i r e ly from th e s a le o f c o n tre c ts . F i r s t , th e du ty on country—

251. Annuel A d m in is tra tiv e R e ro rt o f Kahcharaj f o r Kashmir V a lie v * 1927. r . 2.

252. Annuel A d m in is tra t iv e Report f o r 1894-95* p . 134.A C o lle c t io n o f Papers r e la t in g t o E xcise in Jentnu end Kashmir S ta te* f o r 1901* pp. 18-20 end 1939* p . 1.

252a. The liq u o rs im ported from abroad were h ig h ly ta x ed .

s p i r i t s , l iq u o r wes f ix e d a t rupees fo u r p e r g e lIo n253but. in 1917*18 i t was ra is e d t o rupees 6.25 • Xn crse

o f opium an average duty o f rupees s ix a seer on a l l

lands under poppy c u lt iv a t io n , in a d d it io n t o th e o rd in ary

lend revenue,wes charged . As rega rd s th e charms an e x c is e

duty o f rupees two per see r wes imposed, b es id es th e

l ic e n s e f e e .

In th e meantime, th e revenue from opium and chares

decreased due t o i l l i c i t p ra c t ic e and because o f th e

com p etition from th e su p erio r s t u f f im ported frsra Yarkand.

So In 1903-04 th e s ta te government abo lished th e du ty on254land , th e change was implemented from 1905-06 , On th e

o th e r hand th e duty on th e Yarkand Chares wes in creased

in a g re a te r p rop o rtio n than th a t on th e Kashmir drug i . e .

th e duty on th e fo rm er was ra is ed from rupees two t o

rupees s ix p er s e e r , w h ile on th e l a t t e r i t was ra is e d from255rupees two t o rupees fo u r p e r s e e r . In 1918-19 th e duty

253. Annual A d m in is tra tiv e R e ro r t. 1917»18. p . 43.

254. Annual Report o f Commerce and In d u s tr ie s . Department "'of Jerrimu and Kashmir S tete ," 1906-07, p . 10.

255* A d m in is tra tive R e ro rt o f Jammu and Kashmir S ta te . 1904—05, p . 75.

cm Yerkend i chares was re is e d t o rupees e igh teen p er256s e e r • As a r e s u lt o f e l l t h is th e revenue from t h is

heed rose from Rs« 18,432 in 1890-91 t o '•$, 3,90,688 in

1925-26.

Custom Dutyt

I t was le v ie d cm th e im ports and exp o rts o f p r iv a te

e n te rp r is e end wes obta ined through th e Im p os ition o f th e

roed t o l l s end o c t r o is . A l l th e n e c e s s e r ie s o f l i f e and a

o th e r a r t i c l e s o f p u b lic consumption were texed* These

te x e s were su b ject t o m o d ific a t io n from tim e t o tim e on257account o f which common masses s u ffe r e d •

fimong o th er sources of revenue whicSi ere not

mentioned in th e ta b le , stamps, h e n d ic re fts , s e r v ic e s

rendered by th e departm ents l ik e , cou rts , p o l ic e , te le g ra p h ,

ju b l i c works end o th e r minor departm ents a ls o con tr ib u ted

a ta n g ib le shere t o th e revenue o f th e s t e t e .

In short th e nature o f revenue system continued

t o v i t i a t e th e e n t ir e system o f economy o f Kashmir, Payment

o f ta x e s in c?sh would heve perhap s stemjred out co rru p tion ,

t o a la rg e e x te n t. There w?s a la r g e measure o f a rb it r a r in e s s

256, I b id . , 1918-19, p . 56,

257, I b id . , 1905-06, p . 109 end 1913-14, p , 84*

in th e ta x a t io n system . No method was e llow ed t o

e s ta b lis h i t s e l f whereby th e d e fa u lt o r fraud in revenue

machinery cou ld be p reven ted .

258

258. Even th e to p o f f i c i a l s l i k e Diwen Lechman Dess, th e Diwen o f Kashmir P ro v in ce during M aherajs Par%«gp S ingh ’ s re ig n , wes h im se lf a b ig lan d lo rd o f the s t e t e end wanted th e crop se tt lem en t t o continue, because th e system wes b e n e f ic ia l t o th e revenue o o l le c t o r s . In f e e t Dewan Lechmen Dess i s en extrem e example o f what must have been th e typ e o f th e h igh o f f i c i a l s . There were l i k e l y t o heve heen v e ry few in h igh p o s it io n s w ithout lend gran ts end crop sh ere , Dewan Lechrnen Dess, P e t i t io n A ga in st the Cash Assessment, 1896,C h ie f S e c r e ta r ia t . F i l e NQ» 2 'o f 1896. pp. 1-4#