Cereal grains : laboratory reference and procedures manual · 2013. 6. 20. · 4.2.1.1 Determination ofa Cereal Isotherm Curve 108 4.2.1.2 EffectofTemperatureand Grain MoistureContent

Cereal GrainsLaboratory Referenceand Procedures Manual

Sergio O. Serna-SaldivarTecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico

CRC PressTaylor & Francis GroupBoca Raton London NewYork

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

Contents

Preface xix

Acknowledgments xxiAuthor xxiii

List of Equivalences xxv

Chapter 1 Physical and Morphological Properties of Cereal Grains 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Determination of Physical Properties of Cereal Grains 11.2.1 Test Weight 1

1.2.1.1 Test Weight Procedure I1.2.2 True Density 2

1.2.2.1 Determination of True Density with the Pycnometer 21.2.2.2 Determination of Density with Alcohol Displacement 3

1.2.3 Flotation Index 3

1.2.3.1 Determination of Floating Kernels 41.2.4 Grain Hardness 4

1.2.4.1 Subjective Determination of the Ratio of Soft to Hard Endosperm or EndospermTexture 5

1.2.4.2 Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the TADD Mill 51.2.4.3 Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the Stenvert Test 6

1.2.5 Breakage Tests 71.2.5.1 Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Stein Breakage Tester

(Method 55-20) 71.2.5.2 Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Wisconsin Breakage Tester 8

1.2.6 Stress Cracks and Fissures 8

1.2.6.1 Determination of Stress Cracks or Fissures 8

1.2.7 Thousand Kernel Weight 81.2.7.1 Determination of Kernel Weight 9

1.2.8 Foreign or Extraneous Material 91.2.8.1 Determination of Dockage or Foreign Material 91.2.8.2 Test for Maize Breakage and Damaged Kernels 9

1.2.9 Damaged Kernels 101.2.9.1 Determination of Damaged Kernels 101.2.9.2 Tetrazolium Test for Germ Viability (Dead Germ) 11

1.2.10 Research Suggestions 1'1.2.10.1 Test Weight 111.2.10.2 True Density 111.2.10.3 Flotation Index 12

1.2.10.4 Endosperm Texture 121.2.10.5 Breakage Susceptibility 121.2.10.6 Stress Cracks 12

1.2.10.7 Kernel Weight 121.2.10.8 Foreign Material and Dockage 131.2.10.9 Grain Damage 13

1.2.11 Research Questions 131.2.11.1 Test Weight 131.2.11.2 True Density 131.2.11.3 Flotation Index 13

1.2.11.4 Endosperm Texture 131.2.11.5 Breakage Susceptibility 131.2.11.6 Stress Cracks 14

vjjj Contents

1.2.11.7 Grain Weight 14

1.2.11.8 Dockage and Foreign Material 14

1.2.11.9 Damaged Kernels 14

1.3 Determination of Grade and Class 14

1.3.1 Evaluation of Grade 14

1.3.1.1 Determination of Maize Grade 15

1.3.1.2 Determination of Wheat Grade 15

1.3.1.3 Determination of Grade of Rough, Brown, or White Polished Rice 15

1.3.1.4 Determination of Barley Grade 16

1.3.1.5 Determination of Sorghum Grade 16

1.3.1.6 Determination of Oats Grade 16

1.3.1.7 Determination of Rye Grade 16

1.3.2 Evaluation of Class 17

1.3.2.1 Determination of Maize Class 17

1.3.2.2 Determination of Wheat Class 17

1.3.2.3 Determination of Rice Class 17

1.3.2.4 Determination of Barley Class 18

1.3.2.5 Determination of Sorghum Class 18

1.3.2.6 Determination of Oats Class 19

1.3.2.7 Determination of Rye Class 191.3.3 Research Suggestions 191.3.4 Research Questions 19

1.4 Macromorphology and Micromorphology of Cereal Grains 201.4.1 Observation of Inflorescences 20

1.4.1.1 Observation of Immature Inflorescences 20

1.4.1.2 Observation of Mature Inflorescences 20

1.4.2 Observation and Identification of the Anatomical Parts of Cereal Kernels 20

1.4.2.1 Determination of Relative Amounts of Husks or Glumes, Pericarp, Endosperm,and Germ Tissues 21

1.4.3 Research Suggestions 221.4.4 Research Questions 22

References 23

Chapter 2 Determination of Chemical and Nutritional Properties of Cereal Grains and Their Products 25

2.1 Introduction 252.2 Proximate Composition 26

2.2.1 Moisture 26

2.2.1.1 Determination of Moisture (Gravimetric Method 44-15 A) 262.2.2 Minerals or Ash 26

2.2.2.1 Analysis of Ash or Minerals (Method 08-12) 262.2.3 Protein 28

2.2.3.1 Crude Protein Analysis (Kjeldahl Method) 282.2.4 Fat 29

2.2.4.1 Analysis of Crude Fat 292.2.5 Crude Fiber 30

2.2.5.1 Analysis of Crude Fiber 302.2.6 Nitrogen-Free Extract 30

2,2.6.1 Calculation of Nitrogen-Free Extract 312.2.7 Research Suggestions 312.2.8 Research Questions 31

2.3 Methods for Moisture Analysis 312.3.1 Research Suggestions 312.3.2 Research Questions 31

2.4 Methods for Mineral Analysis 322.4.1 Wet and Dry Ashing 32

2.4.1.1 Wet-Ashing Procedure 33

Contents |x

2.4.1.2 Dry-Ashing Procedure 342.4.2 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 34

2.4.2.1 Analysis of Minerals with AAS 34

2.4.3 ICP Spectroscopy 352.4.3.1 Analysis of Minerals with ICP Spectroscopy 35

2.4.4 Phosphorus Analysis 362.4.4.1 Analysis of Phosphorus with the Blue Molybdate Colorimetric Analysis 36

2.4.5 Sodium Chloride Analysis 382.4.5.1 Mohr Titration Method 38

2.4.5.2 Volhard Titration Method 38

2.4.5.3 Analysis of Salt Content with the Dicromat Analyzer 392.4.5.4 Analysis of Chloride (Salt) with the Quantab Strip Test 39


2.5 Methods for Nitrogenous Compound Analysis 402.5.1 Determination of Protein Fractions 41

2.5.1.1 Protein Fractionation Scheme 41

2.5.2 Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen 42

2.5.2.1 Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen (Ninhydrin Reaction) 42

2.5.3 Determination of Amino Acid Profile 43

2.5.3.1 Acid Hydrolysis Procedure for Determination ofAmino Acids 44

2.5.3.2 Determination of Tryptophan with a Colorirnetric Procedure 442.5.4 Research Suggestions 45

2.5.5 Research Questions 452.6 Methods for Fats and Oils Analysis 46

2.6.1 Analysis of FFAs 47

2.6.2 Peroxide Value and Active Oxygen 48

2.6.2.1 Determination of Peroxide Value (Cd 8-53 Method) 48

2.6.2.2 Active Oxygen Stability Method (Procedure Cd 12-57) 48

2.6.3 Saponification Value 49

2.6.4 Iodine Value 49

2.6.5 Smoke Point 50

2.6.6 Solid Fat Index 50

2.6.7 Research Suggestions 51

2.6.8 Research Questions 51

2.7 Methods for Fiber Analysis 52

2.7.1 Analysis of Detergent Fiber 522.7.2 Dietary Fiber 54

2.7.2.1 Determination of Total Dietary Fiber 55

2.7.2.2 Determination of Insoluble and Soluble Dietary Fiber 562.7.3 Research Suggestions 572.7.4 Research Questions 58

2.8 Methods for Nonfibrous Carbohydrate Analysis 582.8.1 Determination of Total Starch 58

2.8.1.1 Determination of Total Starch with the Anthrone Assay 592.8.1.2 Determination of Total Starch with the Enzymatic Method (Method 76-11) 592.8.1.3 Determination of Enzyme-Susceptible Starch 602.8.1.4 Determination of Damaged Starch (Method 76-30A) 61

2.8.2 Determination of Amylose 612.8.2.1 Determination of Amylose and Amylopectin 62

2.8.3 Determination of Resistant Starch 62

2.8.3.1 Determination of Resistant Starch 62

2.8.4 Determination of Total Sugars 642.8.4.1 Determination of Total Sugars (Phenol Method) 65

2.8.5 Determination of Total Reducing Sugars 652.8.5.1 Determination of Reducing Sugars with the Somogyi-Nelson Procedure 652.8.5.2 Determination of Reducing Sugars with the DNS Procedure 66

x Contents

2.8.6 Determination of Glucose 67



2.9 Vitamin Analysis 68

2.9.1 Analysis of Liposoluble Vitamins 68

2.9.1.1 Analysis of Vitamin A and Carotenes (Method 86-05) 68

2.9.2 Analysis of B-Complex Vitamins VI

2.9.2.1 Analysis of Thiamine (Fluorometric Method 957.17) 71

2.9.2.2 Analysis of Riboflavin (Fluorometric Method 960.65) 72

2.9.2.3 Analysis of Niacin (Method 961.14) 73



2.10 Methods for pH and Acidity Analysis 75

2.10.1 Analysis of Acidity 75

2.10.1.1 Determination of pH 75

2.10.1.2 Titratable Acidity 75



2.11 Methods for Nutraceutical Compounds Analysis 77



2.12 Instrumental Analysis 81

2.12.1 Chromatography 81

2.12.1.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography 81

2.12.1.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 81

2.12.1.3 Gas-Liquid Chromatography 82

2.12.2 Near-Infrared Analysis 82

2.12.2.1 Analysis via NIRA 83

2.12.3 Water Activity 83

2.12.3.1 Determination of Water Activity (AJ 83

2.12.4 Immunoassays 84



2.13 Nutrition Labeling 852.13.1 Research Suggestions 85


References 87

Chapter 3 Determination ofColor, Texture, and Sensory Properties of Cereal Grain Products 91

3.1 Introduction 91

3.2 Color 91

3.2.1 Determination of Color 92

3.2.1.1 Hunter Lab Color Meier 92

3.2.1.2 Pekar Color (Method 14-10.01) 933.2.1.3 Aglron Color Meter 93

3.2.1.4 Wheat Flour Color Determination (Method 14-30) 933.2.2 Research Suggestions 943.2.3 Research Questions 94

3.3 Texture 94

3.3.1 Rheological Properties 943.3.1.1 Rheological Properties of Wheat Dough 953.3.1.2 Rheological Properties of Masa 953.3.1.3 Rheological Properties of Tortillas, Pasta, and Breakfast Cereals 95

3.3.2 Viscosity Measurement 963.3.2.1 Determination of Viscosity with a Viscometer 96


Contents xl

3.3.4 Research Questions 983.4 Sensory Testing 98

3.4.1 Discriminatory Sensory Evaluation Tests 98

3.4.1.1 Preparation and Coding 99

3.4.1.2 Triangle Test 99

3.4.1.3 Duo-Trio Test 99

3.4.2 Affective Sensory Evaluation Tests 1003.4.2.1 Preference Paired Tests 100

3.4.2.2 Rank Preference Test 101

3.4.2.3 Affective or Hedonic Tests 102



References 105

Chapter 4 Storage of Cereal Grains and Detrimental Effects of Pests 107

4.1 Introduction 107

4.2 Effects of Environment and Grain Moisture Content on Deterioration 107

4.2.1 Equilibrium Grain Moisture at Different RHs 107

4.2.1.1 Determination of a Cereal Isotherm Curve 108

4.2.1.2 Effect of Temperature and Grain Moisture Content on Grain Stability 1094.2.2 Research Suggestions 110


4.3 Extrinsic Deterioration of Cereal Grains: Insects, Molds, and Rodents Ill

4.3.1 Morphology and Identification of Stored-Grain Insects 111

4.3.1.1 Identification of Stored Grain Insects 111

4.3.2 Filth, Insect Fragments, and Other Extraneous Materials 114

4.3.2.1 Determination of Light Filth in Flours (Method 972.32) 114

4.3.2.2 Determination of Insect Fragments in Flours 115

4.3.2.3 Determination of Insect Eggs in Flour (Method 940.34) 116

4.3.3 Molds and Mycotoxins 116

4.3.3.1 Presumptive Test for Anatoxins (Method 45-15) 118

4.3.3.2 Determination of Aflatoxins Using the AflaTest 1184.3.4 Rodents 120

4.3.4.1 Detection of Rodent Feces by Decantalion (Method 28-50) 120

4.3.4.2 Detection of Urine on Grains (Method 963.28) 121



References 123

Chapter 5 Dry-Milling Processes and Quality of Dry-Milled Products 125

5.1 Introduction..... 125

5.2 Laboratory Dry-Milling Processes 125

5.2.1 Dry-Milling of Maize—Production of Refined Grits and Flour 125

5.2.1.1 Degerming-Tempering Milling of Maize 125

5.2.2 Dry-Milling of Wheat—Production of Refined Flours and Semolina 126

5.2.2.1 Dry-Milling of Wheal for the Production of Refined Flours (Method 26-10) 1275.2.3 Dry-Milling of Rice—Production of Regular and Parboiled White Rice 129

5.2.3.1 Milling of Rice 1305.2.3.2 Dry-Milling of Parboiled Rice 131

5.2.4 Dry-Milling of Oats—Production of Groats, Meals, and Flours 1325.2.4.1 Dry-Milling of Oats 132

5.2.5 Dry-Milling of Sorghum and Millets—Production of Decorticated Kernels, Grits,and Flours 133

5.2.5.1 Production of Decorticated Kernels and Refined Flours from Sorghum or Millets ... 1345.2.5.2 Production of Refined Grits and Flours from Decorticated Sorghum or Millets 135

xjj Contents

5.2.6 Research Suggestions '355.2.7 Research Questions '36

5.3 Assessment of Quality of Dry-Milled Fractions 136

5.3.1 Quality of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions 139

5.3.1.1 Determination of Particle Size Distribution of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions 139

5.3.2 Quality of White Rice 139

5.3.2.1 May-Gruenwald Dyeing Procedure 139

5.3.2.2 Analysis of Amylose in White Polished Rice 140

5.3.2.3 Elongation Factor of Cooked Rice 141

5.3.3 Simple Tests for Quality of Wheat Flour and Dough Properties 141

5.3.3.1 Pelshenke Test 141

5.3.3.2 Sedimentation or Zeleny Test 142

5.3.3.3 Alkaline Water Retention Test (Method 56-10) 143

5.3.3.4 Gluten Content 144

5.3.3.5 Glutomatic Assay 145

5.3.4 Wheat Dough Rheological Properties 146

5.3.4.1 Determination of Dough Properties with the Farinograph (Method 54-21) 146

5.3.4.2 Determination of Dough Properties with the Extensograph (Method 54-10) 148

5.3.4.3 Determination of Dough Properties with the Mixograph (Method 54-40) 149

5.3.4.4 Determination of Dough Properties with the Alveograph (Method 54-30) 151

5.3.4.5 Determination of Dough Properties with Mixolab (Method 54-60.01) 153

5.3.5 Quality of Groats 155

5.3.6 Quality of Decorticated Sorghum and Refined Meals and Flours 155



References 156

Chapter 6 Wet-Milling Processes and Starch Properties and Characteristics 159


6.2 Wet-Milling Processes 1596.2.1 Wet-Milling of Maize 159

6.2.1.1 Laboratory Wet-Milling Process of Maize 160

6.2.2 Wet-Milling of Rice 162

6.2.2.1 Laboratory Wet-Milling Procedure of White Polished Rice 162

6.2.3 Wet-Milling of Wheat and Vital Gluten Production 163

6.2.3.1 Wet-Milling Laboratory Procedure for Wheat Flour 163



6.3 Morphologhy and Dyeing of Starches 165

6.3.1 Starch Granule Morphology and Dyeing Techniques 166

6.3.1.1 Iodine Dye Test 166

6.3.1.2 Congo Red Dye Test 167

6.3.1.3 Starch Microscopy 167

6.3.1.4 Birefringence End-Point Temperature 168

6.3.1.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy 168



6.4 Evaluation of the Functional Properties of Starches 169

6.4.1 Viscoamylography 169

6.4.1.1 Amylograph Properties of Starches and Starch-Rich Products 170

6.4.1.2 Rapid Viscoamylograph Properties of Flour and Starches 171

6.4.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal Properties) 171

6.4.3 Determination of Starch Damage and Diastatic Activity 172

6.4.3.1 Determination of Diastatic Activity of Wheat Flour with the Amylograph(Method 22-10) 173

Contents xtii

6.4.3.2 Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Rapid Viscoamylograph (StirringNumber, Method 22-08) 173

6.4.3.3 Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Pressurometer (Method 22-11) 1736.4.3.4 Falling Number Method (Method 56-81B) 1746.4.3.5 Determination of Optimum Mall Supplemented to Wheat Flour for Baking

Purposes with the Amylograph 1766.4.4 Research Suggestions 1766.4.5 Research Questions 176

References 177

Chapter 7 Production of Maize Tortillas and Quality of Lime-Cooked Products 179


7.2 Quality Tests for Nixtamalized Products 1797.2.1 Nixtamal Cooking and Quality 180

7.2.1.1 Ease of Pericarp Removal Test 1807.2.1.2 Mini Lime-Cooking Trial: Optimum Cooking and Dry Matter Loss 183

7.2.2 Masa Quality 1857.2.2.1 Color 185

7.2.2.2 Determination of pH 1867.2.2.3 Particle Size Distribution of Hydrated Masa 1867.2.2.4 Determination of Masa Stickiness 187

7.2.2.5 Determination of Masa Consistency with the Penetrometer 1877.2.2.6 Masa Texture with the Instron Compression Tension Test 1887.2.2.7 TPA of Masa 188

7.2.3 Tortilla Production and Quality 189

7.2.3.1 Production of Tortillas 189

7.2.3.2 Tortilla Texture 190

7.2.4 Dry Masa Flour Production 192

7.2.4.1 Production of Dry Masa Flours 192

7.2.4.2 Production of Tortillas from Dry Masa Flour 193

7.2.4.3 Determination of Water Absorption and Solubility Indexes 193

7.2.4.4 Consistency of Dry Masa Flour Slurries 194

7.2.4.5 Determination of Dry Masa Flour Consistency 194



References 196

Chapter 8 Functionality Tests for Yeast and Chemical Leavening Agents 199


8.2 Functionality Tests for Yeast Activity 199

8.2.1 Fermentograph 199

8.2.1.1 Determination of Yeast Activity with the Fermentograph 200

8.2.2 Maturograph and Oven Rise Recorder 200

8.2.2.1 Determination of Dough Properties and Bread Volume with the Maturographand Oven Rise Recorder 202

8.2.3 Rheofermentometer 202

8.2.3.1 Determination of Fermenting Dough Gas Production and Retention with the

Rheofermentometer 203

8.2.4 Gasograph 203

8.2.4.1 Determination of Yeast Activity with the Gasograph 204

8.2.5 Pressurometer 204

8.2.5.1 Determination of Yeast Activity with the Pressurometer 204



xjv Contents

8.3 Functionality Tests for Chemical Leavening Agents 205

8.3.1 Neutralization Value 206

8.3.1.1 Determination of Neutralization Values of Monocalcium Phosphate,

Monohydrate or Anhydrous 206

8.3.1.2 Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate 207

8.3.1.3 Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Aluminum Phosphate 207



References 208

Chapter 9 Production of Yeast-Leavened Bakery Products 209


9.2 Production and Quality of Yeast Fermented Breads 211

9.2.1 Chinese Steamed Bread 211

9.2.1.1 Production of Chinese Steamed Bread 211

9.2.2 Baguettes or French Breads 213

9.2.2.1 Production of French Bread or Baguettes 2139.2.3 Arabic Flat Breads 214

9.2.3.1 Production of Pita Bread 215

9.2.3.2 Production of Lavash 217

9.2.3.3 Production of Yufka 2179.2.3.4 Production of Pide 218

9.2.4 Bagels 219

9.2.4.1 Production of Bagels 219

9.2.5 Pretzel Bread 219

9.2.5.1 Production of Soft Pretzels 220

9.2.6 Pan Bread 222

9.2.6.1 Production of Pup Loaves with the Official Microbaking Straight DoughProcedure 222

9.2.6.2 Production of Pan Bread from Sponge Doughs 2259.2.7 Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads 227

9.2.7.1 Production of Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads 2279.2.8 Sour Breads 229

9.2.8.1 Production of Sour Breads 229

9.2.9 Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns 2309.2.9.1 Production of Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns 230

9.2.10 Cheese Bread Rolls 232

9.2.10.1 Production of Cheese Bread Rolls 232


9.3 Production of Sweet Pastries 234

9.3.1 Croissants 234

9.3.1.1 Production of Croissants 2359.3.2 Danish Pastries 235

9.3.2.1 Production of Danish Pastries 236

9.3.2.2 Production of Other Pastries Configurations 2389.3.2.3 Production of Danish Icing 2399.3.2.4 Production of Pastry Cream 239

9.3.3 Cinnamon Rolls 2409.3.3.1 Production of Glazed Cinnamon Rolls 240

9.3.4 Sweet Concha Bread 2419.3.4.1 Production of Sweet Conchas 241

9.3.5 Yeast-Leavened Donuts 2429.3.5.1 Production of Yeast-Leavened Fried Donuts 242


Contents xv

9.3.7 Research Questions 245References 245

Chapter 10 Production of Chemical-Leavened Products: Crackers, Cookies, Cakes and Related Products, Donuts, andWheat Flour Tortillas 247


10.2 Crackers 247

10.2.1 Production of Crackers 248


10.2.3 Research Questions 25010.3 Production of Cookies 250

10.3.1 Spread Factor 25110.3.1.1 Spread Factor Assay (AACC 2000, Method 10-50D) 251

10.3.2 Rotary-Molded Cookies 25310.3.2.1 Production of Rotary-Molded Cookies 253

10.3.3 Sheeted and Formed Cookies 255

10.3.3.1 Production of Sheeted and Formed Cookies 255

10.3.4 Wire-Cut Cookies 256

10.3.4.1 Production of Wire-Cut Cookies 256

10.3.5 Other Sweet Cookies 258

10.3.5.1 Production of Chocolate-Chip Cookies 258

10.3.5.2 Production of Oat Cookies 258

10.3.5.3 Oat-Chocolate Bars 259


10.4 Production of Biscuits, Muffins, Chemical-Leavened Donuts, and Cakes 26010.4.1 Biscuits 260

10.4.1.1 Production of Biscuits and Cornbread 260

10.4.2 Muffins 261

10.4.2.1 Production of Muffins 261

10.4.3 Production of Chemical-Leavened or Coffee Donuts 262

10.4.3.1 Production of Chemical-Leavened Donuts 262

10.4.4 Production of Cakes and Related Products 264

10.4.4.1 Production of Shortened Low-Ratio Cakes 265

10.4.4.2 Production of Shortened High-Ratio Cakes 26510.4.4.3 Production of Angel Cakes 267

10.4.5 Cake Frostings 26810.4.5.1 Production of Different Types of Frostings 269

10.4.6 Production of Waffles, Pancakes, and Crepes 270

10.4.6.1 Production of Waffles 270

10.4.6.2 Production of Pancakes 271

10.4.6.3 Production of Crepes 273

10.4.7 Pies 273

10.4.7.1 Production of Pies 274



10.5 Production of Wheat Flour Tortillas 279

10.5.1 Wheat Flour Tortillas 281

10.5.1.1 Production of Hot-Press Tortillas 281

10.5.1.2 Laminated and Formed Tortillas 282

10.5.2 Sweet Flour Tortillas 283

10.5.2.1 Production of Sweet Tortilla Pancakes 283


References 285

xvj Contents

Chapter 11 Production of Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles 287


11.2 Pasta Products from Durum Semolina 287

11.2.1 Sheeted and Cut Pasta 288

11.2.1.1 Production of Pasta by Sheeting and Cutting 288

11.2.2 Extruded Pasta 289

11.2.2.1 Production of Cold-Extruded Pasta 290

11.2.2.2 Cooking Quality of Pasta 291

11.2.2.3 Determination of Pasta Texture with the Texture Analyzer 292



11.3 Oriental Noodles 293

11.3.1 Oriental Noodles from Wheat Flour 293

11.3.1.1 Production of Wheat-Based Oriental Noodles 293

11.3.2 Production of Rice Noodles 295

11.3.2.1 Production of Rice-Based Noodles 295



References 296

Chapter 12 Production of Breakfast Cereals and Snack Foods 299


12.2 Production of Breakfast Cereals 301

12.2.1 Corn Flakes 302

12.2.1.1 Production of Corn Flakes 302

12.2.2 Rolled or Flaked Oats 304

12.2.2.1 Production of Rolled Oats 304

12.2.3 Oven-Puffed Rice 305

12.2.3.1 Production of Oven-Puffed Rice 305

12.2.4 Extruded Corn Puffs 306

12.2.4.1 Production of Extruded Corn Puffs 307

12.2.5 Granola 308

12.2.5.1 Production of Fermented Baked Granola 308

12.2.5.2 Production of Granola Bars 310

12.2.6 Determination of Bowl-Life 310

12.2.6.1 Determination of Bowl-Life with the Texturometer 310


12.3 Cereal-Based Snacks 311

12.3.1 Popcorn 31212.3.1.1 Popcorn Popping 312

12.4 Wheat-Based Snacks 315

12.4.1 Production of Pretzels 315

12.4.2 Alkaline-Cooked Snacks 317

12.4.2.1 Production of Alkaline-Cooked Parched Corn 317

12.4.2.2 Production of Corn Chips 31812.4.2.3 Production of Tortilla Chips 319

12.4.3 Extruded Snacks 32112.4.3.1 Production of Baked Cheese-Flavored Corn Puffs 32212.4.3.2 Production of Fried Cheese-Flavored Corn Puffs 323

12.4.3.3 Production of Third-Generation Snacks 32512.4.4 Research Suggestions 32812.4.5 Research Questions 328

References 329

Contents xvii

Chapter 13 Production of Modified Starches, Syrups, and Sweeteners 331


13.2 Modified Starches 331

13.2.1 Pregelatinized Starches 331

13.2.1.1 Production of Pregelatinized Starches 331

13.2.2 Chemically Modified Starches 333

13.2.2.1 Production of Acid-Treated or Dextrinized Starches 333

13.2.2.2 Production of Oxidized/Bleached Starches 333

13.2.2.3 Production of Cross-Bonded Starches 334

13.2.2.4 Production of Derivatized and Substituted Starches (Acetylated, Propionylated,and Butyryated) 335



13.3 Production of Syrups 336

13.3.1 Low-Dextrose Equivalent (DE) Syrups (Maltodextrins) 33613.3.1.1 Production of Low-DE Syrups via Acid Hydrolysis 337

13.3.1.2 Production of Low-DE Syrups via Hydrolysis with Heat-Stable cx-Amylase 338

13.3.2 Maltose Syrups 338

13.3.2.1 Production of Regular and High-Maltose Syrups 33813.3.3 Glucose Syrups 339

13.3.3.1 Production of Glucose Syrups 339

13.3.4 High-Fructose Corn Syrups 340

13.3.4.1 Production of Fructose Syrups (HFCS) 340



References 342

Chapter 14 Production of Malt, Beer, Distilled Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol 343


14.2 Production of European Beers and Sake 344

14.2.1 Production of Barley Malts 344

14.2.1.1 Production of Diastatic Malts 344

14.2.1.2 Production ofNondiastatic and Dark Malts 346

14.2.1.3 Determination of Diastatic Activity of Malt (AACC 2000, Method 22-16) 347

14.2.2 Production of Hopped Beers 348

14.2.2.1 Production of Regular Lager Beer 349

14.2.2.2 Production of Dark Beer 351

14.2.2.3 Production of Light Beer 35214.2.2.4 Production of Ale Beers 353

14.2.3 Production of Rice Wine or Sake 353

14.2.3.1 Production of Sake 354



14.3 Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits and Bioethanol 35614.3.1 Distilled Spirits 356

14.3.1.1 Production of Distilled Spirits 357

14.3.2 Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals 358



References 360

Index 361

Documents

Cereal grains : laboratory reference and procedures manual · 2013. 6. 20. · 4.2.1.1 Determination ofa Cereal Isotherm Curve 108 4.2.1.2 EffectofTemperatureand Grain MoistureContent